Course Outline

1. Beginning of Christianity in India:

a. Traditions (St. Thomas, St. Bartholomew); sources both Indian and non-Indian.
b. The Syrian connection - Immigrations, Thomas of Cana, and Morwan Sabrisho
with Mor Sabor and Mor Aphroth, the Copper Plates, the stone crosses, etc.
c. The social status of Malabar Christians; aspects of indigenization.
d. Christianity in India and contact through visitors such as friars, travelers (Marco
Polo and the like).
2. Advent of Roman Catholic Christianity in India:
a. Portuguese colonialism and their colonjal and religious policies
b. Francis Xavier and his missionary methods - use of political power
c. Robert de Nobili and the Madurai Mission - Indigenization, and the Rites
controversy
d. The Jesuits and the Mogul Mission-interaction of Gospel and Culture - impact of
and on Christianity
e. Roman Catholic Christianity and the Malabar St. Thomas Christian during the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries with special reference to the Synod of Diamper
and the Coonen Cross incident - Consequences
3. Protestant Christianity in India:
a. The Tranquebar Mission
b. The Serampore Mission
c. Impact of Protestant Mission on St. Thomas Christians
4. The Spread of Protestant Christianity in Different Regions in India: Development of
Christianity in different regions of India (Dalits, Tribals, Adivasis and Subaltern Groups):
a. South India
b. North India
c. North East India
5. Colonialism and Protestant Christian Mission
a. The colonial and religious policy of the Danish, Dutch, French and the British.
b. An evaluation of Colonialism and Protestant Mission
6. Christianity and Nation Building in India.
a. Christianity and National Independence Movement
b. Christianity and the Bengal Renaissance
c. Christianity and Social Transformation: educational ministry, literature, medical
work and the social change
d. Christianity and the empowerment of women
e. Caste and Christianity
f. Communalism and Christianity
7. Indigenous Missionary Movements and the Emergence of Indian Church
a. Development and the quest for Indian identity-Devolution: Self-support, Self-
propagation and Self-government. NMS, IMS, FMPB, and the like.
b. Indigenization including the emergence of Independent movements such as that of
Bhakt Singh, Subba Rao, the Hindu Church of Lord Jesus at Mookupeeri, Tirunelveli
Dist., National Church of Madras (Parani Andy), Bengal Christo Samaj; Ashram
Movement-theology, worship etc.
8. Development of Christianity in Neighboring Countries: Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Pakistan and Myanmar
9. Emergence of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements and their Impact on the Indian
Churches
10. Post Independent India and Christian Movements
a. The rise of Religious Fundamentalism and the issue of conversion and Baptism
b. Minority Rights
c. Reservation (Dalit Christians)
d. Ashram Movements
e. Theological Institutions
Unit 1.

a. The beginnings of Christianity in India are steeped in ancient traditions, with legends tracing back
to the arrival of two of Christ's apostles, St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew. Indian sources, such as
local folklore and ancient texts, intertwine with non-Indian accounts, creating a rich tapestry of
narratives surrounding the early spread of Christianity in the subcontinent.

**Traditions**: The oral traditions and historical accounts surrounding the arrival of Christianity in
India are primarily anchored in the narratives of St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew, two of Jesus
Christ's apostles. According to tradition, St. Thomas traveled to India in the 1st century AD, spreading
the teachings of Christianity along the Malabar Coast. These traditions find echoes in both Indian
folklore and non-Indian historical records, creating a mosaic of stories that testify to the early
presence of Christianity in the subcontinent.

b. The Syrian connection played a pivotal role in the early propagation of Christianity in India.
Immigrants from the Syrian region, including Thomas of Cana and Morwan Sabrisho, brought with
them the faith and established communities along the Malabar Coast. Notable figures like Mor Sabor
and Mor Aphroth contributed to the growth of Christianity, leaving traces of their influence through
artifacts like the Copper Plates and stone crosses, which serve as tangible reminders of the faith's
early presence in India.

**The Syrian Connection**: Central to the early establishment of Christianity in India was the Syrian
connection. Immigrants from the Syrian region, including Thomas of Cana and Morwan Sabrisho,
played pivotal roles in introducing and fostering Christian communities in India. Noteworthy figures
like Mor Sabor and Mor Aphroth further solidified the faith's foundation, leaving behind tangible
evidence of their influence through artifacts like the Copper Plates and stone crosses. These relics
stand as testaments to the enduring legacy of the Syrian connection in shaping the early contours of
Indian Christianity.

c. The social status of Malabar Christians reflects a complex interplay of factors. Over time, these
communities underwent processes of indigenization, blending their religious beliefs with local
customs and practices. This syncretism helped them establish deeper roots within Indian society
while maintaining distinct cultural identities. The Malabar Christians occupy diverse social strata,
from affluent merchants to marginalized groups, showcasing the breadth of their influence and
integration into the fabric of Indian society.

**The Social Status of Malabar Christians**: The Malabar Christians, descendants of the early
converts, occupy diverse social strata within Indian society. Over the centuries, these communities
underwent processes of indigenization, blending their Christian faith with local customs and
traditions. This integration allowed them to carve out unique identities while navigating the complex
social landscape of India. From affluent merchants to marginalized groups, Malabar Christians reflect
the kaleidoscope of social realities, showcasing both the resilience and adaptability of their faith in
diverse contexts.
d. Christianity in India continued to evolve through contact with various visitors, including friars and
travelers from distant lands. Accounts from figures like Marco Polo provided glimpses into the spread
of the faith and its interactions with indigenous cultures. Through these encounters, Christianity in
India underwent dynamic transformations, adapting to the cultural landscape while leaving an
enduring mark on the country's religious and social history.

**Christianity in India and Contact through Visitors**: The spread of Christianity in India was further
catalyzed by contact with various visitors, including friars, missionaries, and travelers from distant
lands. Accounts from figures like Marco Polo provide insights into the cross-cultural exchanges that
shaped the evolution of Christianity in India. These encounters fostered a dynamic interplay between
the Christian faith and indigenous cultures, contributing to the rich tapestry of religious diversity in
India's historical narrative.
Unit. 2

The advent of Roman Catholic Christianity in India marked a significant chapter in the country's
religious and colonial history, shaped by the interplay of political, religious, and cultural forces. Let's
explore each aspect:

a. **Portuguese Colonialism and Their Policies**: The arrival of Portuguese colonial forces in India in
the 16th century brought with it Roman Catholic Christianity. Portuguese colonial policies
intertwined religious and political objectives, aiming to spread Christianity alongside their territorial
expansion. They established trading posts and forts along the western coast, employing coercive
methods to convert local populations to Catholicism. The Portuguese Crown actively supported
missionary endeavors, viewing Christianity as a means of solidifying their control over newly
acquired territories.

b. **Francis Xavier and His Missionary Methods**: Francis Xavier, a prominent Jesuit missionary,
played a pivotal role in spreading Roman Catholicism in India. His missionary methods often involved
the use of political power and influence. He worked closely with Portuguese colonial authorities,
leveraging their support to establish Christian communities and convert indigenous peoples. Xavier's
missionary zeal, coupled with political backing, led to the rapid expansion of Roman Catholicism in
various parts of India.

c. **Robert de Nobili and the Madurai Mission**: Robert de Nobili, another Jesuit missionary,
pioneered the Madurai Mission in southern India. His approach to evangelism emphasized
indigenization, adopting local customs and practices to make Christianity more accessible to Indian
converts. However, de Nobili's methods sparked controversy, particularly with the Rites controversy,
which questioned the compatibility of certain Indian cultural practices with Christian doctrine.
Despite these challenges, de Nobili's mission left a lasting legacy, influencing subsequent efforts to
contextualize Christianity within Indian cultural frameworks.

d. **The Jesuits and the Mogul Mission**: The Jesuits also engaged in missionary activities in the
Mughal Empire, seeking to reconcile the Gospel with Indian culture. They adopted a strategy of
accommodation, incorporating elements of Indian customs and traditions into Christian worship. This
interaction between Gospel and culture had a profound impact, shaping the development of
Christianity in India and influencing indigenous perceptions of the faith. Conversely, Indian cultural
influences also left their mark on Christianity, leading to a syncretic blend of religious practices and
beliefs.

e. **Roman Catholic Christianity and the Malabar St. Thomas Christians**: The arrival of Roman
Catholicism in Kerala, home to the ancient St. Thomas Christians, led to tensions and conflicts. The
Synod of Diamper in 1599, convened by the Portuguese, sought to bring the St. Thomas Christians
under Roman Catholic authority, leading to significant changes in their liturgy and practices. The
Coonen Cross incident in 1653, where a group of St. Thomas Christians revolted against Portuguese
dominance, highlighted the deep divisions within the community. The consequences of these events
included the further fragmentation of the St. Thomas Christian community and a lasting legacy of
mistrust towards Roman Catholic authority.

In summary, the advent of Roman Catholic Christianity in India during the colonial period was
marked by complex interactions between religion, politics, and culture. While it led to the spread of
Christianity in various regions, it also sparked controversies, conflicts, and challenges, leaving a
lasting imprint on India's religious landscape.
Unit. 3.

Protestant Christianity in India emerged as a significant force alongside Roman Catholicism during
the colonial period, characterized by missionary endeavors and the establishment of Christian
communities. Let's examine key aspects of Protestant Christianity in India:

a. **The Tranquebar Mission**: The Tranquebar Mission, initiated by the Danish-Halle Mission in the
early 18th century, marked the beginning of Protestant missionary activities in India. Led by
Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plütschau, the mission focused on evangelizing the Tamil-
speaking population in the Danish colony of Tranquebar (present-day Tharangambadi). The
missionaries established schools, translated the Bible into Tamil, and engaged in social and
educational reforms. The Tranquebar Mission laid the groundwork for future Protestant missionary
endeavors in India and contributed to the growth of Protestant Christianity in the region.

b. **The Serampore Mission**: The Serampore Mission, founded by William Carey, Joshua
Marshman, and William Ward in Serampore, Bengal (present-day West Bengal), was another
influential Protestant missionary initiative in India. Established in 1799, the mission aimed to spread
Christianity and promote education, literature, and social reforms. The missionaries translated the
Bible into various Indian languages, established schools and colleges, and engaged in humanitarian
work. The Serampore Mission played a significant role in the development of Indian vernacular
literature, education, and the growth of Protestant Christianity in Bengal and beyond.

c. **Impact of Protestant Mission on St. Thomas Christians**: The arrival of Protestant missionaries
in Kerala had a mixed impact on the St. Thomas Christians, who had historically been affiliated with
the Syriac Orthodox Church. While some St. Thomas Christians welcomed Protestant teachings and
embraced Protestant Christianity, others remained loyal to their traditional faith. Protestant
missionaries introduced educational and social reforms among the St. Thomas Christians, including
the establishment of schools and printing presses. However, their efforts also led to tensions and
divisions within the community, as some St. Thomas Christians resisted attempts to change their
religious practices and affiliations. Overall, the impact of Protestant missions on the St. Thomas
Christians was complex, shaping the religious and social landscape of Kerala during the colonial
period and beyond.

In summary, Protestant Christianity in India, exemplified by missions like the Tranquebar Mission and
the Serampore Mission, played a significant role in the spread of Christianity and the development of
education, literature, and social reforms. However, its impact on indigenous Christian communities
like the St. Thomas Christians was characterized by both cooperation and conflict, highlighting the
complex dynamics of religious encounters in colonial India.
Unit. 4

The spread of Protestant Christianity in various regions of India, particularly among marginalized
communities such as Dalits, Tribals, Adivasis, and Subaltern Groups, has been a complex and
multifaceted process. Let's explore the development of Protestant Christianity in South India, North
India, and Northeast India:

a. **South India**:

- South India has been a significant hub for Protestant missionary activities since the colonial
period. The region witnessed the establishment of missions by various Protestant denominations,
including the British, American, and German missionaries.

- Protestant Christianity found fertile ground among the Dalit communities in South India,
particularly in states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala. Missionaries focused on social
reform, education, and healthcare, which resonated with the marginalized Dalit communities.

- The efforts of Protestant missionaries among the Tribals and Adivasis of South India led to the
establishment of Christian communities in remote areas. These communities often retained their
cultural practices while integrating Christian beliefs into their daily lives.

- The development of Protestant Christianity in South India contributed to the growth of indigenous
Christian churches, such as the Church of South India (CSI) and the Church of North India (CNI),
which sought to bridge denominational divides and promote unity among Christians.

b. **North India**:

- Protestant Christianity faced unique challenges in North India, where Hinduism and Islam were
dominant. However, missionaries from various Protestant denominations, including Anglicans,
Methodists, and Baptists, established missions in states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Punjab.

- Missionary efforts among Dalit communities in North India focused on addressing social injustices
and caste-based discrimination. The message of equality and dignity in Christianity appealed to many
Dalit individuals, leading to conversions and the formation of Christian communities.

- The engagement of Protestant missionaries with Tribal and Adivasi communities in North India
varied depending on the region. In some areas, missionaries played a significant role in providing
education, healthcare, and social upliftment to marginalized communities.

- Protestant Christianity in North India often encountered resistance from conservative Hindu and
Muslim communities, leading to occasional tensions and conflicts. However, Christian communities
persevered, contributing to the religious diversity of the region.

c. **Northeast India**:

- Northeast India has been a focal point of Protestant missionary activities due to its diverse tribal
cultures and languages. Missionaries from various Protestant denominations, including Baptist,
Presbyterian, and Methodist, established missions in states like Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram.

- The impact of Protestant Christianity among the Tribals and Adivasis of Northeast India has been
profound, leading to widespread conversions and the formation of vibrant Christian communities.
Christianity became deeply intertwined with the social, cultural, and political fabric of many tribal
societies.
 - The spread of Protestant Christianity in Northeast India also led to the emergence of indigenous
Christian movements and denominations, such as the Baptist Church of Mizoram and the Nagaland
Baptist Church Council. These churches played a crucial role in preserving tribal identity while
embracing the Christian faith.

- Protestant Christianity in Northeast India has faced challenges such as religious syncretism, ethnic
tensions, and conflicts with militant groups. Despite these challenges, Christian communities in the
region continue to thrive and contribute to the socio-economic development of Northeast India.

In conclusion, the spread of Protestant Christianity in different regions of India, particularly among
marginalized communities, has been characterized by diverse socio-cultural contexts, missionary
strategies, and challenges. Despite these complexities, Protestant Christianity has left a lasting
impact on the religious landscape of India, shaping the identities and experiences of Dalits, Tribals,
Adivasis, and Subaltern Groups across the country.
Unit. 5

Colonialism refers to the process by which one country dominates and controls another country or
territory. In the case of India, European powers like the British, Dutch, French, and Danish
established colonies in various parts of the country during the 16th to 19th centuries. They did this
to gain control over India's resources, land, and people, often through forceful means.

Protestant missions were efforts by Christian groups, particularly those following Protestant beliefs,
to spread their religion in India. These missions aimed to convert Indians to Christianity and establish
Christian communities. They did this by building churches, schools, and hospitals, and by preaching
the teachings of Christianity to the Indian population.

So, colonialism and Protestant missions in India were closely linked. European colonial powers often
supported Protestant missions as part of their efforts to exert control over India. The missions, in
turn, played a role in spreading European influence and culture in the regions where they operated.
However, they also faced challenges and controversies, as they interacted with India's diverse
cultures and religious traditions.

a. **Colonial and Religious Policies of European Powers**:

**Danish Colonialism and Protestant Christian Mission**: The Danish colonial presence in India was
relatively limited, with their primary settlement being Tranquebar (Tharangambadi) in Tamil Nadu.
Danish missionaries, particularly from the Halle Mission, focused on evangelizing the local Tamil
population. The Danish colonial administration generally supported Protestant missionary activities,
viewing them as a means of promoting Christianity and European influence in the region.

**Dutch Colonialism and Protestant Christian Mission**: The Dutch East India Company established
a significant presence in India, particularly in regions like the Coromandel Coast, Kerala, and
Indonesia. Dutch Protestant missionaries, such as the Dutch Reformed Church, played an active role
in spreading Christianity among indigenous populations. However, the Dutch colonial administration
often prioritized trade and economic interests over religious conversion, leading to varying degrees
of support for Protestant missions.

**French Colonialism and Protestant Christian Mission**: French colonial rule in India was primarily
concentrated in territories like Pondicherry (Puducherry) and Chandannagar. While the French
government officially promoted Catholicism, Protestant missionaries operated in French-controlled
areas, albeit with some restrictions. Protestant missions faced challenges from Catholic authorities
but were able to establish schools, churches, and healthcare facilities, particularly among
marginalized communities.

**British Colonialism and Protestant Christian Mission**: British colonialism had the most significant
impact on India, with the British East India Company and later the British Crown exerting control over
vast territories. British colonial policies varied over time, but generally, they adopted a stance of
religious neutrality, allowing freedom of religion and supporting Protestant missionary activities
alongside other religious endeavors. Protestant missions received patronage from British officials and
were instrumental in providing education, healthcare, and social upliftment in colonial India.
b. **Evaluation of Colonialism and Protestant Mission**:

Colonialism and Protestant missions in India had complex and often intertwined relationships. On
one hand, Protestant missionaries were driven by religious zeal and humanitarian motives, seeking
to spread Christianity and uplift marginalized communities. They established schools, hospitals, and
orphanages, contributing to the socio-economic development of India.

However, colonialism and Protestant missions were also criticized for their negative impacts. Colonial
powers often exploited indigenous populations for economic gain, leading to social inequalities and
injustices. Protestant missions, while providing essential services, were sometimes accused of
cultural imperialism and undermining indigenous traditions and identities.

Furthermore, the relationship between colonialism and Protestant missions was not always
harmonious. Colonial administrations sometimes viewed missionaries with suspicion, particularly if
their activities conflicted with political or economic interests. Additionally, Protestant missions faced
challenges from conservative religious authorities and resistance from local communities wary of
foreign influences.

Overall, the legacy of colonialism and Protestant missions in India is complex and multifaceted. While
they contributed to the spread of Christianity and social development, they also intersected with
broader colonial dynamics, leaving behind a legacy that continues to shape contemporary debates
about religion, identity, and power in India.
Unit. 6

Christianity has played a multifaceted role in the nation-building process of India, intersecting with
various aspects of social, cultural, and political life. Let's delve into each aspect:

a. **Christianity and the National Independence Movement**:

- Christianity contributed to the Indian National Independence Movement in several ways. Many
Christian leaders, both Indian and foreign, supported the cause of Indian independence and
participated actively in the struggle against British colonial rule.

- Christian institutions, such as schools, colleges, and churches, became spaces for fostering
nationalist sentiments and educating Indians about their rights and freedoms.

- Figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, who played pivotal roles in the independence
movement, had interactions with Christian missionaries and drew inspiration from Christian
principles of justice, equality, and non-violence.

b. **Christianity and the Bengal Renaissance**:

- The Bengal Renaissance, a cultural and intellectual movement in the 19th and early 20th
centuries, saw the emergence of progressive ideas and reforms in Bengal, including the promotion of
education, literature, and social reforms.

- Christian missionaries, particularly Protestant missionaries, contributed to the Bengal Renaissance

by establishing schools, colleges, and printing presses, disseminating Western education and
literature among the Bengali population.

- The Christian presence in Bengal facilitated cross-cultural exchanges and dialogues, leading to the
enrichment of Bengali literature, art, and intellectual discourse.

c. **Christianity and Social Transformation**:

- Christian missionaries played a significant role in social transformation in India through their
educational ministries, which provided access to modern education for marginalized communities.

- Christian literature, including translations of religious texts and secular works, contributed to the
spread of literacy and knowledge among Indian populations.

- Christian medical work, through the establishment of hospitals and clinics, addressed healthcare
needs and improved public health conditions in many parts of India.

- Christian missions also actively engaged in social reforms, advocating for the abolition of practices
such as sati, child marriage, and untouchability.

d. **Christianity and the Empowerment of Women**:

- Christianity played a role in empowering women in India by promoting education and providing
opportunities for women to participate in social and religious activities.

- Christian missionaries established schools and colleges for girls, enabling them to access
education and acquire skills for leadership and independence.
 - Christian churches often provided spaces for women's groups and organizations to address issues
such as gender inequality, domestic violence, and women's rights.

e. **Caste and Christianity**:

- Christianity challenged the caste system in India by advocating for the equality and dignity of all
individuals regardless of caste or social status.

- Christian missions welcomed converts from all castes, providing a sense of belonging and
community to marginalized groups who faced discrimination based on their caste identity.

- However, caste dynamics also influenced the Christian community in India, with some caste-based
divisions persisting among Indian Christians despite the egalitarian principles of Christianity.

f. **Communalism and Christianity**:

- Christianity in India has sometimes been perceived through the lens of communalism, particularly
in the context of tensions between religious communities.

- Christian missionaries have faced opposition and hostility from certain quarters, especially during
periods of religious and political turmoil.

- However, many Christians in India have actively promoted interfaith dialogue, peace-building, and
cooperation among different religious communities, working towards a more inclusive and
harmonious society.

In summary, Christianity has played a diverse and nuanced role in the nation-building process of
India, contributing to social, cultural, and political transformations while grappling with challenges
and complexities inherent in India's pluralistic society.
Unit. 7

a. **Development and the Quest for Indian Identity**:

**Devolution: Self-support, Self-propagation, and Self-government**: Indigenous missionary

movements in India emerged as a response to the desire for Indian Christians to take ownership of
their faith and its propagation. Organizations like the National Missionary Society (NMS), Indian
Missionary Society (IMS), and the Fellowship of Missions to the Peoples of India (FMPB) emphasized
self-support, self-propagation, and self-government. This meant that Indian Christians sought to
fund, lead, and expand their missionary efforts autonomously, reducing dependence on foreign
support and leadership.

b. **Indigenization and the Emergence of Independent Movements**:

**Bhakt Singh**: Bhakt Singh was a prominent figure in the Indian Christian community who
advocated for a return to the early teachings and practices of Christianity. He emphasized the
importance of living out one's faith authentically in the Indian context and rejected Western cultural
influences in Christian worship and theology.

**Subba Rao**: Subba Rao, a pastor and theologian, played a significant role in promoting
indigenous Christianity in South India. He emphasized contextualized forms of worship and theology
that resonated with Indian culture and traditions, leading to the emergence of independent churches
and movements.

**Hindu Church of Lord Jesus at Mookupeeri, Tirunelveli Dist.**: This church, founded by V. Sundar
Singh, embraced Hindu cultural elements while adhering to Christian beliefs. The congregation
incorporated Hindu practices such as namaskaram (salutation) and pradakshina (circumambulation)
into their worship, reflecting a unique blend of Hindu and Christian traditions.

**National Church of Madras (Parani Andy)**: The National Church of Madras, led by Parani Andy,
sought to create a distinctly Indian expression of Christianity. The church adopted Tamil hymns,
prayers, and liturgies, making Christianity more accessible and relatable to Tamil-speaking
communities in South India.

**Bengal Christo Samaj**: The Bengal Christo Samaj, influenced by the Brahmo Samaj movement,
advocated for a rational and progressive interpretation of Christianity. It promoted social reforms,
education, and women's rights while rejecting aspects of traditional Christian doctrine deemed
incompatible with modern values.

**Ashram Movement**: The Ashram Movement, inspired by the life and teachings of Mahatma
Gandhi, emphasized simplicity, community living, and self-sufficiency. Christian ashrams served as
centers for spiritual renewal, social service, and interfaith dialogue, fostering a holistic approach to
Christian faith and practice.

These indigenous missionary movements and independent church initiatives contributed to the
indigenization of Christianity in India, allowing Indian Christians to express their faith in ways that
resonated with their cultural identity and context. They also challenged traditional hierarchical
structures within the church and paved the way for greater autonomy and self-determination among
Indian Christians.
Unit. 8

The development of Christianity in neighboring countries like Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan,
and Myanmar has been influenced by various historical, social, and cultural factors. Here's an
overview of Christianity's growth in each of these countries:

1. **Bangladesh**:

- Christianity in Bangladesh has a relatively small presence compared to the majority Muslim and
Hindu populations.

- The earliest Christian presence in Bangladesh dates back to the arrival of Portuguese missionaries
in the 16th century. However, significant growth occurred during British colonial rule.

- Today, Christianity in Bangladesh is primarily represented by Catholic and Protestant communities,

with a notable concentration among ethnic minority groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

2. **Sri Lanka**:

- Christianity in Sri Lanka has a long history dating back to the arrival of European colonizers,
particularly the Portuguese, Dutch, and British.

- The Catholic Church has a significant presence in Sri Lanka, with a sizable portion of the
population identifying as Catholic. The Church has been involved in education, healthcare, and social
welfare activities.

- Protestant Christianity, including Anglican, Methodist, and Presbyterian denominations, also has a
presence in Sri Lanka, particularly among Tamil and Sinhalese communities.

3. **Nepal**:

- Nepal is predominantly Hindu, with a small Christian minority.

- Christianity began to spread in Nepal in the 20th century, primarily through the efforts of foreign
missionaries and local converts.

- The Christian community in Nepal faces challenges, including legal restrictions on proselytizing
and societal pressure from the Hindu majority.

4. **Pakistan**:

- Christianity in Pakistan has ancient roots, dating back to the arrival of St. Thomas the Apostle in
the 1st century AD. However, significant growth occurred during British colonial rule.

- Today, Christians make up a small minority of Pakistan's population, primarily concentrated in

Punjab, Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces.

- The Christian community in Pakistan faces challenges such as discrimination, persecution, and
blasphemy laws.

5. **Myanmar**:

- Christianity in Myanmar has a diverse history, with various Christian denominations present in the
country.

- The earliest Christian presence in Myanmar dates back to the arrival of Portuguese missionaries in
the 16th century. Significant growth occurred during British colonial rule.
 - Today, Christianity is practiced by a significant minority of Myanmar's population, particularly
among ethnic minority groups such as the Karen, Chin, and Kachin.

In summary, Christianity in neighboring countries like Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan, and
Myanmar has experienced varying degrees of growth and challenges, influenced by historical, social,
and political factors unique to each country.
Unit. 9

The emergence of Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has had a significant impact on Indian
churches, contributing to both theological and practical changes within the Christian community.
Here's an overview of their emergence and impact:

1. **Emergence of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements**:

- Pentecostalism emerged in the early 20th century as a renewal movement within Protestant
Christianity, emphasizing the experience of the Holy Spirit and spiritual gifts, such as speaking in
tongues, healing, and prophecy.

- Charismatic movements, which share similar theological emphases with Pentecostalism, emerged
within Catholic and mainline Protestant denominations, bringing elements of Pentecostal spirituality
and practices into these traditions.

2. **Impact on Indian Churches**:

a. **Theological Influence**: Pentecostal and Charismatic movements have influenced Indian

churches by emphasizing the experiential aspect of faith and the importance of personal spiritual
encounters with God. This has led to a greater emphasis on emotional worship, prayer, and spiritual
gifts within Indian churches.

b. **Church Growth**: Pentecostal and Charismatic churches in India have experienced significant
growth, attracting large numbers of followers, particularly among younger generations and
marginalized communities. Their emphasis on personal conversion, dynamic worship, and spiritual
experiences has resonated with many Indians seeking spiritual fulfillment.

c. **Social Engagement**: Pentecostal and Charismatic churches in India have been actively
engaged in social welfare activities, including education, healthcare, and community development.
Many churches run schools, orphanages, and hospitals, providing services to underprivileged
communities.

d. **Challenges and Controversies**: The rapid growth of Pentecostal and Charismatic movements
in India has also led to challenges and controversies. Criticisms include concerns about financial
transparency, theological differences with traditional churches, and allegations of exploitation or
manipulation of vulnerable believers.

e. **Interfaith Relations**: Pentecostal and Charismatic churches in India have played a role in
interfaith dialogue and engagement. While they have often faced opposition from conservative
religious groups, they have also sought to build bridges with other religious communities through
initiatives promoting peace, reconciliation, and social justice.

In summary, the emergence of Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has brought about
significant changes within Indian churches, influencing their theology, worship practices, social
engagement, and growth patterns. While these movements have faced challenges and controversies,
they have also contributed to the vibrancy and diversity of Christianity in India.
Unit. 10

In post-independent India, Christian movements have continued to evolve, responding to changing

social, political, and religious landscapes. Here's a discussion on various aspects of Christian
movements in India:

a. **The Rise of Religious Fundamentalism and the Issue of Conversion and Baptism**:

- Post-independence India has witnessed the rise of religious fundamentalism, which has led to
increased tensions and conflicts between different religious communities, including Christians.

- The issue of conversion and baptism has become a contentious issue, with allegations of forced
conversions leveled against Christian missionaries by Hindu nationalist groups.

- Christian movements have grappled with accusations of unethical conversion practices, while
advocating for the freedom of individuals to choose their faith.

b. **Minority Rights**:

- Christians, along with other religious minorities, have faced challenges regarding their rights and
freedoms in post-independent India.

- Christian movements have been actively involved in advocating for minority rights, including the
right to practice and propagate their religion freely, protection from discrimination, and access to
educational and employment opportunities.

c. **Reservation (Dalit Christians)**:

- Dalit Christians, who converted to Christianity from Hinduism, have historically faced
discrimination and marginalization, particularly in terms of access to social and economic
opportunities.

- Christian movements have advocated for the inclusion of Dalit Christians in government
reservation policies, which provide affirmative action benefits to marginalized communities.

- Despite efforts, the issue of reservation for Dalit Christians remains unresolved, with debates over
the interpretation of constitutional provisions regarding religious identity and eligibility for
reservation benefits.

d. **Ashram Movements**:

- Ashram movements, inspired by the life and teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, have been influential
in Indian Christianity, promoting principles of simplicity, community living, and social service.

- Christian ashrams serve as centers for spiritual renewal, social engagement, and interfaith
dialogue, emphasizing holistic approaches to faith and practice.

- These movements have contributed to the theological and spiritual diversity within Indian
Christianity, offering alternative models of Christian discipleship and community life.

e. **Theological Institutions**:

- Post-independent India has seen the proliferation of theological institutions, including seminaries,
colleges, and universities, catering to the educational and training needs of Christian clergy, scholars,
and laity.
 - These institutions play a vital role in shaping the theological landscape of Indian Christianity,
fostering intellectual discourse, theological reflection, and pastoral training.

- Christian movements have been actively involved in establishing and supporting theological
institutions, ensuring the continued growth and development of the Christian community in India.

In conclusion, post-independent India has been a dynamic period for Christian movements, marked
by challenges, opportunities, and contributions to the social, political, and religious fabric of the
nation. As India continues to navigate issues of religious pluralism, social justice, and minority rights,
Christian movements remain important actors in advocating for peace, justice, and religious
freedom.