Evolution of India’s Foreign Policy

• Table of Contents
• What is the genesis of India’s Foreign Policy?
• Pre-Independence and Indian National Congress (INC)
• How has India’s foreign policy evolved over the years?
• Nehruvian era
• Shastri’s era
• Indira Gandhi’s era
• Rajiv Gandhi’s era
• During the 1990s
• NDA-I (1998-2004)
• UPA-I and II (2004-2014)
• NDA-II (2014-Present)

What is the genesis of India’s Foreign Policy?

India’s early foreign policy was largely shaped by the Britishers and its founding leaders,
especially Jawaharlal Nehru.

Pre-Independence and Indian National Congress (INC)

Before independence, India’s foreign policy was largely determined by the British
government. A few of its major features were:

• Supporting Britishers Interest: India’s foreign policy was focused on maintaining

good relations with other British colonies and supporting the interests of the British
Empire.
• Limited Diplomatic Engagement: India had limited diplomatic relations with other
countries, as these were largely conducted through the British government.
In the early 20th century, India’s foreign policy began to shift as the country’s independence
movement gained momentum.

• Role of INC: INC worked to raise awareness about the plight of India and other
colonized countries and to mobilize international support for the independence
movement.
• Promotion of India’s Interests: Leaders of the independence movement sought to
promote India’s interests on the global stage and improve the country’s relations with
other nations.
How has India’s foreign policy evolved over the years?
1. Nehruvian era
Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, served from 1947 to 1964. During this
time, India’s foreign policy was shaped by his vision of a non-aligned, independent, and
democratic nation.

• Independence and partition: After independence, India was partitioned into two
countries: India and Pakistan. This led to a mass migration of Hindus and Muslims
across the border and resulted in communal violence and tensions between the two
countries.
• The Panchsheel (Five Principles): It was a set of principles for guiding relations
between nations, particularly in the context of decolonization and the Cold War. The
principles were:
o Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity.
o Mutual non-aggression.
o Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs.
o Equality and mutual benefit.
o Peaceful coexistence.
• United Nations Membership: India became a founding member of the United Nations
in 1945 and played a key role in the organization, particularly in the areas of
decolonization and disarmament.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Nehru was also a key figure in establishing the
NAM, which sought to promote cooperation and friendship among countries that were
not aligned with any major power bloc.
• The Sino-Indian War: In 1962, India and China fought a brief border war over
disputed territory in the Himalayas. The conflict shifted India’s focus on military
modernization and the strengthening of strategic alliances.
• India’s relations with the Soviet Union: During Nehru’s time, India developed close
political and economic ties with the Soviet Union, which became one of its main
sources of foreign aid and military assistance.
2. Shastri’s era
Lal Bahadur Shastri was the Prime Minister of India from 1964 to 1966.

• The Indo-Pakistan War of 1965: This conflict arose from long-standing tensions
between India and Pakistan over the disputed region of Kashmir.
• The Tashkent Declaration: In the aftermath of the War of 1965, the two leaders met
in Tashkent, USSR (now Tashkent, Uzbekistan) and signed the Tashkent
Declaration, which called for an end to hostilities and the restoration of diplomatic
relations between the two countries.
• India-Soviet Union relations: The Soviet Union was a key source of foreign aid and
military assistance for India during this time.
 • Public Law 480 (PL 480) program: Under the PL 480 program, the USA provided
food aid to countries on a concessional basis. India received food aid from the
United States under the PL 480 program in the 1960s.
3. Indira Gandhi’s era
Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 to
1984.

• The Indo-Pakistan War of 1971: This conflict arose from tensions between India and
Pakistan over the disputed region of East Pakistan. India intervened on the side of
Bengali separatists, and the war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. The war had a
major impact on the balance of power in South Asia and solidified India’s status as
a regional power.
• Indo–Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation (1971-1991): It was a
treaty of friendship and cooperation between India and the Soviet Union. It was
signed in the amidst of the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971.
o The treaty reaffirmed the close political and economic ties between the two
countries. It included provisions for mutual defence and assistance in case of
an external threat to either country.
• India’s nuclear test, 1974: India conducted nuclear tests known as “Smiling
Buddha,” which made India the sixth country in the world to develop nuclear
weapons and sparked international concern about the proliferation of nuclear weapons
in South Asia.
• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): She also played a key
role in the establishment of the SAARC in 1985, which sought to promote
cooperation among the countries of South Asia.
4. Rajiv Gandhi’s era
Rajiv Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India from 1984 to 1989.

• India-Soviet Union relations: The Soviet Union remained a key ally for India during
this time and provided military and economic assistance.
• Sri Lankan civil war: In 1987, India intervened militarily in the conflict at the request
of the Sri Lankan government and later facilitated the signing of the Indo-Sri Lanka
Peace Accord in 1989, which brought an end to the civil war.
• The 1985 Air India bombing: This terrorist attack perpetrated by Sikh separatists
marked a major escalation in the conflict between the Indian government and Sikh
separatists in the state of Punjab.
• India’s economic liberalization: Rajiv Gandhi implemented economic reforms that
liberalized India’s economy and opened it up to greater foreign investment.
5. During the 1990s
During the 1990s, India’s foreign policy was characterized by a focus on economic
liberalization and strengthening relationships with the United States and other Western
countries.
 • LPG (Liberalization Privatization and Globalization) reforms: The main changes
that resulted from the LPG reforms were increased emphasis on economic
diplomacy. It resulted in opening up to foreign investment and trade, the government
also focused on strengthening economic ties with other countries through trade
agreements, investment deals, and other initiatives.
• Gujral Doctrine: It was a set of five principles to guide the conduct of foreign
relations with India’s immediate neighbours in South Asia.
o Non-reciprocity with neighbours.
o Territory should not be used against the interest of another country.
o Non-interference in internal affairs.
o Respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
o Settle all disputes through peaceful bilateral negotiations.
• Look East Policy: In 1991, India launched its “Look East” policy, which aimed to
strengthen economic and political ties with countries in Southeast Asia.
• Nuclear Tests of 1998: India conducted a series of nuclear tests, which led to
international sanctions and strained relations with the United States and other
countries.
• WTO Participation: Another important event was India’s participation in the World
Trade Organization (WTO), which it joined in 1995. This allowed India to liberalize
its economy and increase its trade with other countries.

6. NDA-I (1998-2004)
The NDA-1, led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, was in power from 1998 to 2004.

• The Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998: It led to international sanctions against India
but also solidified India’s status as a nuclear power.
• Kargil War 1999: India and Pakistan engaged in a military conflict in the Kargil
region of Jammu and Kashmir. The conflict ended with a ceasefire and the withdrawal
of Pakistani forces from Indian territory.
• India-US Relations: The visit of President Bill Clinton to India in 2000 marked a
significant improvement in relations between the two countries.

7. UPA-I and II (2004-2014)

The UPA government, led by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, was in power from 2004 to
2014.

• Indo-US 123 Agreement: India and the USA signed a nuclear deal in 2008, which
ended India’s nuclear isolation and paved the way for cooperation with the US in the
civil nuclear sector.
• India-China Relations: The increased engagement with China, including the
establishment of a strategic and cooperative partnership in 2005 and the signing of a
border defence cooperation agreement in 2013.
 • Land Border Agreement with Bangladesh: The resolution of the long-standing
boundary dispute with Bangladesh in 2014 involved the exchange of 162 enclaves
between the two countries.
• Look East Policy: The Government pursued a “Look East” policy, which focused on
strengthening ties with countries in Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region.
• The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement: In 2010, India signed a free trade
agreement with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which aimed to
boost trade and investment between the two regions.
• UN Security Council Reforms: The government made a strong push for India to be
given a permanent seat on the UN Security Council as part of its efforts to increase
India’s global influence.

8. NDA-II (2014-Present)
India’s foreign policy under the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government, led by
Prime Minister Narendra Modi, has been marked by a focus on deepening ties with countries
in the Indo-Pacific region, as well as efforts to strengthen relations with traditional partners
such as the United States and Russia.

• Neighbourhood First Policy: The government’s “Neighbourhood First” policy aims

to strengthen relations with countries in South Asia and the Indian Ocean region.
• Act East Policy: It aims to enhance economic and strategic ties with countries in the
Indo-Pacific region, including through increased trade and investment, cultural
exchanges, and infrastructure development.
• SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) Membership: India and Pakistan were
admitted as full members to the SCO, a regional security organization comprising
China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
• The India-US Strategic Partnership: It has progressed in recent years and includes
cooperation on various issues, including defence, counterterrorism, trade, and energy.
• Sustainable development commitments: India’s participation in the Paris Climate
Agreement and its commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing
the use of renewable energy has been a significant step in India’s foreign relations
Key Principles of Indian Foreign Policy
1. Non-Alignment:
- Definition: India’s commitment to maintaining strategic autonomy by avoiding
alignment with any major power bloc (e.g., US-led Western bloc or former Soviet
bloc).
- Context: Rooted in the Cold War era, championed by Jawaharlal Nehru, and
formalized through the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
- Relevance Today: While adapted to the post-Cold War era, non-alignment remains a
guiding principle, allowing India to engage with multiple powers (e.g., US, Russia,
China) without committing to exclusive alliances.
- Exam Tip: Highlight India’s balancing act in global forums like BRICS, G20, and
NAM, with examples like maintaining ties with both Russia and the US during the
Ukraine crisis.

2. Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence):

- Definition: Principles include mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-
interference, equality, and peaceful coexistence.
- Context: Originated in the 1954 India-China agreement and remains a cornerstone of
India’s diplomatic engagements.
- Application: Guides India’s relations with neighbours and developing nations,
emphasizing mutual respect and dialogue.
- Exam Tip: Discuss Panchsheel in the context of India’s relations with South Asian
neighbours or its approach to global conflicts.

3. Strategic Autonomy:
- Definition: India’s pursuit of independent decision-making in foreign policy to protect
national interests.
- Context: Reflected in India’s refusal to sign treaties like the NPT or CTBT when they
conflict with national security interests.
- Application: Seen in India’s multi-alignment strategy, engaging with QUAD, BRICS,
and SCO simultaneously.
- Exam Tip: Use examples like India’s stance on global trade agreements or its nuclear
policy to illustrate strategic autonomy.

4. Promotion of Global Peace and Security:

- Definition: India advocates for a rules-based international order, disarmament, and
counter-terrorism.
- Context: India’s active role in UN peacekeeping missions and its push for a
Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism.
- Application: India’s contributions to global stability, including environmental
agreements (e.g., Paris Agreement) and counter-terrorism cooperation.
- Exam Tip: Highlight India’s UN peacekeeping contributions (e.g., troop deployments)
and its anti-terrorism advocacy.
 5. Economic Diplomacy and Soft Power:
- - Definition: Leveraging economic ties and cultural influence (e.g., yoga,
Bollywood, diaspora) to enhance India’s global standing.
- - Context: India’s “Act East” policy, trade agreements, and initiatives like
International Yoga Day.
- - Application: Strengthening ties through development aid (e.g., to Afghanistan,
Maldives) and cultural exchanges.
- - Exam Tip: Discuss initiatives like India’s vaccine diplomacy (Vaccine Maitri) or
cultural outreach through ICCR (Indian Council for Cultural Relations).

Key Determinants of Indian Foreign Policy

1. National Interest and Security:
- Focus: Protecting territorial integrity, countering terrorism, and ensuring energy
security.
- Examples: India’s response to cross-border terrorism (e.g., surgical strikes post-Uri
attack), securing maritime routes in the Indian Ocean, and diversifying energy
imports.
- Exam Tip: Link to syllabus topics like terrorism and India’s role in the Indian Ocean
region.

2. Geopolitical Environment:
- Focus: Navigating relations with major powers (US, China, Russia) and regional
neighbors (Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc.).
- Context: Balancing China’s influence in South Asia (e.g., Belt and Road Initiative)
with India’s regional leadership in SAARC and BIMSTEC.
- Exam Tip: Discuss India’s “Neighbourhood First” policy and its response to China’s
growing presence in South Asia.

3. Economic Imperatives:
- Focus: Promoting trade, investment, and access to technology to support India’s
economic growth.
- Examples: India’s engagement in RCEP negotiations (before withdrawal), focus on
Make in India, and securing FDI from countries like Japan and the US.
- Exam Tip: Reference India’s trade policies or initiatives like Atmanirbhar Bharat to
show economic drivers.

4. Historical and Cultural Legacy:

- Focus: India’s colonial history, civilizational heritage, and role as a leader of the
Global South.
- Context: Influences India’s advocacy for developing nations and its emphasis on
sovereignty and non-interference.
 - Exam Tip: Cite references from the syllabus, like ‘Engaging with a Rising India’ (M.
India, P. & Turkish, A.), which draws lessons from India’s historical texts like the
Mahabharata.

5. Global Challenges:
- Focus: Addressing issues like climate change, terrorism, and nuclear proliferation.
- Context: India’s proactive role in environmental protection (e.g., National Action Plan
on Climate Change) and its push for global counter-terrorism frameworks.
- Exam Tip: Use syllabus topics like India’s role in environmental protection and
terrorism to illustrate this determinant.

NOTE:
• Preparation Strategy
- Study Sources: Use the recommended books from the syllabus, such as:
- Chaca, P. ‘Indian Foreign Policy: The Politics of Postcolonial Identity from 1947 to
2014’.
- Rajamohan, C. ‘Modi’s World: Expanding India’s Sphere of Influence’.
- Pant, H.V. ‘Indian Foreign Policy: An Overview’.
- Current Affairs: Stay updated on India’s foreign policy developments (up to July 2025)
through credible sources like ‘The Hindu’, ‘Indian Express’, or mea.gov.in. Focus on
recent summits, agreements, or conflicts.
- Answer Structure: For exam answers, structure responses with:
- Introduction: Define the principle/determinant.
- Body: Provide examples (historical and recent) and link to India’s actions.
- Conclusion: Emphasize relevance to India’s global role.
- Keywords from Syllabus: Incorporate terms like Non-Aligned Policy, Indian Ocean,
European Union, and Terrorism in your answers to align with the course.’

• Additional Notes
- The syllabus emphasizes India’s role in South Asia, nuclear policy, environmental
protection, and terrorism, which align with these principles and determinants. Ensure
your answers integrate these topics where relevant.
- If you want a chart (e.g., comparing India’s relations with major powers) or specific
recent developments, let me know, and I can search for updates or create a visual aid.