BIO Web of Conferences 134, 06014 (2024) https://doi.org/10.

1051/bioconf/202413406014
MaCiFIC 2024

Survival strategies of marine mammals in

extreme environments: a study of whales and
seals
Chairunnisa Aulia1 , Jesica Maulina1 , Tri Widya Edelwis1,* Joseph Girace2
1Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Raja Ali Haji Maritime
University, Indonesia
2National Aquarium in Baltimore, 501 East Pratt Street, Baltimore, MD 21202-3194, USA

Abstract. Extreme environments, characterized by challenges such as

sub-zero temperatures, limited sunlight and scarce resources, pose great
challenges to organisms, including marine mammals. Marine mammals
have evolved to live in extreme environments.These mammals are highly
tolerant of cold and stress and can continue to breathe for long periods of
time. The method used in this article is literature study by analyzing
several articles. Marine mammals such as seals have a thick layer of fat.
This adaptation reduces heat loss and helps maintain body temperature in
cold environments. Cetaceans, like whales, have undergone fundamental
morphological and molecular changes to adapt to the aquatic environment.
Characteristic of these whales are their baleen plates and ability to
communicate through vocal signals, forage socially, and migrate across
much of the globe.

1 Introduction
Extreme marine environments are unique ecosystems with physico-chemical characteristics
that are hostile and highly variable. Numerous creatures in the oceans find these conditions
stressful. These conditions include extremely low/high hypoxia/anoxia, extreme
photoperiods, and fluctuations in salinity, pH, and pressure [1] Many mammal species have
adapted to thrive in ocean environments, including marine mammals. These mammals can
hold their breath for extended periods of time and have a great resilience to pressure and
cold. Participants Members of this family are as follows: sirenians (manatees and dugongs),
mustelidae (sea otters), ursidae (polar bears), and cetaceans [2].
All mammals that obtain the majority of their food from marine environments, and
occasionally from freshwater as well, are referred to as "marine mammals." Extreme
adaptations are necessary for aquatic living, and marine animals have developed highly
specialized morphologies, physiologies, and behaviors that balance their ancestral
mammalian traits with the demands of aquatic life. They are the largest mammalian nomads
on the world, growing to nearly unimaginable sizes in the buoyant environment of water.
Recent decades have seen a rise in scientific interest in marine mammals, both in captivity
and in the wild, partly due to their cultural appeal. Our knowledge of the physiology,
migration, social behavior, communication, and intellect of marine animals has
advanced significantly [3]. Marine mammals are used to a constantly changing environment
that experiences several seasonal and interannual shifts. They follow a conservative life
plan, become sexually mature relatively late in life, have few children each reproductive

*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
BIO Web of Conferences 134, 06014 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202413406014
MaCiFIC 2024

episode (although those who do receive a lot of care from their mothers), enjoy longevity
and good survival rates, particularly in the adult age group.
Their morphology, life history, and behavior patterns are highly adapted to withstand
cold temperatures, a high degree of seasonality in their biotic and abiotic environment, a
high degree of interannual variability, and most importantly for many species the presence
of large areas of sea ice. On average, they exhibit a fairly stable population size [4] Within
the group of marine mammals known as whales, there are currently more than 80 species
living in the oceans. The forelimbs were modified to serve as swimming control surfaces,
the hind limbs were reduced to swim with the tail, and the skull and jaws underwent many
changes to sense, breathe and eat in the water over the course of about 10 million years,
when the ancestors of modern cetaceans evolved with various adaptations for aquatic life
[5].

2 Research Method
This research uses the literature study method through analyzing several articles. Literature
study is an effort made by a researcher to collect information that is appropriate and related
to the topic or problem being studied. The purpose of this study is to determine the survival
strategies of marine mammals including whales and seals in an extreme environment.

3 Result And Discussion.

Marine pollution, global warming, ocean acidification, and melting sea ice have all played a
role in the decrease in population of various marine mammal species. Overfishing is a
major factor in the decline of marine mammal populations, leading to more than 650,000
marine mammal deaths annually. Hunting and accidental capture of marine mammals
continue to play a major role in their declining populations. A decrease in population has
been observed in various species such as hooded seals, harp seals, northern bottlenose
whales, and humpback whales. Marine mammals reside in marine habitats all around the
globe. They adapt to life in water and rely on the ocean for a stable and habitable existence.
These sea creatures inhabit the planet's major oceans, ranging from tropical regions near the
equator to the Arctic and Antarctic oceans in the northern and southern hemispheres. They
possess special physical traits that enable them to survive in ocean environments with
varying temperatures, depths, pressures, and darkness. Every marine mammal group
evolved from a unique group of land mammals, whose ancestors split up and returned to the
marine environment. Their round body shape with tiny limbs that minimize body extension
aids in their ability to move through water. The more streamlined body shape lowers the
ratio of surface area to body volume, leading to decreased heat loss. Seals possess a large
amount of fat and fur to maintain their body warmth.

The majority of marine animals usually live in a region that is one-fifth the size of the
Indian Ocean or smaller. Variations in range size are influenced by species-specific
ecological needs and adaptability to different environments. For example, sperm whales can
dive deeply for food, while seals rely on weather patterns for their movements. Seals rely
on geomagnetic fields, water, wind currents, sun and moon positions, and water feel and
temperature to navigate during travel. Seals might also move in reaction to different
environmental alterations, like El Nino. Baleen whales journey long distances to reach
warm waters where they birth and nurture their calves to evade killer whale predation.
Several factors, such as good environmental conditions, sufficient food, successful
reproduction, and protection from dangers like hunting and getting caught in fishing gear,

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can impact the growth of marine mammal populations. Efforts to conserve marine
mammals may also contribute to their population growth.[2]
Challenging conditions like freezing temperatures, lack of sunlight, and limited
resources in extreme environments are a major obstacle for living organisms. These habitats
consist of polar regions, high-altitude environments, deserts, and deep-sea trenches. In these
harsh environments, life has evolved impressive abilities to survive and flourish despite the
challenges. Arctic and Antarctic animals have created unique methods for hunting and
gathering food in environments lacking resources. For instance, polar bears rely on their
strong sense of smell to find seals beneath the ice and carefully hunt them down before
effectively capturing them. On the flip side, penguins use their thin bodies and powerful
flippers to capture fish and other prey while swimming. Fat reserves are a common
adaptation in Arctic and Antarctic animals to help them survive times when food is scarce.
Seals and whales store excess fat when food is plentiful, using it as energy when food is
scarce. These stored fats provide crucial energy for survival in the harsh winter season.
Polar organisms have protective mechanisms against UV radiation in addition to
adaptations for low light sensitivity. For example, the skin of numerous marine mammals
like seals and whales has elevated levels of melanin, which is a pigment that soaks up UV
radiation and safeguards the underlying tissues from harm. Climate change is projected to
affect Arctic and Antarctic wildlife differently because of their unique evolutionary
backgrounds and current environmental settings. Unprecedented melting of sea ice in the
Arctic due to rising temperatures is endangering the habitats of animals like polar
bears and seals.[6]
Marine mammals will adjust naturally. A rise in air temperature will also raise sea
surface temperature, impacting current and air pressure patterns in oceans, ultimately
altering climate and weather on Earth's surface. Marine mammals use insulation as their
primary adaptation for thermoregulation, which helps decrease heat transfer between their
bodies and the surrounding environment. Insulation can be located on the external part of
the body, within hair and fur, and beneath the layer of fat produced by adipose tissue.
The thermoregulatory mechanisms found in marine mammals, such as dolphins, whales,
sea lions, seals, walruses, dugongs, and others, help them both retain and release heat as
needed. The layer of fat known as blubber is typically seen as a passive layer of fat beneath
the skin. Nevertheless, the blubber is a intricate lively tissue formed of a porous substance,
where the porous structure is composed of collagen fibers and the bulk is comprised of
adipocytes (fat, or lipid cells). Blubber, on its own, serves as an effective insulator because
it can consist of up to 93% lipid with minimal water content. Because lipids conduct only
one-third as much as water, they serve as effective insulators. Blubber acts as an internal
insulator for marine mammals, working to maintain the warmth of the mammal's body. In
the cold waters of the polar regions, the skin of a whale or seal will typically be just one or
two degrees warmer than freezing. During the breeding season, marine mammals typically
tend to accumulate fat or increase their body size in an aggressive manner.
Northern elephant seals (Miroungaangiistirostris) can vary in body fat percentage from
50% to under 20%, which is influenced by the breeding season. It is evident that the
fluctuations in fat levels affect not only thermoregulation, but also buoyancy, energy
reserves, and feeding. On the shore, seal adjust their position in accordance with the tides
to regulate their body temperature. During hot weather, elephant seals use cold sand on
their backs to cool down, while Hawaiian monk seals find shade under bushes or in small
ravines to escape the heat on sunny days. Nevertheless, these behavioral mechanisms are
not exclusive to marine mammals, as other animals can also utilize the ocean for cooling
purposes. An instance of feeding and thermoregulation can be seen in the humpback whale,
which migrates to cold Alaskan waters to feed during the summer and then travels south to
warm Hawaiian waters for breeding [7].

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Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are recognized as the most prevalent type of cetacean,
living in every ocean worldwide, from the Polar Regions to the tropics. They are top
predators that eat a variety of prey. Killer whales, as top predators, feed on various prey
including small fish, squid, pinnipeds, toothed whales, and baleen whales. They are not
limited by environmental factors like water temperature or depth. In recent years, a large
number of killer whales have migrated to the northern Norwegian coast during winter to
hunt the plentiful Norwegian herring population which are plentiful in this region. Herring-
eating killer whales in Iceland and Norway have been seen employing a synchronized
method with targeted low-frequency pulsed calls ('herding' calls) and displaying their white
bellies to gather herring, alongside hitting prey balls with their tails to debilitate the fish.
Nonetheless, killer whales may employ various tactics while hunting fish at nighttime due
to the need for daylight to use their white bellies for herding. Indeed, through the
autonomous acoustic monitoring of killer whales eating herring in Iceland, During poor
lighting, killer whales depended on sound and tail slaps to guide herring. observed much
more often during the nighttime hours. The findings of this research indicate that being able
to adjust feeding patterns according to varying levels of light could be important for
predators, especially in certain situations. During the winter at high latitudes, there is polar
night, as evidenced by the daily movements of Norwegian killer whales in this area [8].
The spotted seal, scientifically known as Phoca largha, is a type of marine mammal that
migrates. They engage in searching migrations in the summer and gather on sea ice in the
winter for nourishment, care, reproduction, and rest.. shedding their feathers, gaining
autonomy after six weeks of being nurtured, and acquiring adept diving and hunting skills
shortly after. The spotted seal is seen as a flexible hunter with a varied diet, primarily
focused on fish as its main source of food. Spotted seals achieve sexual maturity at around
3 to 5 years old. The population living in the waters of China, including the Bohai Sea and
Yellow Sea, is around 2,000 individuals. This group is crucial as an umbrella species and is
the sole charismatic flagship species in the area, with a global adult population of 640,000
individuals. Regrettably, around 80% of these animals have vanished because of climate
change and human activities since the mid-19th century, putting the spotted seal at risk of
extinction. Animals obtain environmental knowledge to adjust their actions. It is important
to prioritize preserving natural habitats and re-assess the effectiveness of captive breeding
for long-lived species like the spotted seal, by improving habitat preservation and
promoting more opportunities for wild animals, are crucial. Achieving this goal involves
reducing risks for released individuals, providing them with necessary skills learned from
interactions with their mother or other members of their species, and including controlled
challenges in their training before release. Moreover, habitats of flagship species have been
widely used to establish priorities for in situ conservation efforts [9].
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are clusters of toxic marine phytoplankton that are
frequently present in the North Atlantic, with varying frequencies and locations. The toxins
that are produced present a considerable threat to the well-being and existence of ocean
predators. Marine mammals' foraging behavior will determine the level of toxic dose they
experience. Numerous species, specifically phocid seals, feed in groups, and how long they
stay together can greatly affect how much they eat in the short term and the risk of
surpassing toxic levels. Since seals have ample body fat called blubber, it is best to consider
lean body mass when comparing toxicology thresholds with model species that have
less fat reserves [10].
Species that have been evolving for a longer period of time tend to spend a greater
amount of time in aquatic environments. This has resulted in a coming together of
morphological changes, which include adaptations for thermal regulation like being large in
size (i.e. having a small ratio of surface area to volume) and having minimal or no hair.
Over time, it is possible for hair or fur to be lost as a result of the evolutionary shift towards

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fat as the main form of insulation. Although mammals usually have fat under their skin,
marine mammals generally have a unique fat layer made up of adipose tissue supported by
collagen and elastin. Whales, being completely aquatic marine mammals, are excellent
illustrations of the shift to this morphological adaptation. Their insulation is solely
dependent on fat. On the other hand, amphibious marine mammals possess both fur and a
layer of fat as a response to the distinct challenges posed by the differing thermal properties
of air and water. These species consist of seals that search for food in the ocean but need to
come back to land for breeding or molting. The importance of their insulation layer varies
depending on how often and how long they are at sea. Certain species have the ability to
carefully balance their time spent on land and in water in order to regulate their body
temperature. Other creatures face restrictions due to extended seasonal periods in one of the
habitats. They must, as a result, have the ability to regulate their body temperature
effectively in both situations [11].
The population of the critically endangered North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena
glacialis) now numbers fewer than 400. After decades of a slow rise from near-extinction
due to whaling, the population has been declining since 2011 at an alarming rate. While
there are two clear and direct causes of the decline, this unfavorable reversal in population
trajectory has also been attributed to climate change. In the distribution of food, which led
to an unexpected spike in the number and location of right whale carcasses in 2017 and
2019. In addition, right whales are also more vulnerable to entanglements and ship strikes
in recent years due to changes in foraging areas, and climate change also appears to have
reduced their opportunities for foraging, in terms of prey availability and quality, which in
turn impacts health and reproduction. A documented decline in the health of right whales.
Linking whale calf birth rates found that calf birth rates were particularly low after 2010,
coinciding with climate-induced distributional shifts in whales and their prey [12-15].

4 Conclusion
According to the findings of the author's literature review, it can be inferred that whales and
seals have distinct survival tactics to shield themselves from harsh environments. They
possess unique physical characteristics that enable them to thrive in different marine
conditions such as temperature fluctuations, varying depths, pressure, and low light levels.
Marine mammals rely on insulation as their main method for regulating body temperature,
which serves to minimize heat exchange with the external environment. Seals possess
abundant fat and fur for body heat retention, while whales have experienced significant
morphological and molecular adaptations to thrive in the water.

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