CE-313 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Unit 05: SHALLOW FOUNDATION-I (Bearing Capacity)

By:
Dr. Manendra Singh
Assistant Professor,
Dept of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Hamirpur
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 1.0 FOUNDATION
• For most structures including buildings, bridges, earth fills, earth and concrete
dams, it is the earth that provides the ultimate support.

• The behaviour of the supporting ground must, therefore, affect the stability of the
structure.
• The supporting ground is invariably a soil (sound rocky stratum being very rare)
which is weaker than any construction material like wood, concrete, steel or
masonry. Hence, compared to structural members made out of these materials, a
larger area or mass of soil is necessarily involved in carrying the same load.

• Structural foundations are the substructure elements which transmit the structural
load to the earth in such a way that the supporting soil is not overstressed and not
undergo deformations that would cause excessive settlement of the structure.
• Hence, the properties of the supporting soil must be expected to affect vitally the
choice of the type of structural foundation suitable for a structure.
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 1.0 FOUNDATION
Transcosna Grain Elevator Canada (Oct. 18, 1913)

Leaning Tower, Pisa, Italy Built 1173-1350

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 1. 1 Major Building Parts

• All the structures constructed on land are supported by foundations, therefore foundation is connecting
link between the structure and the ground which supports it.
• In other words, a foundation is an artificial laid base on which a structure is built up.

Superstructure

Substructure

Foundation

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 1.2 Super-Structure and Sub- Structure

◆ The part of the structure which is above the GSL and can be seen with naked eye is known
as Super-Structure.
◆ That part of structure which is below the GSL and can not be seen with naked eyes is known
as Sub-Structure.

9/26/2024 B= width of footing 5

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
1.3 FOUNDATION and Footings
•It is the bottom most structural element of the sub structure which transmits the structural load
including its own weight on to and / into the soil underneath/surrounding with out casing shear
failure or bearing capacity failure (sudden collapse) and excessive settlement.
•Footings are structural members used to support columns and walls and to transmit and distribute
their loads to the soil in such a way that the load bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded,
excessive settlement, differential settlement, or rotation are prevented and adequate safety against
overturning or sliding is maintained.
•The footing is the part of the foundation that transfers the load to a larger soil area. It’s the part of
the foundation that is in actual contact with the soil. It makes the foundation safe for whatever
settlement it’s on. The materials used for footing usually consist of slabs or rebars. Footings are
constructed with brickwork, masonry, or concrete. Footings are typically used with shallow
foundations.
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 1.3 Foundation vs footings

Foundation is a structure which transfers the loads from the superstructure to the ground, while footing is the
foundation which is in contact with the earth. A foundation can be shallow and deep, while a footing is a type of a
shallow foundation.
Or
In civil Engineering, Footing is the types of foundation which is under the column and spread the load to a large area.

So, all footings are foundations but all foundations cannot be footings.

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 1.4 Classification of foundation based on geometry
Shallow foundation- Transmit the loads to strata at a shallow depth.
Deep Foundation- Transmit the loads at considerable depth below the ground surface.

Foundation

Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation

Df /B ≤ 1

Moderate deep: 1<Df /B<15

Deep (like pile): Df /B>15

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 1.5 Loads on foundation

1. Vertical compressive loads (Pv ↓): D.L., L.L. etc

2. Vertical Uplift Loads (Pu ↑): Wind Load, E.P.P, Foundations in case of expansive soil.
(expansive soil swells and shrinks due to change in moisture content)

3. Horizontal load (H → ): Wind Load, wave load, EQ Load

4. Moment (M): Wind, EQ

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 1.6 Classification of foundation based on load transfer mechanism
➢ If load is resisted by the bearing of soil- Shallow foundation- Transmit the loads to strata
at a shallow depth.

➢ If load is resisted by skin friction and/or end resistance-Deep foundation

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 1.6 Classification of foundation based on load transfer mechanism

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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation
1. Wall/Strip footings: are used to support structural walls that carry loads for other floors or to support
nonstructural walls (L>>>>>B).

2. Pad or column footings (Isolated ) :Used to support single columns. This is one of the most economical types

of footings and is used when columns are spaced at relatively long distances. (Circular, Square). Sometimes it is
stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation
3. Combined Footing :Usually support two columns, or three columns not in a row. Combined footings are used when
two columns are so close that single footings cannot be used and their individual footing would overlap or when one
column is located at or near a property. For this type of footing , Length to Breadth ratio (L/B) > 5. (rectangular or
trapezoidal in plan)
4. Cantilever or strap footings: Consist of two single footings connected with a beam or a strap and support two single
columns. This type replaces a combined footing and is more economical. Strap connects the footings such that they
behave as one unit. It does not take any soil reaction, simply acts as connecting beam. Strap is designed as a rigied
beam.
5. Continuous footings : Support a row of three or more columns which are closely spaced such that their individual footings
overlap each other. They have limited width and continue under all columns.

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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation
6. Mat (Raft) footings (Thickened slabs)
•Large slab supporting number of columns and walls under the entire structure. They are used, when soil
bearing capacity is low, column loads are heavy single footings cannot be used, piles are not used and
differential settlement must be reduced.
•Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the entire area of the
structure. They are used when column loads or other structural loads are close together and individual pad
foundations would interact.
•A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area. It may be
stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation.
•Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists
differential movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low
bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.

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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation

Wall/Strip footings

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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation

Pad or column footings (Isolated )

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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation

Combined Footing
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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation

Cantilever or strap footings

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 2.0 Types of Shallow Foundation

Mat (Raft) footings

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 3.0 Foundation Design Criteria

Failure of foundation is due to:

➢ Sliding/slippage of foundation/soil-Such failure is called shear failure
➢ Settlement of soil-which is called settlement failure

Foundation should be designed such that:

1. The soil below does not fail in shear- Shear failure criteria
2. The settlement is within the permissible limits- Settlement failure criteria

Allowable load on the foundation is minimum of criteria (1) & (2)

The other factors:

➢ The location and depth of the foundation: flowing water, underground defects such as root holes,
cavities, unconsolidated fills, ground water level, presence of expansive soils etc.

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 3.1 General Requirement of Foundation

In selecting a type of foundation: Design loads:

➢ Functions of the structure and ➢ Dead loads,

➢ The load carry, ➢ Live loads,
➢ The subsurface condition of the soil, and ➢ Wind and earthquake forces,
➢ The cost of the superstructure. ➢ Lateral pressures exerted by the foundation earth on the
embedded structural elements, and

➢ The effects of dynamic loads.

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 3.1 General Requirement of Foundation

The loads that are due to the subsoil conditions are

➢ Lateral or uplift forces on the foundation elements due to high water table,
➢ Swelling pressures on the foundations in expansive soils,
➢ Heave pressures
➢ Negative frictional drag on piles where pile foundations are used in highly compressible soil

Causes of Deformation:
◆ Deformation of an element of soil is a function of a change in effective stress (change in volume) not change in total
stress. Various causes of deformation of a structure are listed as follow;
1. Application of structural loads.
2. Lowering of the ground water table.
3. Collapse of soil structure on wetting.
4. Heave of swelling soils.
5. Deterioration of the foundation ( Sulphate attack on concrete, corrosion of steel piles, decay of timber piles).
6. Vibration of sandy soil.
7. Seasonal moisture movement.
8. The effect of frost action.
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 3.2 Selection of Foundation Type

•The selection of the type of foundation for a given structure-subsoil system is largely a matter of judgment/elimination based on
both an analysis of scientific data and experience.
•The type of foundation most appropriate for a given structure depends on several factors but commonly the principal are as follow:
•Type of structure
– Purpose of the structure i.e residential, office, industrial, bridge etc
– The function of the structure and the loads it must carry.
– Service life
– Loading number of stories, basement.
– Type i.e framed RCC, masonry, column spacing etc.
– Construction method and schedule.
•Sub-surface Condition.
Thickness and sequence of soil strata with subsoil parameters.
GWT position and function limits.
Presence of any underground anomalies.
• The cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the super structure i.e funds available for the construction and
foundation.
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2
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3.2Selection of Foundation Type: McCarthy
(1988)

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2
4
3.2 Selection of Foundation Type:

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 4.0 Depth and location of
foundation
As a general rule, any foundation should be placed at a depth where the soil stratum adequate from the point of view of
bearing capacity and settlement criteria. Minium Depth of foundation is 50cm below the ground surface. Depth and
location of foundation depends on:

1. Zone of significant volume changes in soil.

2. Ground water
3. Underground defects
4. Frost depth
5. Depth of top soil
6. Scour depth
7. Root Holes
8. Adjacent structure
9. Others

1. Zone of significant volume changes in soil : In Expansive soil (Clays) shrinkage and swelling of the soil
mass will occur due to rise or lowering of GWT, following seasonal weather changes.
• Volume change is greatest near ground and decreases with increasing depth. The zone of seasonal variation
in water content varies in thickness from 1.5-3.0 m.

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4.0 Depth and location of foundation

2. Ground water: The footing should be placed above the G.W.T. as far as possible. Presence of water reduces soil bearing
capacity, larger footing size more cost. During construction pumping is necessary – adds to the cost of construction.

3. Underground defects: Footing location affected by underground defects , faults, caves, mines, sewer lines , underground
cables and utilities.

4. Frost depth: In case of fine sand and silts, the footing should be placed below the frost depth, which may be 1m or more in
cold climates. As the soil water freezes and melts, the footing is lifted during cold weather and settles during warm weather. The
shear strength of the soil is also decreased during warm weather due to an increase in water content.

5. Depth of top soil: The footing should be located below the top soil consisting of organic matters which eventually decompose.
The top soil should be removed over an area slightly larger than the footing.

6. Scour depth: Foundation for structures in a river have to be protected from the scouring action of flowing stream. The depth
of foundation for a bridge pier or any similar structure must be sufficiently below the deepest scour level.

7. Root Holes: Footing should be placed below the zone of weakened soil.

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4.0 Depth and location of foundation

8. Adjacent structures: Structures may be damaged by the construction of new foundations, as a result of vibrations,
undermining by excavation or lowering of the water table.
• After new foundations have been constructed, the (new) loads they place on the soil may cause settlement of previously
existing structures as a result of new stress pattern in the surrounding soil.

• In general, deeper the foundations and closer to the old structure, greater will be the potential for damage to old structures.
• Where footings are adjacent to sloping ground or where the bases of footings are at different levels from those of footings of
adjoining structures. IS 1904: 1986 makes the following recommendation:

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 4.0 Location and depth of Foundation
8. Adjacent structures:

i) When the ground surface slopes downward adjacent to a footing,

the sloping surface should not encroach upon a frustum of bearing
under the footing having sides which makes an angle of 30 deg. and
the horizontal distance from the lower edge of the footing to the
sloping surface shall be at least 90 cm. (Fig. 1)
ii) In granular soils, the line joining the lower adjacent edges of upper
and lower footings shall not have a slope steeper than 2H:1V. (Fig. a)
iii) In clayey soil, the line joining the lower adjacent edge of the
upper footing and the upper adjacent edge of the lower footing
should not be steeper than 2H:1V. (Fig. b)

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4.0 Location and depth of Foundation 8. Adjacent structures:

➢ iv) Other recommendations for footing adjacent to existing structures

➢ Minimum horizontal distance between the foundations shall not be less than the width of larger footing to avoid
damage to existing structure

➢ If the distance is limited, the principal of 2H:1V distribution should be used so as to minimize the influence to old
structure

➢ Proper care is needed during excavation phase of foundation construction beyond merely depending on the 2H:1V
criteria for old foundations. Excavation may cause settlement to old foundation due to lateral bulging in the
excavation and/or shear failure due to reduction in overburden stress in the surrounding of old foundation.

• The line from the edge of the new footing to the edge of
existing footing should make an angle of 45 or less with
the horizontal plane; that is s should be greater than the
difference in elevation between the adjacent footings.
From fig., even if position of new and existing footings
were to be interchanged, the recommendation would
remain the same.
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4.0 Location and depth of Foundation
➢ 9. Others.:

➢ Footings on surface rock or sloping rock faces

➢ For the locations with shallow rock beds, the foundation can be laid on the rock surface after
chipping the top surface.
➢ If the rock bed has some slope, it may be advisable to provide dowel bars of minimum 16 mm
diameter and 225 mm embedment into the rock at 1 m spacing.
➢ A raised water table may cause damage to the foundation by
➢ Floating the structure

➢ Reducing the effective stress beneath the foundation

Water logging around the building may also cause wet basements. In such cases, proper drainage system
around the foundation may be required so that water does not accumulate.
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 5.0 Terminology
Gross Loading Intensity/Gross Pressure :Total pressure at the level (base) of foundation including the
weight of superstructure, foundation, and the soil above foundation.

Net Loading Intensity/Net Pressure: Deformation of the soil below the base of footing is caused only by the
pressure over and above that which existed before the construction of footing an structure. The difference between
the gross pressure and the overburden pressure at the base of the footing, is called net pressure. This includes the
weight of superstructure and foundation only.

Ultimate Bearing capacity: If the load at the base of footing is gradually increases, a stage will be reached when
the load will cause a shear failure in the supporting soil. The maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can
support before it fails in shear is called the ultimate bearing capacity.
 5.0 Terminology
Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity: Maximum net intensity of loading at the base of foundation that the soil can
support before failing in shear..
Net Safe Bearing capacity: Maximum net intensity of loading that the soil can safely support without the

risk of shear failure. FOS of 2 to 3 is used.

Gross Safe Bearing capacity: Maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can safely support without

the risk of shear failure.

Safe Bearing Pressure: Maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on the soil without settlement

exceeding the permissible limit. No FOS is used.

Allowable Bearing Pressure: Maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on the soil with no possibility of

shear failure or possibility of excessive settlement beyond permissible limit.

It is minimum of net safe bearing capacity (shear failure criterion) and

safe bearing pressure (settlement criterion)

 6.0 PRINCIPAL MODE OF FAILURES
When a horizontal strip footing resting on the surface of
homogeneous soil is subjected a gradually increasing load,
characteristics load-settlement curves are obtained. The load
settlement behaviour is found to be related to the soil
characteristics. According to Vesic (1973) there are three types of
shear failures. They are
1. General shear failure:
➢ occurs in stiff clay or dense sand or rocks (Relative density
RD > 70%, Void Ratio < 0.55).
➢ The general shear failure mode, typical of soil possessing
brittle-type stress-strain behaviour, is characterized by
(a) a well-defined fails pattern,
b) sudden, catastrophic failure accompanied by tilting of
foundation and
c) a bulging of ground surface adjacent to the foundation.
➢ The load-settlement curve indicates that failure is abrupt in the
general shear mode .
➢ The ultimate load can be easily located.
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 6.0 PRINCIPAL MODE OF FAILURES

1. General shear failure:

cu (kPa) consistency Dr (%) consistency

0 – 12.5 very soft
0-15 very loose
12.5-25 soft
25-50 medium 15-35 loose

50-100 stiff 35-65 medium

100-200 very stiff 65-85 dense

>200 hard 85-100 very dense

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 6.0 PRINCIPAL MODE OF FAILURES

2. Punching shear failure:

➢ occurs in very loose sand or soft saturated clay

➢ Punching shear failure occurs in soils possessing the stress characteristics of a

very plastic soil.

➢ Typical features of this mode are:

(a) poorly defined shear planes,

(b) soil zones beyond the loaded area being little affected and

c) significant penetration of a wedge-shaped soil zone beneath the foundation,

accompanied by vertical shear beneath the edges of the foundation.

d) No bulging at the ground surface

➢ The load settlement curve indicates a continuous increase in settlement with

increasing load.
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➢ Ultimate load cannot be clearly recognized. Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
 6.0 PRINCIPAL MODE OF FAILURES

3. Local shear failure:

➢ occurs in medium dense sand (relative density <20, Void Ratio
>0.75).

➢ The local shear failure pattern has some of the characteristics of

the general shear and the punching shear modes.
➢ Main features of local shear failure are:
a) well-defined wedges and slip surfaces only beneath the
foundation
b) slip surface not visible beyond the edges of the foundation,
c)slight bulging of the ground surface adjacent to the foundation,
and
d) significant compression of the soil directly beneath the
foundation.
➢ The load-settlement curve does not indicate the ultimate load
clearly.

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6.1 Modes of failure of model footings in sand

• Footings in clays - general shear

• Footings in Dense sands - general shear failure
• Footings in Loose to Medium dense sands - Local Shear failure
• Footings in Very Loose Sand - Punching shear failure

For Sand
Local Shear failure: φ< 28, N<5, R.D.<20%
General Shear failure: φ>36, N>30, R.D.>70%
In between of these two: Mixed state of failure-
Value can be obtained by interpolation

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 7.0 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

The following are important factors which affect bearing

capacity:
I. Nature of soil and its physical and engineering
properties;
II. Nature of the foundation and other details such as the
size, shape, depth below the ground surface and rigidity of
the structure;
III. Total and differential settlements that the structure can
withstand without functional failure;
IV. Location of the ground water table relative to the level
of the foundation; and
V. Initial stresses, if any.

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 8.0 Determination of Bearing Capacity

The following methods are available for the determination

of bearing capacity of a foundation:
I. Bearing capacity tables in various building codes
II. Analytical methods
III. Plate bearing tests
IV. Penetration tests
V. Model tests and prototype tests
VI. Laboratory tests

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8.0 Bearing Capacity from Building Codes: Bearing Capacity Based on Presumptive
Analysis

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 8.1 Analytical Methods

1. Theory of Elasticity (Schleicher’s method)

2. Classical earth pressure theory – Rankine’s method, Pauker’s method and Bell’s method.

3. Theory of Plasticity- Fellenius’ method, Prandtl’s method, Terzaghi’s method, Meyerhof’s

method, Skempton’s method, Hasen’s method and Balla’s method, IS code method.

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 9.0 RANKINE’S METHOD FOR MINIMUM DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
• This method is too approximate and conservative for practical use.
Rankine uses the relationship between principal stresses at limiting equilibrium conditions of soil elements, one
located just beneath the footing and the other just outsidee it

Rankine’s method for bearing capacity of a footing

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 9.0 RANKINE’S METHOD FOR MINIMUM DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

In element I, just beneath the footing,

qult = the major principal stress; under its influence,
the soil adjacent to the element tends get pushed out,
creating active conditions.
σh = active pressure on the vertical faces to the element.
From the relationship between the principal stresses at limiting equilibrium relating to the active state, we
have: 1 − sin ∅
𝜎h = 𝑞 𝑢𝑙𝑡 . 𝐾𝐴 = 𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
1 + sin ∅

In element II, just outside the footing, at the base level of the foundation,
The tendency of the soil adjacent to the element is to compress, creating passive conditions. From the
relationship between the principal stresses at limiting equilibrium relating to the passive state, we have,

1 + sin ∅
𝜎h = 𝑞. 𝐾𝑝 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
1 − sin ∅

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 9.0 RANKINE’S METHOD FOR MINIMUM DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

The two values of σh may be equated from Eqs. (1) and (2) to get a relationship for
2
1 + sin ∅
𝑞 𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
1 - sin ∅
This gives the bearing capacity of the footing. It does not appear to take into account the size of the footing.
Further the bearing capacity reduces to zero for Df = 0 or for a footing founded at the surface. This is contrary
to facts.

To give Df, which is termed the minimum depth required for a foundation from Eq. (3):

2
𝑞u 1 − sin ∅
𝐷𝑓 = … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … … . . (4)
𝛾 1 + sin ∅

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 10. TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Terzaghi (1943) developed a general bearing capacity equation for a uniformly loaded strip footing. Terzaghi considered
a continuous footing of width B placed at a depth of Df below the ground surface. For the derivation of the equation
the following assumptions were made.
1. Base of footing is rough.
2. The footing has a large L/B ratio and hence a two-dimensional or plane strain condition is envisaged, i.e. strip
footing.
3. The base of the footing is laid at a shallow depth, that is, Df ≤ B.
4. The shearing resistance of the soil between the surface and the depth Df is neglected. The footing is considered as
a surface footing with a uniform surcharge equal to γDf at the level of the base of the footing.
5. General shear failure is assumed to take place and the soil volume is unchanged prior to failure.
6. The shear strength of the soil is governed by the Mohr-Coulomb equation.
7. Failure zone does not extend above the base of the foundation.
8. Load on footing is concentric and vertical.
9. Water Table is beyond the stress zone, i,e. effect of water table is ignored
 10. TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Terzaghi in 1943 gave a general bearing capacity theory for strip foundation. For the first time, he developed his
theory by incorporating weight of failure wedge in the analysis.

Zone I, abd is an elastic zone , When the footing sinks B

to the soil, a certain portion of the soil, the soil wedge
abd immediately beneath the footing is prevented from
undergoing any lateral movement by the friction and
adhesion between the base of footing and soil. This
wedge of soil, called zone I, remains in a state of elastic
equilibrium and is effectively a part of the footing itself.

Zone II, At failure, the vertical downward movement of

the footing and the intact soil wedge abd pushes the soil
The equation of the log spiral is given by 𝑟 = 𝑟 ∗ 𝑒 𝜃 tan ∅
on either side of the elastic wedge and transforms it into
a state of plastic equilibrium. In Fig., zone II (ade and Where, r = the radius vector of the log spiral inclined at an

bdf) are called the zones of radial shear. angle θ to the initial radius vector ro, which is ad or bd.
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
 10. TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Zone III, One set of shear planes in these zones radiate

from the edge of the footing. The curved lower boundary B
of these zones has the shape of a logarithmic spiral. The
two zones aeg and bfi (zone III) are the Rankine passive
zones of linear shear in which the two sets of shear planes
are inclined at an angle (45°-φ/2) to the horizontal.

The lower boundaries ad and bd of the elastic wedge are

failure planes rising at an angle to φ the horizontal. The
failure surfaces deg and dfi are taken to be vertical at d.
The equation of the log spiral is given by 𝑟 = 𝑟 ∗ 𝑒 𝜃 tan ∅
Depth of influence/stress zone is from footing level to a
Where, r = the radius vector of the log spiral inclined at an
depth of B from footing level.
angle θ to the initial radius vector ro, which is ad or bd.
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 10. TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION

qult = c Nc + q Nq + 0.5 γ2 B Nγ

• Above equation is valid for strip footing only.

• Nc , Nq , Nγ are dimensionless bearing capacity factors- depend only on the angle shearing
resistance, φ of the soil. Can be obtained using charts/Table/formulae.
• B is width of footing
• q is surcharge at the footing level= γ1 Df (where γ1 is unit weight of soil above the footing level)
• γ2 is unit weight of soil below the footing level
• c and φ are average strength parameter of the soil below the ground surface to a depth upto B
from footing level.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

10. TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

10. TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION

ϕ Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factor

Nc Nq Nγ

0 5.7 1.0 0.0

5 7.3 1.6 0.5
10 9.6 2.7 1.2
15 12.9 4.4 2.5
20 17.7 7.4 5
25 25.1 12.7 9.7
30 37.2 22.5 19.7
35 57.8 41.4 42.4
40 95.7 81.3 100.4
45 172.3 173.3 297.5
50 347.5 415.1 1153.2

Ranjan and Rao, 1991

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10.0 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors

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10.0 TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Fig. 10: Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
 10.0 TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Limitations in Terzaghi’s analysis
1) Terzaghi’s analysis assumes the plastic zones develop fully before failure occurs. This is true only in the
case of dense cohesionless soils and stiff cohesive soils.
2) The value of Φ is assumed to remain constant. But Φ can change as soil gets compressed.
3) The failure zones are assumed not to extend above the base level of footing. Thus the shearing resistance
of soil surrounding it above its base level is neglected. The error due to this assumption increases as the depth
of footing is increased.
4) The load is assumed to be vertical and acting concentrically with uniform pressure distribution at the base.
5). Valid only Df ≤ B

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 10.0 TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Safe Bearing Capacity: - The safe bearing capacity is obtained as per the followings. Let qnet be the net bearing
capacity. The net bearing capacity, as per the definition is obtained as:

q𝒏𝒆𝒕 = q𝒖𝒍𝒕 − 𝒒 = 𝑸𝒖𝒍𝒕 − 𝜸𝑫𝒇

q𝒏s = qnet/FOS

qs = q𝒏s + q

Safe load, Qs = qs x A

Where A is area of footing at the base.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 10.1 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 1. Local Shear Failure
The theory has been derived for the case of general shear failure. In local shear failure, Shearing resistance
is not mobilized along the entire length of failure surface. For local shear failure the following modification
has been proposed by Terzaghi.

Note: Nc’, Nq’, Nγ’ can be obtained directly

from curves/table corresponding to local
shear failure on the basis of actual values of
φ. If charts/ table corresponding to local
shear failure are not available, then use
reduced value of friction angle i.e. φm to
calculate the bearing capacity factors.
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
10.1 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 1. Local Shear Failure

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 10.2 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 2. Shape of footing

For Square foundations:

For Circular foundations:

For Rectangular foundations:

 10.3 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 3. INFLUENCE OF WATER TABLE

• The theoretical equations developed for computing the ultimate bearing capacity qu of soil are based on
the assumption that the water table lies at a depth below the base of the foundation equal to or greater
than the width B of the foundation or otherwise the depth of the water table from ground surface is equal
to or greater than (Df+ B).
• In case the water table lies at any intermediate depth less than the depth (Df+ B), the bearing capacity
equations are affected due to the presence of the water table.
• Three cases may be considered here.
Case 1. When the water table lies above the base of the foundation.
Case 2. When the water table lies within depth B below the base of the foundation.
Case 3:When water table is at a depth greater than B below the base of the foundation.

• When the soil is saturated then always use effective strength parameters i.e. c’
and φ’. Bearing capacity factors are taken corresponding to φ’.
 10.3 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 3. INFLUENCE OF WATER TABLE

Method 1: Reduction factor Method

• For any position of the water table within the depth (Df+ B),

qult = c’ Nc + γ1 Df Nq Rw1 + 0.5 γ2 B Nγ RW2

where Rw1 = reduction factor for water table above the base level of the foundation,
RW2 = reduction factor for water table below the base level of the foundation,
γ = γsat for all practical purposes in both the second and third terms.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 10.3 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 3. INFLUENCE OF WATER TABLE
Case 1: When water table lies above the base
level of the foundation (Dw1 ≤ Df)

For Dw1/Df = 0, we have Rw1 = 0.5, and

For Dw1/Df = 1.0, we have Rw1 = 1.0.

Case 2: When the water table lies below the

base level or when Dw1 /B ≤ 1

For Dw2 /B = 0, we have Rw2 = 0.5, and

For Dw2 /B = 1.0, we have Rw2 = 1.0.

Case : 3 When water table is at a depth greater

than B below the base of the foundation:
No effect of water table.
Rw1 = Rw2 = 1.0. (Above Equations are based on the assumption that the submerged unit weight of soil is equal
to half of the saturated unit weight and the soil above the water table remains saturated.)
 10.3 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 3. INFLUENCE OF WATER TABLE

Method 2: Effective unit weight method

• For any position of the water table within the depth (Df+ B),

qult = c’ Nc + γe1 Df Nq + 0.5 γe2 B Nγ

where
• γe1 = weighted effective unit weight of soil lying above the base level of the
foundation
• γe2 = weighted effective unit weight of soil lying within the depth B below the base
level of the foundation
• γm = moist or saturated unit weight of soil lying above WT (case 1 or case 2)
• γsat = saturated unit weight of soil below the WT (case 1 or case 2)
• γb = submerged unit weight of soil = γsat - γw
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
 10.4 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 3. INFLUENCE OF WATER TABLE

Method 2: Effective unit weight method

Case 1:

or

qult = c’ Nc + q’Nq + 0.5 γ’2 B Nγ

Case 2:

or

qult = c’ Nc + qNq + 0.5 γ’e2 B Nγ

 10.3 Modification in Terzaghi’s theory: 3. INFLUENCE OF WATER TABLE

qult = c’ Nc + q Nq Rw1 + 0.5 γ2 B Nγ RW2

or
qult = c’ Nc + γe1 Df Nq + 0.5 γe2 B Nγ
or
qult = c’ Nc + q’ Nq + 0.5 γ2 B Nγ RW2

Note
• Bearing capacity factors are calculated corresponding to φ’
• q is surcharge at foundation level
• q' is effective surcharge at foundation level.
• If we use W.T. correction, then total unit weight of soil is taken. If we use effective unit
weight, then there is no need to apply water table correction factors.
• It is usual practice to take effective surcharge/unit weight in second term and apply water
table correction factor in third term.
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
 10.4 Effect of Size on Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footing:
Bearing Capacity of Granular Soils (c= 0)
In the case of the sands the cohesion, c is absent. Hence, for sands, the bearing capacity equation is of the form:
∴ q𝑢𝑙𝑡= 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5 𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾

The ultimate bearing capacity depends on size of footing and increases as the width is increased keeping depth
constant.

For c-ϕ soil

q𝑢𝑙𝑡= 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞 + 𝟎. 5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾

The ultimate bearing capacity depends on size of footing. It increases as the width of the footing is increased
keeping depth constant.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 10.4 Effect of Size on Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footing

For pure cohesive (ϕ=0) soil

Bearing capacity of cohesive soils: The effect of submergence is to reduce the undrained shearing strength cu

due to a softening effect. The shear strength parameter should be determined in the laboratory under saturated
condition. ∴ 𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡= 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 0.5 𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾

∴ q𝑢𝑙𝑡= 𝑞 + 5.7𝑐 (𝑁𝑐= 5.7, 𝑁𝑞 = 1, Nγ = 0 )

qnet = 𝑞 + 5.7𝑐 - 𝑞
qnet = 5.7𝑐
It is clear that for footing on purely cohesive soil, the ultimate bearing capacity is independent of size of footing

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 1
A square footing 2.5 m x 2.5 m is built in a homogeneous bed of sand of unit weight
20 kN/m3 and having an angle of shearing resistance of 36°. The depth of the base of
footing is 1.5 m below the ground surface. Calculate the safe load that can be carried
by a footing with a factor of safety of 3 against complete shear failure. Use
Terzaghi's analysis.
(For = 36°, Nc=65.4, Nq=49.4, Nγ=54)

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 2
A strip footing, 1 m wide at its base is located at a depth of 0.8 m below the ground
surface. The properties of the foundation soil are: γ = 18 kN/m3 , c = 30 kN/m² and
φ= 20°, Determine the safe bearing capacity, using a factor of safety of 3. Use
Terzaghi's analysis.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 3
A square footing located at a depth of 1.3 m below the ground has to carry a safe
load of 800 KN. Find the size of the footing if the desired factor of safety is 3. The soil
has the following properties: Voids ratio = 0.55; Degree of saturation = 50%;
Specific gravity = 2.67, c=8 kN/m²; φ= 30°. Use Terzaghi's analysis. Assume General
Shear failure.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 4
Determine the depth at which a circular footing of 2 m diameter be founded to
provide a factor of safety of 3, if it has to carry a safe load of 1600 kN. The
foundation soil has c = 10 kN/m2, φ = 30 deg and unit weight = 18 kN/m³. Use
Terzaghi's analysis. Assume General Shear failure.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 4
Determine the depth at which a circular footing of 2 m diameter be founded to
provide a factor of safety of 3, if it has to carry a safe load of 1600 kN. The
foundation soil has c = 10 kN/m2 , φ = 30 deg and unit weight = 18 kN/m³. Use
Terzaghi's analysis. Assume General Shear failure.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 5
A square footing 2 m x 2 m, is founded on a depth of 1.2 m below the surface of a
deep stratum of soft saturated clay having unit weight of 19.5 kN/m3. The soil has
undrained soil parameters as φ= 0 and c = 25 kN/m² and consolidated undrained
parameters (triaxial test) as φ'=22.5° and c' = 0. Determine the ultimate bearing
capacity of the foundation,
(i) immediately after construction, and
(ii) few years after construction.
Use Terzaghi's analysis.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 6
A strip footing 2 m wide carries a load intensity of 400 kN/m² at a depth of 1.2 m in
sand. The saturated unit weight of sand is 19.5 kN/m³ and unit weight above water
table is 16.8 kN/m³. The shear strength parameters are c = 0 and φ=35°. Determine
the factor of safety with respect to shear failure for the following cases of location of
water table.
(a) Water table is 4 m below G.L.
(c) Water table is 2.5 m below G.L.
(b) Water table is 1.2 m below G.L.
(d) Water table is 0.5 m below G.L.
(e) Water table is at G.L. itself. Use Terzaghi's equations.

Use Terzaghi's analysis. Assume General Shear Failure

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 11.0 SKEMTON’S THEORY FOR COHESIVE SOIL
Skempton (1951) suggested a bearing capacity theory for saturated clay for which ϕ = 0. Skemption gives Nc,
the bearing capacity factor on the basis of theory, laboratory tests and field observations. It was found that the
value of Nc increased with the increase in Df/B ratio. The expression for Nc proposed by Skempton is given
below.
The analysis is valid for any value of Df/B

𝐷𝑓
𝑁𝑐 = 5(1 + 0.2 ) For Df=0, NC = 5
For strip footings, 𝐵
The maximum limiting value is 7.5.
For square and circular footings,

𝐷𝑓
𝑁𝑐 = 6(1 + 0.2 ) For Df=0, NC = 6
𝐵
The maximum limiting value is 9.0.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 11.0 SKEMTON’S THEORY FOR COHESIVE SOIL
For rectangular footings,

𝐷𝑓 𝐵 𝐷𝑓
𝑁𝑐 = 5 1 + 0.2 1 + 0.2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤ 2.5
𝐵 𝐿 𝐵

𝐷𝑓 𝐵 𝐷𝑓
𝑁𝑐 = 7.5 1 + 0.2 1 + 0.2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≥ 2.5
𝐵 𝐿 𝐵

For ϕ = 0 condition, the net ultimate bearing capacity is given

by:
q𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑢𝑁𝑐

Skempton’s Bearing capacity factors

Alternatively, the graph above can be used to find the bearing capacity factor Nc.
Where,
Nc(rect.) = Nc(sq)[0.84+0.16B/L]
As per Skempton, if the shear strength of the soil does not vary more than ± 50% of the average value for a depth
2/3B below the footing, the average value of Cu can be used in above equation.
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
 12.0 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

Meyerhof (1951) gave a general bearing capacity

theory for a strip footing at any depth.
It is the extension of Terzaghi’s theory by considering
the extending the failure surfaces above
foundation level. Meyerhof (1963), presented a
general bearing capacity equation for determining
bearing capacity of shallow foundation.
Fig: Meyerhof’s Analysis
Zone ABC is elastic zone; Zone BCD is the zone of radial shear. The zone BDEF is the zone of mixed shear in which
shear varies between radial shear and plane shear. The surface BE is known as equivalent free surface by making an
angle β with horizontal.
Zone I – ABC, elastic zone
Zone II – BCD, zone of radial shear
Zone III – BDEF, zone of mixed shear in which shear varies
between radial shear and plane shear
β increases with an increase in depth Df and is equal to
90° for deep foundation Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
 12.0 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

qu = cNc scdcic + q0 N q s q d q i q + 0.5BN s d i

s, d, and i stand for shape factor, depth factor, inclination factor.

N c = (N q −1) cot( )  tan( )   N = (N q −1) tan(1.4)

Nq = e tan  45 + 
2

 2

Sc , Sq , Sγ= 1 for strip footing

Prandtl (1921) and Reissner (1924)

Establish by Meyerhof
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
12.0 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 12.0 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

ϕ Nc Nq Nγ

0 5.14 1.0 0.0

5 6.5 1.6 0.07
10 8.3 2.5 0.37
15 11 3.9 1.2
20 14.8 6.4 2.9
25 20.7 10.7 6.8
30 30.1 18.4 16.7
32 35.5 23.2 22.0
34 42.2 29.4 31.1
36 50.6 37.8 44.5
38 61.4 48.9 64.0
40 75.3 64.1 93.7
Ranjan and Rao,1991
45 133.9 134.9 262.8
50 266.9 319.1 874.0
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
12.0 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

Fig:
Meyerhof ’s
Chart

4/13/2019 Dr. Manendra

Prepared Singh,
By: Dr. NITH
Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 37
12.0 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

α is inclination of the resultant load from

the vertical= tan-1(H/V)
Where H and V are the horizontal and
vertical loads at the base of the
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
foundation.
12.1 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY-Effect of Eccentricity

M
Meyerhof (1953) introduced the concept of
W
W useful width to compute the bearing
capacity when the resultant load on the
footing acts eccentrically with respect to
the centre of the footing.
ex ex

M e=M/V
M-moment, V-total vertical load at the
W
W base of footing
• To account for the eccentricity of
loading, the footing dimensions are
modified in such a way that the load
ey ey
becomes concentric to the reduced
dimensions of the footing.
• The dimension of footing in the
direction of eccentricity Shall be
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
reduced by a length equal to 2e.
12.1 MEYERHOF’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY-Effect of Eccentricity

For strip footing: B' = B – 2ex B

B’
For rectangular footing: B'= B – 2ex
L' = L – 2ey

The effective area of footing A' = B' x L' ey L’

L’
The ultimate load bearing capacity of footing can be expressed
as

Qu = qu  A' ex

q u = cN c s c d c i c + q N q s q d q i q + 0.5 B'N s d  i

Reduced dimension should be used in bearing capacity

equation (i.e. B' is place of B) and also for calculation of
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
shape and depth factors(i.e. B' and L' in place of B and L).
 13.0 Hansen’s bearing capacity Theory
For cohesive soil, Hansen’s theory gives better correlation than the Terzaghiequation.Quit
conservation for cohesionless soil. Hansen’s bearing capacity factors
For ϕ > 0 ϕ Nγ
q u = cN c s c d c i c + qN q s q d q i q + 0.5 BN s d  i
0 0
For ϕ = 0 5 0.1
10 0.4
qu = cNc (1+ sc + dc − ic ) +q
15 1.2
20 2.9
Nc = (Nq −1) cot() Same as Meyerhof 25 6.8
30 15.1
 
Nq = e tan(  ) tan 2  45+  Same as Meyerhof 32 20.8
 2
34 28.8
N = 1.5(Nq −1)tan() Developed by Hansen 36 40.1
38 56.2
40 79.5
45 200.8
Ranjan and Rao, 1991
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 50 568.5
13.0 Shape, depth, inclination factor for the Hansen and Vesic’s bearing capacity equations

sc = 1 for strip footing

Here ca is base adhesion =

0.6 to 1 times of base cohesion

In Hansen Method
• For eccentric, B’ and L’ should be used to
compute shape factor and inclination factor.
• B should be used to compute depth factor.
In Vesic Method
• In case of eccentric use B and L for shape and
depth factor, not B’ and L’.

Af = B’ L’
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
13.0 Shape, depth, inclination factor for the Hansen and Vesic’s bearing capacity equations

Here ca is base adhesion = 0.6 to 1 times of base cohesion

In Hansen Method
• For eccentric, B’ and L’ should be used to
compute shape factor.
• B should be used to compute depth factor
• B’ and L’ are used for inclination factor.
In Vesic Method
• In case of eccentric use B and L for shape and
depth factor
• B’ and L’ are used for inclination factor.
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH Af = B’ L’
 14.0 Vesic’s bearing capacity theory
The bearing capacity equation is similar in form to Hansen’s equation
ϕ Nγ
0 0
Same as Meyerhof 5 0.4
10 1.2
Same as Meyerhof 15 2.6
20 5.4
25 10.9
N =2(Nq+1)tan() Given by Vesic
30 22.4
32 30.2
34 41
36 56.2
38 77.9
40 109.4
Vesic’s bearing capacity factors
45 271.3
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH
50 762.84
15.0 Suitability of Methods

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 16.0 IS code method (6403-1981)
Soil with cohesion and angle of shear
For strip footing

Vesic (1973)
 16.0 IS code method (6403-1981)
Ultimate net bearing capacity for strip footing shall be modified to take account of the shape ,
inclination of load, depth, and effect of water table.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

16.0 IS code method (6403-1981)

The same as Meyerhof (1963)

Terzaghi’s (1943)

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 16.0 IS code method (6403-1981) : Cohesive soil (ɸ=0) – Homogenous layer
•The value of C can be determined from UCS test.
Qnu = cu .Nc .sc .dc .ic
•Alternatively, it can also be from static cone test.
N c =5.14 •If the shear strength for a depth of 2/3 beneath the foundation does not
depart from the average by more than 50%, the average may be used in the
calculation.
Alternately, Cohesion shall be determined from static cone point resistance qc using the empirical relationship.

Point Resistance Values ( Range of Undrained

Soil Type
qc ) kgf/cm2 Cohesion (kgf/cm2)

Normally consolidated
qc < 20 qc/18 to qc/15
clays

Over consolidated clays qc > 20 qc/26 to qc/22

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 17.0 Eccentrically Loaded Foundations

Foundations are sometimes subjected to moments in addition to the loads. The distribution of footing pressure is not
uniform in this case. It is a case of bending combined with thrust, treated in the mechanics of materials. The maximum
and minimum pressures are given by

where I = moment of inertia (= LB3/12), Q = total vertical load (gross), M = moment on the foundation, B = width of
footing, L. length of footing.
e =M/Q, the above equations become

The maximum pressure max should be less than the safe gross bearing capacity. For No
tension qmin ≥ 0

93
 Problem 7

Calculate the net ultimate bearing capacity of a rectangular footing

2m x 4m in plan, founded at a depth of 1.5 m below the ground
surface. The load on the footing acts at an angle of 15 deg. to the
vertical and is eccentric in the direction of width by 15 cm. The
saturated unit weight of the soil is 18 kN/m3. The rate of loading is
slow and hence the effective stress shear strength parameters can be
used in the analysis c' = 15 kN/m2 and φ= 25 deg. Natural water table
is at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface. Use 18: 6403-1981
recommendations.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

 Problem 8

A chimney, with a rigid base 2.5 m square, is placed at a depth of 1 m

below the ground surface. The soil is clay with an unconfined
compressive strength of 60 kN/m² and unit weight of 20 kN/m³. The
weight of the chimney is 60 kN. The chimney has a resultant wind
load of 19.5 kN acting parallel to one of the sides of the chimney base
at a height of 1.5 m above the ground surface. Determine the factor of
safety with respect to bearing capacity. Use Meyerhof’s Method

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH

Thank You

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH