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Editorial Board

Editors

Molefi Kete Asante Ama Mazama

Temple University Temple University

Editorial Board

Chinua Achebe Marta Moreno Vega

Bard College Caribbean Cultural Center

Kwame Gyekye Isidore Okpewho

University of Ghana Binghamton University,
State University of New York
Maulana Karenga
California State University, Kofi Asare Opoku
Long Beach Lafayette College
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

AFRICAN
RELIGION
EDITORS
MOLEFI KETE ASANTE
TEMPLE UNIVERSITY

AMA MAZAMA
TEMPLE UNIVERSITY
Copyright © 2009 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

For information:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: [email protected]

SAGE Publications Ltd.

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London EC1Y 1SP
United Kingdom

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Far East Square
Singapore 048763

Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Encyclopedia of African religion/ editors, Molefi Kete Asante, Ama Mazama.

p. cm.
“A SAGE reference publication.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-3636-1 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Africa—Religion—Encyclopedias. I. Asante, Molefi K., 1942- II. Mazama, Ama, 1961-
BL2400.E53 2009
299.603—dc22 2008027578

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Publisher/Acquisitions Editor: Rolf A. Janke

Assistant to the Publisher: Michele Thompson
Developmental Editors: Yvette Pollastrini, Jacqueline A. Tasch
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Production Editor: Tracy Buyan
Copy Editor: Heather Jefferson
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreaders: Theresa Kay, Scott Oney
Indexer: Julie Sherman Grayson
Cover Designer: Janet Foulger
Cover Photography: Janay E. Garrick
Marketing Manager: Amberlyn Erzinger
Contents

List of Entries vii

Reader’s Guide xi
About the Editors xv
Contributors xvii
Introduction xxi
Entries
A 1 N 439
B 85 O 469
C 149 P 517
D 191 Q 555
E 229 R 557
F 257 S 583
G 279 T 645
H 303 U 679
I 325 V 685
J 353 W 703
K 359 X 729
L 375 Y 731
M 397 Z 741

Appendix: African Names of God 747

Bibliography: African Religious Sources 751
Index 797
List of Entries

Abaluyia Anukis Bata Drums

Abasi Apep Batonga
Abela Apis Bats
Abosom Apuleius Batwa
Abuk Asamando Bawon Samdi
Adae Asante Baya
Adinkra Symbols Asantehene Beads
Adu Ogyinae Asase Yaa Beja
Africism Ashe Bemba
Afterlife Aten Bes
Age Groups Atum Bete
Agricultural Rites Ausar Birds
Agwe Auset Birth
Aida Wedo Ax Blessing
Air Azaka, the Loa Blood
Aiwel Azande Boats
Akamba Bobo
Akan Ba Bois Caiman
Akhenaten Babalawo Bokonon
Akhetaten Baga Bondo Society
Alafin of Oyo Baganda Bondye
Altars Bakongo Book of the Coming Forth by
Amen Bakota Day (The Book of the Dead)
Amenhotep Balanta Boukman
Amma Balengue Bubembe
Amokye Bali Bubi
Amulet Baluba Bulls
Ananse Bamana Bulu
Ancestors Bamileke Bumuntu
Ancestors and Harmonious Bamun Burial of the Dead
Life Bantu Philosophy
Animal Images Banyankore Calamities
Animals Banyarwanda Candomblé
Animatism Bariba Caves
Animism Barotse Ceremonies
Ankh Bassa Chagga
Anubis Basuto Chaminuka
vii
viii List of Entries

Chewa Elders Haya

Chi Eleda Healing
Children Eniyan Health
Chiwara Ennead Heka
Chokwe Epa Society Heru, Horus
Circumcision Epistemology Hoodoo
Clay Esu, Elegba Hotep
Clitorectomy Eternal Life Houngan
Color Symbolism Evil Hounsi
Congo Jack Ewe Hunting
Conjurers Eye of Horus Husia
Convince Ezili Dantò Hutu
Cosmology Ezili Freda
Cowrie Shells Ibibio
Creation Fa Ibis, Symbol of Tehuti
Crossroads Family Idoma
Cultural Relocation Family Rites Ifa
Curse Fang Igbo
Faro Ikin
Dagu Fatiman, Cécile Ilé-Ifè
Danbala Wedo Fertility Imhotep
Dance and Song Fetish Incarnation
Dausi Fire Incense
Death Flag and Flag Planting Infertility
Desounen Fon Initiation
Destiny Food Intermediaries
Diaspora Fula (Fulbe) Invocations
Dinka Funeral Iwa
Diola Iwa Pele
Dioula Ga Iyalorisha
Disease Gamo Religion
Divination Systems Gèlèdè Jok (Acholi)
Divinities Ginen Jola
Dogon God Juju
Dogon Religion and Science Goddesses Justice
Dreams Gola
Drum, The Govi Ka
Duala Groves, Sacred Kabre of Togo
Dwat Gulu Kalûnga
Dyow Initiations Guro Khnum
Gurunsi Khonsu
Earth Gwobonanj Kimbundu
Efik Kings
Egungun Hapi Kintu Myth Cycle
Ekoi Harvest Kirdi
Ekpo Secret Society Hathor Kisalian Graves
 List of Entries ix

Kumina Ngai Palo

Kurumba Nganga Pedi
Kwa Ba Ngewo Personhood
Nkisi Petwo
Lakes Nkulunkulu Peul
Laveau, Marie Nkwa Phoenix
Lele Nommo Placenta
Lightning North America, African Plants
Lobi Religion in Pocomania
Lomwe Nuer Poro Society
Lovedu Number Potomitan
Lugbara Symbolism Predestination
Luo Nyame Pregnancy
Lwa Nzambi Priests
Procreation
Maasai Oaths Proverbs and Teaching
Maat Obatala Ptah
Magic Obeah Puberty
Makandal Ocean Punishment
Mambo Oduduwa Purification
Odu Ifa
Mami Wata Pyramids
Offering
Maroon Communities Pythons
Ogboni Society
Marriage
Ogdoad
Mawu-Lisa Queens
Ogun
Medicine
Ohum Festival
Medicine Men and Women Ra
Okande
Mediums Rada
Okomfo Anokye
Mende Rain
Olodumare
Min Rain Dance
Olokun
Montu Olorun Rain Queen
Moon Ontology Red
Mossi Opening of the Mouth Reincarnation
Mountains and Hills Ceremony Resistance to Enslavement
Mount Cameroon Oracles Rites of Passage
Mount Kenya Oral Text Rites of Reclamation
Mummification Oral Tradition Rituals
Muntu. See Bumuntu Ori Rivers and Streams
Music Origin of Religion River Tano. See Tano River
Mutwa, Credo Vusamazulu Orisha Rocks and Stones
Orisha Nla Ruhanga
Naming Orunmila
Nana Buluku Oshun Sacrifice
Nanny Oumfò Sangoma
N’domo Ovaherero Sankofa, Concept
Neb Ankh Ovambo Sankofa, Film
Nehanda Oya Santeria
x List of Entries

Sara Swahili Vai

Saramacca Swazi Vèvè
Sarcophagus Vilokan
Seba Taboo Vodou and the Haitian
Seclusion Tallensi Revolution
Seers Tano River Vodou in Benin
Sekhmet Tauetona Vodou in Haiti
Senufo Tefnut Vodunsi
Serapis Teke
Serer Tell El Amarna. See Akhetaten Wamala
Serpent Tellem Waset
Seshat Temne Water
Set Temples, Concept in Ancient Waterfalls
Seven Times Wepwawet
Shame Temples, Uses and Types West African
Shango Thoth Religion
Shawabti Three White
Shilluk Thunder Wind
Shona Tibonanj Winti
Shrines Time Wolof
Shu Tiv Women
Sky Totem Words
Societies of Secrets Transcendence and Woyengi
Songo Communion
Sopdu Transformation Xhosa
Sotho Trees
Soul Triads Yam
Space and Time Tsonga Yanvalou
Spear Masters Tswana Yao
Sphinx Tutankhamen Ye.mo.nja
Spirit Medium Tutsi Yorka
Spit Twa. See Batwa Yoruba
Suicide Twins
Suman Zarma
Sun Umbanda Zin
Sunsum Umbilical Cord Zoser
Susu Underworld Zulu
Reader’s Guide

The Reader’s Guide is provided to assist readers in locating articles on related topics. It classifies entries
into 16 general topical categories: Ancestral Figures; Communalism and Family; Concepts and Ideas;
Deities and Divinities; Eternality; Nature; Personalities and Characters; Possessors of Divine Energy;
Rituals and Ceremonies; Sacred Spaces and Objects; Societies; Symbols, Signs, and Sounds; Taboo and
Ethics; Texts; Traditions; and Values. Entries may be listed under more than one topic.

Ancestral Figures Placenta Nommo

Abuk Pregnancy Ontology
Boukman Procreation Oracles
Chiwara Puberty Ori
Fatiman, Cécile Resistance to Enslavement Origin of Religion
Gulu Suman Predestination
Guro Twins Sacrifice
Imhotep Umbilical Cord Shame
Makandal Women Soul
Nanny Space and Time
Nehanda Spear Masters
Oduduwa Concepts and Ideas Sunsum
Africism Time
Communalism and Family Ba
Abela Bantu Philosophy
Abosom Blessing Deities and Divinities
Age Groups Calamities Abasi
Ancestors Cosmology Agwe
Ancestors and Harmonious Life Creation Aida Wedo
Birth Cultural Relocation Aiwel
Blood Destiny Akamba
Bumuntu Diaspora Amen
Burial of the Dead Fetish Anubis
Children Hotep Anukis
Elders Juju Apep
Family Ka Apis
Family Rites Magic Asase Yaa
Fertility Neb Ankh Aten
Marriage Nkwa Atum

xi
xii Reader’s Guide

Ausar Ra Mountains and Hills

Auset Ruhanga Mount Cameroon
Azaka, the Loa Sekhmet Mount Kenya
Bes Serapis Ocean
Bondye Seshat Plants
Chi Set Pythons
Danbala Wedo Shango Rain
Divinities Shu Rivers and Streams
Eleda Songo Rocks and Stones
Eniyan Sopdu Serpent
Ennead Tefnut Sky
Esu, Elegba Thoth Sun
Ezili Dantò Tibonanj Tano River
Ezili Freda Wepwawet Thunder
Faro Woyengi Trees
God Yao Water
Goddesses Ye.mo.nja Waterfalls
Hapi Zin Wind
Hathor
Heru, Horus Eternality Personalities and Characters
Ibis, Symbol of Tehuti Afterlife Adu Ogyinae
Jok (Acholi) Death Akhenaten
Khnum Dwat Alafin of Oyo
Khonsu Eternal Life Amenhotep
Mami Wata Funeral Ananse
Mawu-Lisa Incarnation Apuleius
Min Reincarnation Asantehene
Montu Underworld Bawon Samdi
Nana Buluku Boukman
Ngai Bubembe
Ngewo Nature Bubi
Nkulunkulu Air Fatiman, Cécile
Nyame Animal Images Imhotep
Nzambi Animals Kings
Obatala Bats Laveau, Marie
Oduduwa Birds Makandal
Ogdoad Caves Queens
Ogun Clay Tauetona
Olodumare Earth Tutankhamen
Olokun Fire Women
Olorun Food Zoser
Orisha Nla Health
Orunmila Hunting
Oshun Lakes Possessors of Divine Energy
Oya Lightning Babalawo
Ptah Moon Bokonon
 Reader’s Guide xiii

Chaminuka Shrines Epa Society

Congo Jack Societies of Secrets Gèlèdè
Conjurers Yam Ogboni Society
Divination Systems Yanvalou Poro Society
Houngan
Hounsi
Iyalorisha Sacred Spaces and Symbols, Signs, and Sounds
Mambo Objects Adinkra Symbols
Mutwa, Credo Vusamazulu Akhenaten Amokye
Nganga Altars Amulet
Priests Amulet Ax
Sangoma Asamando Color Symbolism
Seers Bata Drums Dreams
Spirit Medium Boats Eye of Horus
Bois Caiman Ibis, Symbol of Tehuti
Rituals and Ceremonies Cowrie Shells Music
Adae Crossroads Number Symbolism
Agricultural Rites Drum, The Oracles
Ceremonies Flag and Flag Planting Phoenix
Circumcision Govi Rain Dance
Clitorectomy Groves, Sacred Rain Queen
Dance and Song Ikin Red
Desounen Ilé-Ifè Seven
Harvest Incense Three
Incense Kisalian Graves Totem
Initiation Lakes Vèvè
Invocations Maroon Communities White
Lele Mountains and Hills
Medicine Mount Cameroon
Mount Kenya Taboo and Ethics
Medicine Men and
Oumfò Ashe
Women
Potomitan Ax
Mediums
Pyramids Curse
Mummification
Rivers and Streams Disease
Music
Rocks and Stones Oaths
Naming
Sarcophagus Punishment
Offering
Sphinx Suicide
Ohum Festival
Totem Taboo
Opening of the Mouth Ceremony
Vilokan Totem
Puberty
Purification Waset
Rain Dance Texts
Rites of Passage Societies Book of the Coming Forth by
Rites of Reclamation Bondo Society Day (The Book of the Dead)
Rituals Dyow Initiations Fa
Seclusion Egungun Husia
Shawabti Ekpo Secret Society Odu Ifa
xiv Reader’s Guide

Oral Text Ga Swazi

Oral Tradition Gamo Religion Tallensi
Proverbs and Teaching Gola Teke
Words Gurunsi Tellem
Haya Temne
Traditions Hoodoo Tiv
Akan Hutu Tsonga
Asante Ibibio Tswana
Azande Idoma Tutsi
Baga Igbo Umbanda
Baganda Jola Vai
Bakongo Kabre of Togo Vodou and the Haitian
Bakota Kalûnga Revolution
Balanta Kirdi Vodou in Benin
Balengue Kumina Vodou in Haiti
Baluba Lobi Vodunsi
Bamana Lomwe Wamala
Bamileke Lovedu West African Religion
Bamun Lugbara Winti
Banyankore Luo Wolof
Banyarwanda Maasai Xhosa
Bariba Mende Yao
Barotse Mossi Yoruba
Bassa N’domo Zarma
Basuto North America, African Zulu
Batonga Religion in
Bete Nuer Values
Bobo Obeah Animatism
Candomblé Okande Animism
Chagga Ovambo Ankh
Chewa Palo Evil
Chokwe Pedi Healing
Convince Petwo Health
Dagu Peul Hotep
Dinka Rada Justice
Diola Santeria Maat
Dioula Sara Neb Ankh
Dogon Saramacca Sacrifice
Duala Senufo Seba
Efik Serer Shame
Ekoi Shilluk Transcendence and
Ewe Shona Communion
Fang Songo Transformation
Fon Sotho Triads
Fula (Fulbe) Susu
About the Editors

Molefi Kete Asante is professor in the Department journals such as the Africalogical Perspectives,
of African American Studies at Temple University. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Journal of Black
Dr. Asante has published 67 books; among the Studies, Journal of Communication, American
most recent are Afrocentric Manifesto (2008); Scholar, Daedalus, Western Journal of Black Studies,
The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal and Africaological Perspectives. The Utne Reader
Harmony (2007); Cheikh Anta Diop: An called him one of the “100 Leading Thinkers” in
Intellectual Portrait (2006); Spear Masters: An America. Dr. Asante has appeared on more than 50
Introduction to African Religion (2006), coau- TV programs. In 2002, he received the distinguished
thored with Emeka Nwadiora; Handbook of Douglas Ehninger Award for Rhetorical Scholarship
Black Studies (2005), coedited with Maulana from the National Communication Association. He
Karenga; Encyclopedia of Black Studies (2005), regularly consults with the African Union. In 2004,
coedited with Ama Mazama; Race, Rhetoric, and he was asked to give one of the keynote addresses at
Identity: The Architecton of Soul (2005); Erasing the Conference of Intellectuals of Africa and the
Racism: The Survival of the American Nation Diaspora in Dakar, Senegal. He was inducted into
(2003); Ancient Egyptian Philosophers (2000); the Literary Hall of Fame for Writers of African
Scattered to the Wind (2002); Custom and Descent at the Gwendolyn Brooks Center at Chicago
Culture of Egypt (2002); and 100 Greatest State University in 2004, and he is the recipient of
African Americans (2003). more than 100 national and international awards,
He has recently been recognized as one of the including three honorary degrees.
most widely cited scholars. In the 1990s, he was Dr. Asante is the founding editor of the Journal
recognized as one of the most influential leaders in of Black Studies (1969) and was the president of
American education. Dr. Asante completed his the civil rights organization, the Student Non-
MA at Pepperdine and received his PhD from the Violent Coordinating Committee chapter at
University of California, Los Angeles, at the age of UCLA, in the 1960s. In 1995, he was made a
26, and was appointed a full professor at the age traditional king, Nana Okru Asante Peasah,
of 30 at the State University of New York at Kyidomhene of Tafo, Akyem, Ghana.
Buffalo. At Temple University, he created the first
PhD program in African American Studies in Ama Mazama is associate professor of African
1987. He has directed more than 140 PhD disser- American Studies at Temple University. She was
tations. He has written more than 300 articles for born and grew up in Guadeloupe, Eastern
journals and magazines and is the founder of the Caribbean. She received her PhD in Linguistics
theory of Afrocentricity. from the University of La Sorbonne, Paris, at the
Dr. Asante was born in Valdosta, Georgia, in the age of 26, with Highest Distinction. Before joining
United States, of Sudanese and Nigerian heritage, Temple, Dr. Mazama taught at the University of
1 of 16 children. He is a poet, dramatist, and painter. Texas, Austin, and Penn State, College Park, and
His work on African language, multiculturalism, and was a visiting professor at Georgetown University
human culture and philosophy has been cited by and Howard University.

xv
xvi About the Editors

She has published eight books in French or English, Vienna, London, Birmingham, South America,
including The Afrocentric Paradigm (2003), Benin, West Africa, Canada, and, of course, in the
L’Impératif Afrocentrique (2003), The Encyclopedia Caribbean, her place of origin. She is a highly
of Black Studies (2005) (coedited with Molefi Kete sought after lecturer and workshop leader in the
Asante), and Africa in the 21st Century: Toward a field of African and African American infusion in
New Future (2007), as well as more than 60 articles school curricula. An expert in linguistics and cul-
in French and English in national and international tural theory, Dr. Mazama has been cited by
journals. Dr. Mazama’s early work was on the numerous school districts for her work in Pan
African roots of Caribbean creole languages. African culture.
Dr. Mazama is the associate editor of the In 2002, she was initiated in Haiti to
Journal of Black Studies, the top scholarly journal become a Mambo, that is, a Vodu priestess.
in Black Studies. In 2007, the National Council of Thus, Ama Mazama’s knowledge of African
Black Studies presented her with the Ana Julia religion is not only academic but also, and
Cooper and CLR James Award for her contribu- most important, stems from a lived experi-
tions to the advancement of the discipline of Black ence. The mother of three, Dr. Mazama is
Studies. committed to recording and transmitting
Dr. Mazama has lectured nationally, through- knowledge of the African cultural traditions
out the United States and internationally, in Paris, to present and future generations.
Contributors

Oluwatoyin Vincent Adepoju Deji Ayegboyin Patricia E. Canson

University College, London University of Ibadan Medgar Evers College of City
University of New York
Saheed Aderinto Diedre L. Badejo
University of Texas at Austin Kent State University Ibo Changa
Temple University
Afe Adogame
Katherine Olukemi Bankole
University of Edinburgh Kefentse K. Chike
West Virginia University
Michigan State University
Kwame Akonor
Seton Hall University Michael Antonio Barnett
Vimbai Gukwe Chivaura
Florida International
University of Zimbabwe
Edona M. Alexandria University
Umayat Spriritual Education Asia Austin Colter
Circle Moses Ohene Biney Temple University
New York Theological
Adisa A. Alkebulan Seminary
Malachi D. Crawford
San Diego State University University of Missouri
Yaba Amgborale Blay
David Amponsah Temple University Chikukuango Cuxima-zwa
Indiana University
Brunel University–West
Kwame Botwe-Asamoah London
Elizabeth Andrade University of Pittsburgh
Devry University
Kyrah Malika Daniels
Edward E. Andrews George Brandon Stanford University
University of New Hampshire City University of New York
Leslie Desmangles
M. K. Asante, Jr. Jovan A. Brown Trinity College, Hartford,
Morgan State University Temple University Connecticut

Molefi Kete Asante Nana Kwabena Brown Kofi Kissi Dompere

Temple University Nyama Institute Howard University

Kwabena Faheem Ashanti Willie Cannon-Brown Paul H. L. Easterling

North Carolina State University Peirce College University of Houston

xvii
xviii Contributors

Philip U. Effiong Bayyinah S. Jeffries Ana Monteiro-Ferreira

University of Maryland Michigan State University Temple University
University College
Charles Jegede Mussa S. Muneja
Zetla K. Elvi University of Ibadan University of Botswana
State University of New York
Maulana Karenga Godwin Uetuundja Murangi
Femi Euba
California State University, University of Namibia
Louisiana State University
Long Beach
Salim Faraji LaAisha Murray
California State University, Kunbi Labeodan Temple University
Dominguez Hills University of Ibadan
Gwinyai P. Muzorewa
Stephen C. Finley Elisa Larkin Nascimento Temple University
Rice University IPEAFRO, Rio de Janeiro
Kimani S. K. Nehusi
Justin Gammage Shantrelle P. Lewis University of East London
Temple University Temple University
Emmanuel Kombem
Geoffrey Jahwara Giddings Tracey Michael Lewis Ngwainmbi
Antioch College African American Museum in Elizabeth City State University
Philadelphia
DeBorah Gilbert White Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha
Union Institute Weckea D. Lilly California State University,
Temple University Northridge
Annette M. Gilzene
Pepperdine University
Aloysius M. Lugira Vera DeMoultrie Nobles
Bruce Grady Boston College San Francisco State
Shaw University University
Garvey F. Lundy
Valerie I. Harrison University of Pennsylvania Wade W. Nobles
Temple University San Francisco State
Denise Martin University
Deonte James Hollowell University of Louisville
Temple University BioDun J. Ogundayo
Ama Mazama University of Pittsburgh
Thomas Houessou-Adin Temple University
Philadelphia University/ David O. Ogungbile
Episcopal Academy Andrew M. Mbuvi Obafemi Awolowo University
Shaw University Divinity
LaRese Hubbard
School S. K. Olajide
California State University,
University of Ibadan
Long Beach
Serie McDougal III
Asar Sa Ra Imhotep San Francisco State University Daniel Tetteh Osabu-Kle
University of Houston Carleton University
Claudine Michel
Shaza Gamal Ismail University of California, Marquita Pellerin
Helwan University Santa Barbara Temple University
 Contributors xix

Nashay M. Pendleton Laird Scranton M. Tillotson

Temple University Colgate University University of Houston

D. Zizwe Poe Jorge Serrano Joel E. Tishken

Lincoln University Temple University Columbus State University
Tiffany D. Pogue Tabona Magondo Shoko
Florida International Brenda J. Washington
University of Zimbabwe
University Temple University
Mwalimu J. Shujaa
Pamela D. Reed Khonsura A. Wilson
Medger Evers College
Virginia State University California State University,
Djibo Sobukwe Long Beach
Monica L. Rhodes
Temple University Temple University
Tyrene K. Wright
Ibram H. Rogers Douglas Edwin Thomas John Jay College, City
Temple University Boricua College University of New York
Introduction

The Encyclopedia of African Religion is the first reflection on African religion occasioned by these
comprehensive work to assemble ideas, concepts, entries will enhance our understanding of the
discourses, and extensive essays on African reli- African world and provide a new adventure for
gion. Over the years, there have been numerous comparative studies.
encyclopedias on religion from other parts of the Unquestionably, a work as innovative and com-
world, but African religion has often been rele- prehensive as this encyclopedia makes its mark in
gated to “primitive religions,” “African mytholo- the area of intellectual inquiry by staking out new
gies,” or “tribal religions” sections of such works areas of knowledge. It provides the reader with
on religion. It is as if African religion is an after- new metaphors, tropes, figures of speech, modes
thought in the eyes of the authors and editors of of reasoning, etymologies, analogies, and cos-
such volumes. Of course, these designations are mogonies to satiate the intellect. Only in such an
clearly based on outmoded and problematic encyclopedia as this can one truly grasp the enor-
Western notions of Africa, and we have created mity of Africa’s contribution to religious ideas.
this encyclopedia as a monument to the memory Thus, this work presents richly textured ideas of
of those Africans who left us enough information spirituality, ritual, and initiation while advancing
from which to rediscover for the world the origi- new theological categories, cosmological narra-
nal beauty and majesty of African culture. tives, and ways to conceptualize ethical behavior.
There were two objectives in advancing this Given that we viewed African religion as one
work to the public. First, we wanted to provide religion and the African continent as a whole, we
the primary material necessary for further were inclined to introduce classical African reli-
research, analysis, and exposition of the concrete gious ideas, from the beginning of Kemet to the
beliefs of African people. Second, we sought to arrival of Christianity and later Islam in Africa, as
elevate the discourse around African religion, sug- significant forerunners of much of continental
gesting by the presentation of nearly 500 entries African thought. The same appeal to ethics, based
that there was still much we did not know about on righteous character; the same search for eternal
African culture. Africa is the second largest conti- life, found in living a life where good outweighs
nent in the world. Yet its intellectual and cultural evil; and the same openness to ancestral spirits,
contributions remain among the least understood kas, as remaining among the community of the liv-
if we take the written records about the continent ing, creates an appreciation of the recurring cycle
and its people as sources of knowledge about the of humanity. Correspondences of language and
continent. There are still those whose knowledge concept as with Amen, Amani, and Imani, which
of Africa is grounded in the perceptions and atti- are transgenerational and transcontinental, remain
tudes of missionaries, merchants, and marines vibrant parts of the African legacy of religion.
who have occupied the continent through foreign When the Akan use the words Kwame, Asare, and
religions, trade, or guns. The enormity of African Nkwa, they recall the more ancient Amen, Ausar,
contribution to ideas of religion, spirituality, and and Ankh. Several books, starting with the older
ethics has gone unappreciated by religious schol- works of Eva Meyerowitz, have examined these
ars, although at the beginning of human history, correspondences. Of course, in more recent times,
Africa makes its case for the origin of religion in Afrocentric authors such as Mubabinge Bilolo,
an official, formal manner. It is our hope that the Chinweizu Chinweizu, and Theophile Obenga

xxi
xxii Introduction

have identified other correspondences in the reli- that Christianity was more significant than
gious and philosophical traditions of Africa. African religion and never returned to the religion
The fact that Western or Islamic categories, of his ancestors. Although this is not meant as a
which come much later than African religion, have condemnation, it is nonetheless an awareness of
often been employed in the discourse on African the complexity and contradictions of Mbiti’s
religion means that we have not yet established approach to traditional African religion.
enough concrete data for asserting the African reli- Mbiti’s African Religions and Philosophy
gion. Because of this reality, much of African reli- remains a classic text in the historical sense, but it
gious thought has been distorted and confused as further complicates the discourse on African reli-
authors have tried to force newly discovered or gion by insisting on a plurality of religions in
uncovered or different concepts into old and famil- Africa. A number of writers have contested this
iar classes. Therefore, as editors, we have avoided reading of African culture, claiming that the unity
ironclad classificatory schemes and sought entries of African religion is uncontested by philosophy,
that revealed as closely as possible the actualities of practice, and ritual. Actually, Mbiti’s original title
African societies. What we wanted the entries to to his book, African Religions and Philosophy,
reveal was the thinking of African people about suggests his own ambivalence about the nature of
religion from the earliest of times. this unity. “African religions” in his title is prob-
lematic, but “African philosophy” is not. One is an
insistence on plurality, and the other is a statement
The 20th-Century Rediscovery
of unity. In the Encyclopedia of African Religion,
of African Religion we have taken as a starting point the unity of
The extraordinary attention and widespread inter- African religion, although we are quite aware of
est aroused by the publication of John Mbiti’s the diversity of expressions of that religion, much
African Religions and Philosophy thrust African like one would see in Christianity, Judaism,
religion into the modern discourse about ways Buddhism, Islam, or other human religions.
that humans have experienced the sacred. African religion dramatizes its unity in the uni-
Subsequent African authors such as Bolaji Idowu, versal appeal to the spirits that animate all of
Kofi Opoku Asare, Emeka Nwadiora, Ifa Karade, nature. Humans, stones, trees, animals, lakes,
Wande Abimbola, and Laurent Magesa engaged rivers, and mountains are conjoined in one grand
the discussion on African religion with the idea of movement toward the continuation of life.
expanding and clarifying much of what was writ- However, the entries that are included in our
ten by Mbiti in the 1960s and 1970s. Of course, Encyclopedia have convinced us that the ideas of
in most cases, these writers were, like Mbiti, reciprocity, circularity, and continuity of the
Christians or newly reconverted Africans who human community are essential elements in the
were attempting to explain African religion in the discourse on African religion. At the core of this
context of Christian theology. Mbiti, for example, continuity is the belief that ancestors remain
had been an ordained Anglican priest who was active in the community of the living. Almost all
eventually elevated to canon in 2005. other actions on Earth are dependent on the eter-
Born in Kenya, Mbiti studied in Uganda and nal community that encompasses the unborn, the
the United States before finally completing his living, and the deceased.
doctorate at Cambridge. During his career, he The Encyclopedia of African Religion articu-
taught religion in Africa and Europe and was the lates a philosophical approach to this topic that
director of the World Council of Churches’ situates African transcendent expressions in a uni-
Ecumenical Institute. Although it was his inten- tary sense. Fractured by numerous cultural and
tion to challenge Western assumptions that spiritual intrusions, African religion has with-
African religion was demonic and anti-Christian, stood the worst of human brutality and cruelty
Mbiti’s work, written from a Christian perspec- against other humans with solemn resilience.
tive, had the impact of catering to Western ideas There are some beliefs and aspects of life and
about Africa. As a parish minister in Burgdorf, knowledge that are consistent across the conti-
Switzerland, Mbiti continued to advance the idea nent. For example, human beings originated on
 Introduction xxiii

the continent of Africa, and the earliest human the possibilities of the Creator being involved on a
consciousness toward the awesomeness of nature personal level with humans? How could one have
and the mysteries of life and death was an African a personal relationship with God? How could
experience. In Africa, the world exists as a place God be a dictator in human life? Thus, the myths,
full of energy, dynamism, and life, and the holding stories, legends, and narratives that are created
back of chaos by harmonizing the spirit world is by the various branches of Popular Traditional
the principal task of the human being in keeping African Religion Everywhere (PTARE) are
with nature. In the African world, spirits exist. designed to approximate the nature of the God of
This is not a debatable issue in most African soci- Gods or, at least, to provide the necessary and
eties. The existence of spirits that are employed in attendant assistants in the process of maintaining
the maintenance of balance and harmony repre- ethics without the universe.
sents the continuous search for equilibrium. What is believed intensely all over the continent
The idea that a creator exists is also at the base of Africa is that the Supreme Being, who could be
of this African reality. In fact, African people have male, female, or both, created the universe, ani-
lived with the name of a Supreme Deity longer mals, and human beings, but soon retreated from
than any other people because the first humans any direct involvement in the affairs of humans. In
who responded to the unknown with the some cases in Africa, the Supreme Being does not
announcement of awe originated on the African finish the creation; it is left to other deities to com-
continent. This is not just true in the sense of oral plete. Among the Yoruba, this delegation of cre-
tradition, but in historical time we know that the ation appears when Olorun, the Owner of the Sky,
names of Bes, Ptah, Atum, Ra, Amen, Khnum, the Supreme God, starts the creation of the
Set, Ausar, and Auset are among the oldest names universe and then leaves it to Obatala, a lesser
for divinities in the world. deity, to complete the task. Among the Herero of
Nothing in ancient African culture was more Namibia, the Supreme God, Omukuru, the Great
standard and more consistent than the belief in a One, Njambi Kurunga, withdrew into the sky
First Ancestor. Whether one was in the Nile, after creating lesser divinities and humans. There
Congo, or Niger valley, Africans accepted the idea are neither temples nor shrines to the God of Gods
of a Supreme Being or a First Ancestor. There is among most people in Africa. In most cases, the
generally the belief that a Supreme Being or First lesser divinities are worshipped, revered, loved,
Ancestor arrived with the first ancestor of a group and feared. Why should an Akan person fear
of people in a region. Sometimes these two entities Almighty God Nyankopon or the Yoruba people
are the same being, and at other times they are become frightened of Olorun or the Herero be
separate. An Akan saying is “God is the Great scared of Omukuru?
Ancestor.” A woman dies and she is remembered Only at the most critical moment when it seems
for what she did on Earth, and the story is passed the entire universe is topsy-turvy or the cosmos
down from generation to generation; in the trans- may fail will the African person appeal to the
mission, the story is embellished so that a current Creator God. Of course, this situation is not
generation revels in the supernatural deeds done expected. It is probably best summed up by the
eons ago. She becomes the First Ancestor. We are behavior of the Ewe of southern Ghana, who do
in the province of mystery here because the not invoke the name of Dzingbe, the Universal
numerous powers that may be called on to explain Father, unless there is a drought. With a drought
various phenomena will have their roots in the comes the possibility that there will be no food,
ancestral world. and if there is no food, there will be no life. It is a
The African Supreme Being, however, rarely time of severe crisis. They might then say,
plays a role in the daily activities of the people. No “Universal Father, Dzingbe, who rules the sky, to
one would even think of knowing this being or whom we are grateful, mighty is the drought and
trying to know him or her as “a personal savior.” we are suffering; let it rain, let the earth be
The Abrahamic deity of Judaism, Christianity, refreshed, let the fields be resurrected and the
and Islam is quite different from the African God people prosper!” Otherwise, they do not bother
of Yoruba, Zulu, and Gikuyu. Who could fathom the awesome Dzingbe.
xxiv Introduction

Ancestors appear more important on a daily consisted of a triad. In this pattern, there was a
basis than the Supreme Deity. It is the ancestors godfather, goddess mother, and godchild. The
who must be feared, who must be appeased, and great religious seat of Waset had a triad of Amen,
to whom appeals must be directed; they are the Mut, and Khonsu while at Men-nefer (Memphis)
ones who must be invoked and revered because there was the triad of Ptah, Sekhmet, and
they are the agents of transformation. In effect, Nefertum. The Council of Nicea in 325 AD spoke
the ancestors know the people; they have lived of the Christian triad as God the Father, God the
among them and have a keen insight into the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. The female entity
nature of ordinary lives. A person’s life can change found in African religion had been removed from
drastically if he or she does not pay proper what was later called the Christian Trinity. In
homage to the ancestors. Some ancestors, as we terms of the female energy, Auset was replaced by
shall see, are more powerful than others, but all Mary, who was not a deity, but a virgin.
are essentially concerned about the well-being of Clearly for us, this Encyclopedia of African
the society. Religion is focused on the totality of the African
record without regard to region. Therefore, our
headword list had to include concepts and entries
Is Egypt Part of Africa?
that dealt with the religious thinking of ancient
There has been a tendency for Westerners to speak Kemet, as well as the Kikuyu, the Yoruba, and the
of Egyptian religion and African religion as if these Zulu. What is significant about this is that once a
were two separate entities. What this creates is a reader understands the mythological and philo-
false dichotomy on the African continent, where sophical foundations of African religion, the
Egypt is divorced from the rest of Africa or, to put concepts are easy to access; it is like cracking a
it another way, Kemet is divorced from Nubia, as combination to a complex lock. Once it has been
if there is neither contiguity nor continuity. cracked, there is a new world awaiting the reader,
What is clear from many of the authors who who is able to peer through the metaphorical or
wrote entries for this Encyclopedia is that ancient mythical veils of African narratives.
Egyptian religion was African religion; one cannot
isolate Egypt from Africa any more than one can
Polytheism or Monotheism?
isolate a Christian Rome from a Christian Britain.
Two different nations that practice the same reli- In the Encyclopedia of African Religion, our
gion with different accents and inclinations can be authors have shown that the question of monothe-
found on every continent. Egypt, or Kemet as it ism or polytheism is not an African question. It is
was called in the ancient times, is an African profoundly a Western question. Most Africans
nation in the sense that the continental memory believe in a Supreme God who creates the universe
and cultural products are similar to those found or causes it to be created, although it is believed
throughout the continent. that this entity may remain distant because the
Forty-two ethnic groups or political units called Supreme Deity is not a manager, but a creator.
nomes existed in predynastic Kemet. Each nome Although there is a unity to African religion,
possessed a name for the Supreme Deity. Every there are many variations to the characteristics,
local deity was considered universal, omnipotent, rituals and ceremonies, and details of practice
ever-lasting, original, and a creator who made all related to the Deity. For example, the Asante, an
things in the world. Ancient African sages could Akan-speaking people of Ghana, and the Yoruba
see from their own situations that humans lived in people of Nigeria believe in one great God and are
families, and there was no reason that the gods politically monarchical, but have no regular wor-
could not also have families. So the creator god in ship of the Almighty. Yet both the Gikuyu people
a local nome was given a family that included an of Kenya and the Ibo people of Nigeria are indi-
intimate circle who intervened from time to time in vidualistic and believe in one great God, but the
the creation plan or in the organization of the Gikuyu make sacrifices to Ngai, who remains dis-
world. A common family for the Supreme Deity tant but respected, where the Ibo’s Supreme God,
 Introduction xxv

Chukwu, is not regularly worshipped in any God is Molimo, protector and father. To the Zulu,
sense. Using the African system of understanding, the Almighty is Nkulunkulu. The Efik or Ibibio
the nature of being one cannot conclude that there people of Nigeria call the name of the Supreme
is only one divinity. Neither can one conclude that God Abasi. But the Ijaw speak of Woyengi, the
there are many creator deities. At best, one must Mother Goddess, who created the universe and
accept that the nature of the divinity is one, but everything in it. Included as an appendix in the
the attributes of the one are found in the numer- Encyclopedia of African Religion is a list of the
ous manifestations of the one as the many. To say names given by more than 200 African ethnic
that the nature of the divinity is one is different groups to God.
from claiming that there is only one divinity,
although in most African societies, there is only
Attributes of the Supreme Deity
one aspect of the divinity that is responsible for
creation. However, polytheism in the sense of sev- We have discovered that the attributes of God in
eral superdeities responsible for human society Africa are quite numerous. Among the more pop-
does not exist. Yet there is every reason to believe ular attributes are the following: the moulder, the
that there is a divinity, spirit, or ancestor that is bringer of rain, the one who thunders from afar,
capable of relating to every human activity. the one who gives life, the who gives and destroys,
Even among the Gikuyu, when a taboo is bro- the ancient of days, the one who humbles the
ken or an injury is caused to someone by another great, the one who you meet everywhere, the one
person, one may appeal to the ancestors for the who brings sunshine, the one on whom we can
proper remedy. Ngai does not bother with the lean and not fall, the one who is father of little
affairs of one person, but rather with the entire babies, the high one up, the immense ocean whose
people, the whole ethnic group, and the entire circular headdress is the horizon, and the
nation. Thus, the Gikuyu are similar to other Universal Father-Mother.
African people in terms of communion with the Unquestionably, however, the African idea of a
ancestors and ritual sacrifices. Nevertheless, the creator God who brings justice to the Earth is
Gikuyu are not polytheistic. the most consistent description of the Almighty.
The names of the Supreme God are many. Among the Konso of Ethiopia, Waqa, the
Among the Masai, like the Gikuyu, their neigh- Supreme God, originated morality, social order,
bors, God is called Ngai. Among the Mende, the justice, and fertility. Waqa gave the breath of life
name Ngewo, which means existing from the to humans who had been formed, but could nei-
beginning, also means Almighty. The Asante ther move nor speak. When Waqa’s wife saw the
believe in Nyankopon, who may be female or state of humanity, she pleaded with him to do
male. The Ga people of Ghana use the name something about human immobility and lack of
Nyonmo, who is the god of rain, but is also speech. Waqa then gave humans breath and
Almighty. The Yoruba of Nigeria speak of God as humans began to speak and to move. Yet when
Olorun, owner of the sky. The Ngombe believe in humans die, they must give breath back to Waqa.
a supreme spirit called Akongo, the beginner and The Akan Nyankopon had to deal with
the unending, Almighty and inexplicable. The humans trying to reach God after he had retreated
Baganda use the name Katonda for Almighty into a distant abode. A woman wanting to reach
God. Among the Kikuyu, God is referred to as God had her children stack pounding mortars on
Ngai, the creator. The Kikuyu also use the name each other until they almost reached God. They
Murungu, which means the one who lives in the were one short of reaching God when the woman
four sacred mountains and is the possessor of the thought that the only way to succeed was to have
sky. About 25 other ethnic groups use the name one of the mortars taken from the bottom and put
Mulungu or Murungu for Almighty God. The on the top to reach God. When this was tried, the
Baila people call God Leza. In Tanzania and whole thing crashed to the Earth. Since that time,
Congo, the name Leza is often used for the divin- no humans have been able to reach the distant
ity, the supreme. The Sotho say that the Supreme abode of God.
xxvi Introduction

The Yoruba God name Olorun is derived from house the spirit of God. But this was soon aban-
Orun, which means “heaven,” and Ol, the prefix doned as the philosophical understanding
for owner. The myths of Olorun are less anthro- increased to the point where priests recognized
pomorphic than other divinities. He is considered that the Supreme Deity could not live in a finite
a cosmic force, ruler over all other gods. house. One could not build a house massive
Controller of all life and natural forces, he is the enough to contain the creator. Karnak temple in
Supreme Being to whom man, nature, and lesser Egypt is the world’s largest religious site. But after
gods answer. It is possible that one other god, Karnak and Gebel Barkal, Africa built no reli-
Obatala (Great God) or Eleda (Creator), which is gious structure as large ever again, and no other
also another name for Olorun, existed before him people have built anything as large as these two
in the Yoruba construction of their pantheon. temples devoted to Amen.
However, Olorun created the Earth and gave it to The spiritual African knows that the Supreme
Obatala to finish. Deity cannot be contained. Thus, Lake Bosumtwe
Although seldom referred to in proverb and is a huge, perfect circle lake, but it does not hold
myths, Olorun is known by many names. Among the Supreme Deity. It is sacred, but even the lake
them are Eleda—Creator; Alaye—living; Owner of cannot house the Great Nyankapon. Nzambi
life; Elemi—Owner of breath; Alagbara gbagbo— Mpungu, the Supreme Creator of the Bakongo
all powerful; Olodumare—almighty; Oluwa— people of the Congo, is invisible and omnipotent,
Lord. The term Oluwa is used for other gods as but he cannot be contained. He intervenes in the
well, but none are as depended on as Olorun. His creation of every person, indeed, in the creation of
importance is reflected in daily sayings such as everything. Humans render him no worship
Olorun Yioju ni re, “may God awake us well,” Bi because he has need of none and is inaccessible
florin ba she, “if God Goes it,” and ishe Olorun, anyway. Therefore, Nzambi, the sovereign master,
“God has done it.” Despite his prevalence in the cannot be approached. Yet it is Nzambi who
Yoruba daily life, there is no regular worship of watches every human being and then takes him or
Olorun. He is called on during times of great dis- her out of life into death. Families have small
tress, when all other gods have failed. shrines in many societies, and the father, mother,
The Supreme God stands alone in the African or head of family may simply salute the Supreme
tradition. As the most ancient Africans believed, Deity who created Heaven, the sun, and the Earth,
the aim of humans was to maintain balance, but for strategic living in the community of
order, and harmony to continue to beat back humans, it is the lineage deity and kinship ances-
chaos. One sees this at the beginning of religious tors that are most important.
history in the relationship of the people of Egypt The Mwari Triad of the Shona who live in the
to their divinities. This is possible because the Belingwe region see the deity Mwari as the father,
Supreme God also made possible lesser divinities mother, and son. This deity is related to the leg-
whose job it was to assist humans in the mainte- endary king, Soro-Re-Zhou, for whom a cave is
nance of harmony. A Supreme Deity is the prog- named in the Matopo Hills of Zimbabwe.
enitor of all other deities. For example, Given the numerous titles found just among
Nyankopon, the truly great Nyame, is personified the Shona people of Zimbabwe, it should come as
by the sun in the culture of the Akan, the dynamic no surprise to the reader that the complexity and
center of the state as the sun is of the sky. He is the diversity of the idea of God in African cultures are
creator of all gods, and so many golden objects fundamentally philosophical issues. For example,
are symbolic of his radiance. The Queen Mother one can see Mwari as the Supreme Being above all
is the daughter of the moon, but only the Supreme men and nature, Creator of good and evil, the
Deity is said to be a progenitor of gods. Source of Life, who represents fertility and at the
A Vodun priest in Benin was once asked, same time know, as most Africans know, that
“Where is the house of God?” to which he replied, Mwari is not a daily guide for humanity.
“Here, all around us. God cannot live in a mere Other African people have shown that their
house made by men.” It was on the continent of names for the deity reflect their philosophy and
Africa where humans first built temples hoping to way of life as well. For instance, the Xhosa of
 Introduction xxvii

South Africa have given the Supreme Being many All natural phenomena might be considered can-
praise names, but, in effect, the Supreme Deity didates for divinity. The so-called nature divinities
is a Creator God. The idea of praise names is appear in many varieties. These are mountains,
found throughout the Nguni-speaking culture and rivers, and trees that represent certain powerful
the Xhosa to the deity as uMdali, uMenzi, aspects of the supreme. For example, among the
uHlanga, iNkosi yezuluk, uMvelingquangi, and Asante of Ghana, the Tano River and Lake
uNkulunkulu, which are also used by the Zulu Bosumtwe are seen as divinities. Any natural phe-
and other people, but the terms used for Supreme nomenon that has been consecrated by certain
Being, Qamata and Thixo, are considered purely human achievements, actions, and experiences can
Xhosa terms. become identified with the divine. Thus, the
The Nuer of Sudan call the Supreme Deity by baobab trees that have protected travelers during
the name of Kwoth, or Spirit. Kwoth is the particular dreadful droughts have become divini-
omnipresent creator of the universe. He is identi- ties. There are Ohum and Iroko trees, from which
fied with the sky, which makes all that is above special signs have appeared to assist humans mov-
sacred. He is also called Kwot nhial, Spirit of the ing from one place to another. These, too, have
sky. The Nuer say he is like the wind, you cannot become divinities. All living things have the poten-
see him, yet he is everywhere. He reveals himself tial of becoming consecrated as sacred. The gulf
through natural wonders, such as rain, thunder, that exists between the secular and the sacred in the
and lightning. He is addressed in prayers as West does not appear in traditional African reli-
Kwoth ghaua, “Spirit of the universe.” He created gion. When the waters of the Tano River do not
ritual and custom, providing some men with belief seem to flow as they should, the drummer recites an
and others with nothing. Sustainer of life, he is ancient saying: Pure, pure Tano/If you have gone
called yan, a living being, whose yiegh is the elsewhere, come/And we shall seek a path for you.
breath that gives man life. Nuer believe Kwoth is Nature gods are more common in West Africa
their friend, whom they call on in times of sick- than in Southern Africa. The western part of the
ness. He is their protector, often called guandong, continent is immensely rich in rain forests and
ancestor, or grandfather. Kwoth can also be angry rivers. It might be that the people of that region
and is deemed distant because of his far-away have had to deal with more intense natural phe-
presence in the sky. He participates in man’s nomena and therefore are more apt to recognize
affairs, but does so through the aid of other spir- the power of the natural elements. There is, how-
its that haunt the gap between Heaven and Earth. ever, among the Zulu of southern Africa, a female
Kwoth has the power to bring death and take and deity known as Inkosazana who helps corn to
protect souls. When the Nuer die, they believe it is grow. Inkosazana, although not strictly a natural
natural, but ultimately attribute it to Kwoth. deity, does perform like a natural deity because
The Nupe people of Nigeria believe the uni- she assists in the harvest, and the community can
verse consists solely of God, the world, the sky, appeal to her for this assistance. However,
and the Earth. Natural phenomenon is said to be Inkosazana is not like a river or mountain that has
nya Soko, or “of God.” God is referred to as soko been deified.
or Tsoci (Lord) and is lokpa, “far away.” Soko is Certain elegant trees such as the Iroko may
omnipresent and appealed to in the language of have pots and leaf fences around them. Baobabs,
their daily lives. Although always near, they do the sacred trees of Senegal, remain a meeting place
not know exactly where Soko is or what he looks of the spirits, sometimes ritual sites of the priests
like. Soko is omnipotent, omniscient, the only and priestesses, despite the presence of Islam in
God, creator of all things, good and evil. They the country. The forests are particularly full of
believe all life comes from him and, when not spirits and divinities. But also in the deep bush are
incarnate, exists in the sky with him. Soko brings dangerous ghosts of men who have been lost,
about that which is desired to come. Conception, drowned, or burnt alive and have not received
birth, and ritual ceremony are his gifts. To seek proper burial. Nonhuman spirits exist as well as
further understanding of him is moot because totsies, dryads, juogi, and demons that prey on
there is no further knowledge to be learned. unsuspecting and unprotected people.
xxviii Introduction

Snake, tree, and river often figure together in asked him to explain his secret power over the
some religious rites. Some ethnic groups in Benin eldest son. He noticed that the eldest son was
believe that snakes are ancestors incarnate. Snake alive. Earth wanted to know how Sno-Nysoa had
temples are found along the coast of Africa. got the eldest son to return. But Sno-Nysoa said to
Pythons are kept tame in temples, and people will him, “Don’t worry about my sons, when any one
bow to them, put dust on their heads, and salute of them does not awake, just bury him.” In time,
them as fathers. The vilest crime is to kill a sacred three of his sons slept the long sleep. One by one,
python in some places. they were found in the company of Sno-Nysoa.
Africans accept that the most common experi- When Earth saw them, they were happy and quite
ences of human beings are with nature. Because pleased. When it was the turn of the fourth son,
nature interacts with humans on a daily basis, it is Earth decided that he would do everything he
important to understand how nature figures in could to keep the fourth son, but in time, he also
daily lives. All nature deities are useful in the slept the long sleep. Earth then decided to go to
recruitment of true believers. Sno-Nysoa again to get his secret. However, on
Deities are not inconsequential. They are able the way to Sno-Nysoa, Earth discovered that the
to bring about healing or destruction. Sometimes ladder had been removed and he could not con-
their potency is expressed in charms, medicines, tinue. To this day, no living person can see the
and rites of secret societies. Any force that appears abode of Sno-Nysoa. Now Sno-Nysoa could take
to have magical qualities that are inexplicable people from the world, and the way to them
must be considered in the realm of the divine. remains barred because of the actions of Earth
These powers are often like energy, abstract, and long ago.
invisible; results are visible. They tend to be Altars are made for the lesser deities. How is an
amoral and forceful, simply manifesting them- altar consecrated? On the advice of a diviner, a
selves in the Earthly lives of humans. priest may consecrate himself to the service of the
Indeed, the Earth is a living entity. The Ibo religion. A woman may find something sacred in
speak of Mother Earth, and the Akan say the her community and build an altar to a deity with
Earth is Asase Yaa, Mother Earth. Among the Kru the soil surrounding the place where the object
of Liberia, the Earth figures in all actions and can was discovered. Elaborate ceremonies are created
keep humans from seeing those who are taken out for the training of priests and priestesses. In some
of the world, those who disappear or who are instances, it may take a person 20 years or more
removed from the land of the living. to learn all the rituals, ceremonies, and sacred
According to the Kru, Sno-Nysoa, the Supreme texts necessary to become a priest.
God, gave each of his four sons a necklace of leop- What does the popular expression mean that
ard teeth. He sent them to visit Earth, but they did Africans are an incurably religious people? Is this
not return. When he inquired of Earth, he was told a backdoor way of saying that Africans are super-
that they had been encouraged to return, but stitious? What is the meaning of superstition any-
would not. Each time Earth told them to return, way? Are the things that we call superstitions
they told Earth that their new home was so beau- realities for others and vice versa? Africans are not
tiful they had no desire to return. One day, Sno- more religious than any other people; Africans
Nysoa ran into his sons and told them, “You have have had a longer association with the super-
made me sad because I am alone and would like natural because of the origin of humanity on the
for you to return.” They said, “But the new land is continent of Africa. This is not something special;
so interesting we cannot think of returning. There it is simply a historical fact.
is so much food and Earth is very generous.” Understanding the origins of African religion
Sno-Nysoa grew upset with Earth and said to assists the reader in understanding the connectiv-
Earth, “I am going to get my sons back this very ity of the philosophical stream underlying all of
night. You will not rob me of my sons!” When the the ideas in this Encyclopedia. This allows the
sons went to sleep, they slept soundly, and three of reader to have some appreciation for the dissemi-
them woke up the next morning, but the eldest did nation of religious ideas throughout the continent.
not awake. Earth went to see Sno-Nysoa and Our aim in the encyclopedia is to have the reader
 Introduction xxix

ask, “What are the similarities, for instance, only a classical African form because we also see it
between the Nile Valley cultures and other African in other regions of the continent.
cultures?” Clearly, what is revealed in this work, The Yoruba deity Shango has river goddesses as
written by scores of authors, is the idea that Africa wives. In many ways, this is like the Asante deity,
is one, united, and spiritually related continen- River Tano, who has wives as well as siblings. We
tally. Although it remains true that Islam and know also that pots of sacred water sit in the temples
Christianity have made significant inroads in for beautiful Oshun. The sea deity, among the Yoruba,
Africa, the basic traditional values of the people is Olokun, normally found in the bronzes of Ifè.
are expressed in some of the most private occa- Lake Bosumtwe in Ghana is a sacred lake;
sions. Nevertheless, the elements of morality, when the decaying matter explodes, the people
ethical principles, and ancestor respect are seen believe the goddess is active. There are many
throughout the continent as Africans rely on the sacred lakes in Africa; all are in some ways related
ancient traditions of the ancestors. to the Sacred Lake at the Temple of Karnak. In
the country of Cameroon, for instance, Lake
Bamblime is considered sacred.
Connective and Related Links
Any encyclopedia is incomplete almost as soon
Eva Meyerowitz (1951) attempted to describe as it is published because ideas, concepts, and terms
how the religious ideas of ancient Egypt were continue to enrich the particular discourse. This
closely related to the Akan ideas in Ghana. Her will be the case with our encyclopedia as well.
work was groundbreaking, but found few follow- However, because our intentions are to set the high-
ers at that time because of the more conventional est standards of scholarship and capture the most
Eurocentric interpretations of African culture. She important aspects of traditional African religion,
argued that the similarities and correspondences we seek to establish a baseline for future examina-
between the ancient Egyptians and Akan people tions of African religion. Thus, our encyclopedia is
were so great that the relationship was clear. This the best representation to date of the comprehen-
line of reasoning should not have created a crisis sive nature of the African response to the sacred. As
in thinking in the West, but the rush to disbelief, you read, you understand our initial reaction to the
as Basil Davidson calls it, introduced a disconnect phenomenon of religion in Africa was to view it as
in the thinking of European and American schol- one single phenomenon with numerous manifesta-
ars about the connectivity and contiguity of ideas tions depending on the ethnic community. When
and cultures in Africa. They wanted an Africa that our authors began to write and we reviewed the
was separate, disparate, and isolated. Yet the over- entries for facts, quality, and contribution, we were
whelming evidence of linguistics, anthropology, amazed to discover that the authors appeared to
and cultural studies has shown that Africans have confirm what we had intimated in our original
been migrating from one place to another for proposal to Sage Publications.
thousands of years. There is no secret to the inter- The entries in this Encyclopedia of African
action between cultures. Religion confirm the idea that religion is neither
What the authors of the Encyclopedia of merely metaphysics nor simply morality. There is
African Religion have demonstrated is that the rep- every reason to believe that the universe of
resentations of deities in West Africa often share African religious expression includes all that
similarities with more ancient classical concepts. humans, in certain areas, know about how the
This was not intentional; it only occurred because world works, about what is necessary for humans
as different scholars wrote entries for the encyclo- to survive in community built in the midst of
pedia the editors noticed the similarities from one an environment that must constantly be coaxed
culture to another. Consider the fact that in Benin, to allow human settlement, and about what is
Mawu-Lisa of the Fon appear in representations as known of the prospects of humans overcoming
a joint deity with Lisa holding the Sun disk in his the conditions of humanity. Answering these
mouth and Mawu carrying the crescent moon. In questions and confronting these issues have occu-
various places in the Nile Valley, one could see pied the minds of African sages longer than any
representations of this symbolism, but it is not others.
xxx Introduction

Our objective has been to bring to the public a that this encyclopedia can be used as a back-
major reference work that would grow as scholars ground text for cultural knowledge. Only then
and laypeople alike use it to advance their own will we have established the key ideas and foun-
research and understand the core beliefs and ritu- dational thinking necessary for moving the dis-
als of African culture. Naturally, we have had course on African religion forward.
to rely on many sources, references, and scholars We would like to acknowledge the tremendous
who have demonstrated commitment to an assistance of Rolf Janke, acquisition editor, who
authentic African voice. This is not a compara- expressed faith in our ability to bring this project
tivist work because this is the first work of this to fruition from the beginning. In addition to
type; however, comparison is now possible Rolf, we appreciate the work of Yvette Pollastrini,
because of the existence of this Encyclopedia. It is developmental editor, and Leticia Gutierrez, sys-
to be expected that with the demonstration of the tems coordinator, who made possible the smooth
complexity, texture, and rhythms of the African operation of the Sage SRT system and gave us
religious tradition, future scholars will have a encouragement and direction precisely when we
baseline from which to advance further research. needed it. Our work has been facilitated by
In editing the encyclopedia, we constantly Jacqueline Tasch, who has assisted with expert
reminded ourselves and were reminded by the editing, and the guidance of Diana Axelsen. There
authors of these entries that human conscious- is no way we could have completed this work
ness is not simply a matter of rational thought, without their constant attention to detail.
but something deeply informed by myth and the When we embarked on this project, we were
mysteries of human life. Furthermore, language fortunate to have the blessings of some of the
has always been the lever of myth, and our expe- major scholars in the world of culture and reli-
riences with African languages and African gion. We thank Chinua Achebe, Africa’s greatest
myths convince us that there are thousands of novelist; Kwame Gyekye, one of Africa’s leading
ways of expressing the creation or establishing a philosophers; Maulana Karenga, the foremost
proper ritual to recognize an ancestor. One African writer on ancient Egyptian religion;
escapes all mutilation of consciousness by Marta Moreno Vega, scholar of African religion
appealing to these incredibly rich and varied in the Americas; Isidore Okpewho, the eminent
entries on traditional African religion for a African scholar of myths and epics; and Kofi
deeper, more profound understanding of African Asare Opoku, author of many books and articles
culture in general. on African religion and one of the leaders in the
Entry writers brought their own styles to the field of African proverbs, for lending their names
project. We have dealt with issues of language, for and reputations to this Encyclopedia. They gave
example, the idea of holocaust of African their suggestions, waited for our work patiently,
Enslavement, where the word holocaust has been and have become some of our best supporters.
seen as a word that refers only to the brutal expe- Each of them accepted our request to serve as
rience of the Jews in World War II. In addition, we board members of the project without hesitation.
have had to deal with the issue of negative and Finally, we dedicate this encyclopedia to our
pejorative terminologies such as sorcerer, witch, spouses, Ana and Garvey, and our children,
primitive, cult, and fetish. Given the impractical- Muswele, Tamu, Kiyaumuya, M. K., Jr., and Eka.
ity of changing the entire reading public’s image
overnight, we have settled for the huge possibility Molefi Kete Asante and Ama Mazama
 A
clouds, and when it moves its wings up and down
ABALUYIA lightning flashes; when it crows, thunder is heard
on the earth. The creation of the rooster is fol-
The name Abaluyia refers to a large ethnic and lin- lowed by the creation of the stars, rain, rainbows,
guistic group that lives in Kenya and parts of regular air, and very cold air. It took Wele Xakaba
Uganda. When speaking of one person, the Abaluyia just 2 whole days to make these creations. But
use the word Omuluyia, and when referring to their there was a problem: “For whom would the sun
language, they use the word Luluyia. Seventeen shine?” This led to the creation of human beings.
subnations exist among the Abaluyia. They are The first man was called by the name of
Abakhayo, Bukusu, Vugusu, Banyala, Abasonga, Mwambu. However, because Wele Xakaba had
Abanyore, Abatsotso, Idakho, Isukha, Abakabras, created this man so that he had the ability to talk
Kisa, Logoli, Marachi, Marama, Samia, Tachhoni, and see, there needed to be someone with whom
and Wanga. he could talk. Therefore, the first woman, Sela, was
Although the Uganda speakers of Luluyia do created to be Mwambu’s mate. Then Wele Xakaba
not use the term Abaluyia, a term the elders in created plants, oceans, lakes, rivers, plants, and ani-
Kenya accepted and adopted from 1930 to 1960, mals. Cattle were also created by Wele Xakaba.
the Ugandan Luluyia speakers recognize the Soon Mwambu and Sela had two children, a
Kenyan speakers as related to them. They share a son, Lilambo, and a daughter, Nasio. In 6 days,
similar culture with many of the same myths, rit- Wele Xakaba had completed the work of creation.
uals, and ceremonies. Most of the Luluyia speak- On the seventh day, God rested because it was a
ers share in the story told by the Vugusu about the bad day, probably the source for the negative rela-
creation of the world. tionship and taboos the Abaluyia have with the
According to these speakers of the language, number 7.
the world was created when the almighty Wele
Xakaba, the Supreme Being, made his own Molefi Kete Asante
dwelling in heaven; to prevent it from falling out
of the sky, he supported it with many pillars just See also Luo
as the builders of a house support the roof with
many pillars. When Wele Xakaba had completed
the creation of heaven, he made the moon, sun, Further Readings
and clouds and laced the heavens with them. Then Parrinder, G. (1967). African Mythology. London: Paul
Wele Xakaba created a large rooster and placed Hamlyn.
the rooster in heaven. This huge red rooster is the Scheub, H. (2000). A Dictionary of African Mythology.
source of lightning and thunder. It lives among the New York: Oxford University Press.

1
2 Abasi

Wagner, G. (1965). The Abaluyia of Kavirondo (Kenya). worked on the land creating many items for liv-
In Daryll Forde (Ed.), African Worlds (pp. 37–38). ing. Soon they caused strife, heartbreak, tensions,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1965. jealousy, hatred, war, and death among their own
children. Abasi and Atai were so disgusted with
the happenings on Earth and with the affairs of
their own children and their grandchildren that
ABASI the two deities soon withdrew to the sky, leaving
humans to deal with their own affairs.
Abasi refers to the Supreme Creator God in the This is why Abasi is not known to be involved
language of the Efik people of Nigeria and in the ordinary lives of the people. He created the
Cameroon. The Efik people are a branch of the universe and all things that are in it and then, after
Ibibio, who are often called Calabar. The Efik have failing to control his own human creation, retired
devised an elaborate narrative about the existence to the far reaches of the sky. Therefore, for ordi-
and function of the Almighty God, Abasi. nary issues of taboos and rituals, the Efik people
Although there are variations to the account as must rely on strong ancestral spirits, sometimes in
given by the elders and priests of the people, the societies of secrets, to assist them with the mani-
general contours of the account are the same. fold problems and concerns of daily living. They
According to the belief of the Efiks, the wife of have no possibility of coaxing Abasi to return to
Abasi, whose name was Atai, convinced him to their society to give advice or wisdom; this is now
allow their adult children, one man and one the affair of lesser spirits.
woman, to settle on the Earth, but to prohibit
them from reproducing or working the land. The Molefi Kete Asante
idea, according to Efik understanding, was that
See also Nkulunkulu; Nyame; Olorun
the children should depend on their father and
mother for shelter, food, and protection. However,
the children resented these prohibitions and soon Further Readings
returned to heaven when Abasi called them to eat
food when they became hungry. Quarcoopome, T. N. (1987). West African Traditional
While they were in the sky with Abasi and Religion. Ibadan: African Universities Press.
Atai, the children explored many things; they Scheub, H. (2000). A Dictionary of African Mythology.
learned to create, sing, make musical instruments, New York: Oxford University Press.
and make food. This was not pleasing to Abasi, Smith, E. W. (Ed.). (1950). African Ideas of God: A
Symposium. London: Edinburgh House.
and wanting to protect him, Atai did everything
to prevent the children from exceeding Abasi in
wisdom, power, and strength. Atai believed that if
the children exceeded their father in knowledge
and wisdom, there would be great chaos in the ABELA
universe. The children, of course, like other
children, wanted to see how far they could go Abela is a simple form of greeting strangers and
without being chastised or prevented from their familiar people among the Ngemba people of
activities. Atai was so disturbed by this that she Cameroon. It is usually interpreted as “How is it?”
set her mind on preventing a rebellion at all costs. The response is “abongne,” meaning “It is good.”
She loved the children but watched them care- This is a common expression among the Ngemba,
fully, yet the children eventually broke the rules an ethnic group from the Northwest province,
that had been established by Abasi. They could Cameroon. The Ngemba live in several important
not live in peace with Abasi and Atai and there- towns in Cameroon and comprise nearly 2 million
fore were forced to leave the sky again. inhabitants in Tuba, Mankon, Nkwen, and other
The son and daughter returned to Earth with towns in Western Bamenda province.
their limited knowledge and violated most of Among the Ngemba speakers are various
Abasi’s rules. They had many children and family groups who use “abela” as a greeting. They
 Abosom 3

are the Pinyin, Mankon, Awing, Bambulewie, must interrogate the entire universe of the person
Bafut, Bafreng, Mandankwe, Mbili, Mbambili, that you are greeting, and therefore it is not an
Mbui, Bamunkum, and Kpati. To these people, easy, quick, raising of the hand and moving
the word “abela” has an ancient meaning attrib- onward. It must be a sincere question, and the
uted to the interactions with strangers and other questioner usually receives a full and complete
people. It signals recognition of the person inas- answer. This is the nature of reciprocity in the
much as to ignore another human being is consid- Ngemba culture.
ered the breaking of a taboo. Thus, it is a vile act
of neglect and disrespect. Emmanuel Kombem Ngwainmbi
Abela being a simple form of greeting has
no other ritualistic origin; however, as a way of
initiating conversation or generating familiarity Further Readings
and friendliness, it fosters social coercion among Ayotte, M., & Lamberty, M. (2003). Rapid Appraisal
the Ngemba and outsiders who use it. The term Sociolinguistic Survey Among the NGEMBA Cluster
“abela” is so popular that even people from of Languages: Mankon, Bambili, Nkwen, Pinyin, and
other ethnic groups now use the term for greet- Awing: Bamenda, Santa and Tubah subdivisions
ing whenever they meet an Ngemba person. This Mezam Division North West Province (SIL Electronic
is a sign of hospitality and politeness, and it is Survey Reports 2003–002). http://www.sil.org/silesr/
part of the grace of demonstrating connection, abstract.asp?ref=2003-002.
togetherness, and respect. Sadembouo, E., & Hasselbring, S. (1991). A
It is believed that the Ngemba migrated from Sociolinguistic Survey of the Ngemba Languages.
a place called “Feulu” in Tibati near Banyo in Yaounde, Cameroon: Centre for Anthropological
the Adamawa Province of the Republic of Research and Study, Societe Internationale de
Cameroon because of the frequent interethnic Linguisticque.
Soh Bejeng, P. (1978). The History and Social
wars between the Ngemba and the Fulani, a
Institutions in the Ngemba Chiefdoms of Mbatu,
large and powerful trading and martial people.
Akum, Nsongwa, Chomba, and Ndzong (Travail et
The Ngemba left Feulu under the leadership of
documents de 1’ISH, No. 9). Yaounde, Cameroon.
Aghajoo, a wealthy man with numerous victories
in war, and made a brief, but significant, stop on
the fertile and scenic plains of Ndop. Following
tremendous competition for territory and war-
ring feuds with other ethnic migrants, the ABOSOM
Ngemba group left Ndop and continued their
trek, settling by the great Mezam River where In the Akan tradition, abosom (deities/divinities/
they organized their families. lesser gods; singular: obosom) are the children
Africans generally use greetings such as “abela” and messengers of Nyame (Creator). Similar in
to ascertain the status of a person’s family, the function to Yoruba orisha and Vodun loa, the
economic well-being of a community, and the abosom are spiritual forces evincing and operat-
relationship with the ancestors and the spiritual ing throughout the Akan universe, assisting
world. Thus, the greeting “abela,” like similar Nyame in the task of managing Creation,
expressions in other languages, speaks to the equi- namely humanity. They are found throughout
librium between communities. To ask someone Ghana and are a major part of Akan cosmology.
“How is it?” is to inquire about something more Abosom may be male or female or have the abil-
than the superficial presence of the individual, but ity to embody both. Although the abosom often
to seek a deeper response about the condition and embody various manifestations of nature (i.e.,
life of the community. wind, bodies of water, trees, mountains, hills,
A typical greeting only begins with the expres- animals, etc.), these objects are used only as
sion “abela” and continues with questions about temporary dwelling places and should not be
individual members of the family, relatives, and confused with the abosom themselves. The
even animals. To really know “how it is,” one abosom are essentially spirit.
4 Abosom

Descriptive Overview bosomfo (people of the abosom). After being

“called” (“mounted”/“possessed”) by a particular
Created by Nyame to fulfill specific functions, the obosom, akomfo undergo an elaborately intense
abosom derive their power from Nyame and serve initiation, usually no less than 3 years in duration,
as the mediators between Nyame and human in which they essentially “marry” the obosom by
kind. Because the Akan believe that Nyame is too dedicating his or her entire life to the service of the
great to be reached directly, the abosom, who rep- obosom and learn the laws, taboos, songs, dances,
resent certain aspects of the power of Nyame, and so on of the obosom.
serve as intermediaries and immediate objects of Thus, akomfo are highly specialized spiritual-
reverence. Although their power is a function of ists capable of communicating with and intermit-
that of Nyame, they have the full power to act in tently embodying abosom for the purpose of
the realm of their specific area of specialization. transmitting and sometimes translating Nyame’s
Each obosom performs different functions and messages. To provide a space in and means
has the ability to reward, punish, protect, and through which humans can communicate with
guide human kind in all aspects of life. Nyame via an obosom, akomfo build bosomfie
Because they are innumerable, the abosom fall (literally “house of obosom”; shrine house) in or
into various categories. First, there are those of a near the locality the obosom is said to inhabit.
tutelary nature who are recognized at the national Akomfo are held with the responsibility of presid-
and/or community level and whose main function ing over the bosomfie, which function as spiritual
it is to protect the community from harm. They are healing centers and houses of divination. It is here
known as tete abosom. Second, there are family that akomfo perform rituals and other tasks
abosom, sometimes known as egyabosom (father’s required of the abosom and that members of the
deity), that are inherited patrilineally and govern society visit to facilitate their connection to both
and protect particular families. The primary func- the abosom and Nyame.
tion of the egyabosom is to assist their attendants
in the actualization of their nkrabea (destiny;
Some Key Abosom
Divine function). There are also abosom associated
with each of the various Akan clans (Abusua) who The role of the abosom in the Akan tradition is of
are connected with particular areas or localities. great importance. As such, there are multitudes of
The Akan connect the tete abosom, egyabosom, abosom found throughout Ghana, some well
and Abusua abosom with the origins of Creation known, some less well known. What follows is a
and have thus recognized and revered them from brief listing and description of some of the more
time immemorial. However, the Akan also believe celebrated abosom.
that in the same way that Nyame continues to cre- Akonnedi/Nana Akonnedi/Akonnedi Abena is
ate the universe, he continues to create abosom. a female obosom whose bosomfie is located in the
These contemporary abosom can be thought of as Larteh Kubease region of Ghana. She is regarded
a type of medicine in that they are “owned” by as the mother of all abosom, the head of the pan-
highly specialized spiritualists who use them in the theon, and is said to mete out justice and give the
manipulation of cosmic energy. The continued rev- final decision in difficult disputes.
erence of these abosom largely depends on their Nana Asuo Gyebi is a wandering ancient river
ability to satisfy their intended purpose. obosom originally from the northern region of
As intermediaries, the abosom are fundamental Ghana who resides in various places throughout
to humanity’s ability to maintain a connection to the country, although he has made the Larteh
and relationship with Nyame. Nyame communi- Kubease region a special home. He also traveled
cates with humankind through the abosom who as far as the United Sates to help the lost children
carry messages on Nyame’s behalf. These mes- of Africa reclaim their spiritual past. He is credi-
sages, as well as the specific powers and energies ted with bringing the Akan tradition to the United
of a particular abosom, are invoked through ritu- States because his priests were among the first to
als and ceremonies performed by akomfo (tradi- be initiated here. He is a male obosom who is a
tional priests; singular: okomfo), also known as protector and a great healer.
 Abuk 5

Nana Esi Ketewaa is a deified female ancestor woman was small, much smaller than the Creator
originally from the Akuapem region of Ghana. It thought good. Therefore, Abuk was placed in a
is said that she became pregnant in her old age container full of water. She was left there for
and died during childbirth. As an obosom, she a time, and then when she had swelled up like a
functions as a protector of children and fertility. sponge to the size of a regular human being, the
Women often seek her protection during preg- Creator was pleased.
nancy and delivery and after childbirth. However, Abuk and Garang were given only
Nana Adade Kofi is a male warrior obosom of one grain a day for food, and they were always
strength and perseverance and is from the Guan hungry. Soon Abuk used her intelligence and clev-
area of Ghana. He is said to be the youngest of erness to make the one grain a day into a paste to
Nana Akonnedi’s children. He is the obosom asso- make it last longer. She also decided that she
ciated with iron and metals, and his sword is often would take one grain on alternate days and save it
used to swear oaths of allegiance. so that she could plant grain. She did this, and her
Tegare is the general name for a pantheon of work became the source of all grain.
abosom from the Northern region of Ghana. Although this is a historical myth with real
Popular throughout Ghana, Tegare lives in the power in the explanation of the origin of Dinka
forest and is a hunter who seeks truth and exposes society, the idea is also current in the lives of the
liars, thieves, and evildoers. people. In fact, the Dinka represent Abuk by a
Mmoetia is a system of abosom who are most snake. Her favorite animal is a small snake, and
often recognized as “dwarfs” whose feet turn her representation by a snake speaks to the con-
backward. They live throughout Ghana in the cept of coolness and intelligence that is associated
forests and are highly skilled in the use of herbs. with women in many African cultures. Abuk is
Considered the great spiritual gatekeepers of the important in the Dinka culture, so much so that
Akan tradition, they specialize in working with she has the responsibility to look after all women
nature spirits for the purposes of healing. and children, fertility, the growth of trees, plants,
and the productivity of the harvest. In addition,
Yaba Amgborale Blay the supply of water is the responsibility of Abuk;
hence, women are known as the keepers of the
See also Akan; Nyame; Orisha
water. They go to the rivers for water and are
responsible for making certain that the family has
Further Readings a good supply of water. Garang is placed in charge
of everything else.
Opoku, K. A. (1978). West African Traditional Religion. Of course, with so many responsibilities, Abuk
Accra: FEP International Private Limited. was certain to run afoul of something in carrying
Opokuwaa, N. A. K. (2005). The Quest for Spiritual out her responsibilities. She decided that she
Transformation: Introduction to Traditional Akan wanted to plant more crops in order to have more
Religion, Rituals and Practices. New York: iUniverse.
food to eat. Thus, she and Garang planted more
grain and tried to be careful so that they would
not harm the earth or create problems with the
Creator who lived in the heavens. When Abuk
ABUK took a long-handled hoe that reached to the heav-
ens and began digging in the Earth, the handle of
Abuk is the name of the first woman in the world the hoe accidentally struck the Creator.
according to the Dinka people of Southern Sudan. At that time, the Creator withdrew from the
The Dinka believe that the Creator made Abuk Earth because of the offense and sent a small blue-
and Garang, the first man, out of the rich clay of colored bird called atoc to cut the rope that
Sudan. Once Abuk and Garang were created, they humans had used to climb up to the sky. The
were placed in a huge pot; when the Creator Creator then left the ordinary lives of humans
opened the pot, the man and woman were fully because the world had been spoiled by the actions
formed as good-looking beings, except that the of women and men. Everything has changed.
6 Adae

There is now illness, death, and trouble on the period of 42 days, the Adae is celebrated on two
Earth as a direct result of the separation of the occasions in each cycle—Akwasidae (“sacred
Creator from the people of the Earth. Sunday”; Adae falling on Sunday) and Awukudae
Nevertheless, the Dinka honor Abuk as the first (“sacred Wednesday”; Adae falling on
woman and see in her the creation and origin of Wednesday). Distinct from the Adae Kese,
all their traditions. As the first woman and the Akwasidae and Awukudae festivals are more
first mother, she is celebrated in the festivals and localized, celebrated by every ohene in his com-
rituals of the Dinka. munity among his people.
Akwasidae, usually celebrated as a public rit-
Molefi Kete Asante ual, is the grander of the two festivals. However,
the general public does not participate in the most
See also Auset
important aspect of the festival, which takes place
in the Nkonuafieso. On the Akwasidae morn,
each ohene, accompanied by his elders and atten-
Further Readings
dants, lowers his cloth to bare his shoulders and
Asante, M. K. (2007). The History of Africa: The Quest removes his sandals as a sign of humility and
for Eternal Harmony. London: Routledge. respect before the ancestors. Entering the
Beswick, S. (2004). Sudan’s Blood Memory: The Legacy Nkonuafieso, he greets the ancestors by calling
of War, Ethnicity, and Slavery in Early South Sudan each of their names, one by one, and offering
(Rochester Studies in African History and the them each a drink through libation. The ancestors
Diaspora). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester are then offered a sheep, whose blood is smeared
Press. on the stools, as well as special foods prepared in
their honor. The ohene then sits in state to receive
his people. On these sacred days, personal and
community disputes as well as important political
ADAE matters are often addressed publicly in the pres-
ence of the ohene.
An Akan term meaning “resting place,” Adae is the Equally important to Adae are the preparations
most important festival of the Akan. Connected to for the festivals. The day before Akwasidae,
the meaning of the term, it is a day of rest for the Memeneda Dapaa, is considered a good or
living and the ancestors, and, as such, work, includ- “lucky” day. On this day, all of the preparations
ing funerals, is forbidden. As the paramount ances- needed for Akwasidae are attended to by all those
tral custom, it involves the invocation, propitiation, involved in the celebration. This includes ritual
and veneration of ancestral spirits. These are drumming to announce the events of the coming
special days on which the ahene (traditional rulers; day and the invocation of the spirits of ancestral
singular = ohene) enter the Nkonuafieso (stool drummers, seeking their cooperation and blessings
house), the place where the spirits of enstooled for a successful Akwasidae. Also on this day, ritual
ancestors rest, and pour libation and offer food and drummers call upon the Creator, various abosom
drink on behalf of their people. Every 5 years, the (deities), and enstooled ancestors in such a way as
Asantehene (paramount ruler of the Asante) hosts to recite the local history of the community.
Adae Kese (big Adae), a 2-week period of celebra- It is important to note the relative significance
tion during which all those enstooled within of festivals for the Akan. Rather than arbitrary
the Asante nation unite in Kumasi (the capital of celebrations, festivals are reflective of the culture
Asante) and reaffirm their allegiance to the and traditions of the Akan and serve historical,
Asantehene and the Sika Dwa (Golden Stool), the spiritual, social, economic, political, cultural, and
spiritual seat of the Asante nation. moral functions within the society. Thus, the Adae
It is through the celebration of the Adae that in particular teaches and reinforces not only the
the Akan calendar is conceptualized: One year is history of the Akan, but local histories as well;
represented by nine Adae. Following the Akan cal- expresses continuity between the physical and the
endar, according to which each cycle constitutes a spiritual, the living and the ancestral; reunites
 Adinkra Symbols 7

family and friends and provides a site for the Opoku, K. A. (1978). West African Traditional Religion.
settling of disputes; contributes economically to Accra, Ghana: FEP International Private Ltd.
the locale via attendees’ contributions; offers the Opokuwaa, N. A. K. (2005). The Quest for Spiritual
people an opportunity to assess the efficiency of Transformation: Introduction to Traditional Akan
their ohene; and strengthens each person’s role in Religion, Rituals and Practices. New York: iUniverse.
the community.
On a more individual level, the Adae is also
recognized through ritual by spiritual practition-
ers of the Akan tradition. Each Akwasidae, ADINKRA SYMBOLS
Akomfo (traditional priests; singular: okomfo)
and their attendees hold an Akom. Akom is the Associated most often with a multitude of sym-
general term given to a series of dances performed bols, the term “adinkra” is more accurately used
by the Akomfo. It is an intricate system of com- to denote a symbolic funerary message given to
munication and healing that provides an oppor- transitioning and/or departed souls. The term
tunity for dancing to the specific cadences of “di” means “to make use of” or “to employ,” and
religious drumming during what may be charac- the term “nkra” means “message.” Literally, then,
terized as a spiritual gathering of the ancestors, adinkra means “to make use of a message,” but
the abosom, and the people gathered who sing, when spoken together, the term is understood to
clap, drum, and dance. mean “to leave one another” or “to say good-
The Akom may be thought of as an extraordi- bye.” Moreover, because the term “nkra” has
narily good time, as well as a precise and sophis- “kra” (life force; soul) at its root, adinkra is fur-
ticated formula for raising spiritual consciousness, ther understood as a message that a transitioning
and thus is an appropriate ritual for Akwasidae. and/or departed soul takes with it on its return to
In the spiritual tradition, all are encouraged to Nyame. Thus, adinkra is a type of language.
recognize and celebrate Akwasidae because it pro- Although it is clear that the Akan have used
vides a communal means through which to main- adinkra for many centuries, there has been much
tain contact with the ancestors. Awukudae, which academic debate over the exact origins of the sym-
falls on the fourth Wednesday after Akwasidae, bols. The most commonly accepted legend comes
is primarily celebrated in the Eastern region of from the stampers (those who create/produce
Ghana and is seen as the Adae on which people adinkra). Legend has it that the symbols gained
should work toward good causes (i.e., feed the their name from Nana Kofi Adinkra, the famous
hungry, make monetary donations, help the needy, 19th-century king of Gyaman, located in neigh-
etc.). During this Adae, particular attention is paid boring Cote d’Ivoire. King Adinkra was said
to the shrines of personal and family ancestors. to have challenged the authority of the then
Adae emphasizes and further reinforces the Asantehene Nana Osei Bonsu Panyin by making a
essential Akan principle that the living require the replica of the Sika Dwa (golden stool).
cooperation of the ancestors in their daily exis- The result of this spiritual violation of the
tence. This periodic invocation and veneration of Asante nation was the Asante-Gyamn War in
the ancestors keeps their memory and spirits alive which the Gyamans were defeated. The
in the minds of the people and the heart of the Asantehene was said to have admired the crafts-
community. manship of the replica Sika Dwa, which was
adorned with various symbols, so much so that he
Yaba Amgborale Blay forced the defeated Gyaman craftsmen to dupli-
cate the symbols and also teach Asante craftsmen
See also Abosom; Akan; Ceremonies how to produce them themselves. So begins the
Akan legacy of adinkra symbols.
The Akan believe that the entire world is com-
Further Readings posed of two realms—the physical (living) and
Fosu, K. A. (2001). Festivals in Ghana. Kumasi, Ghana: nonphysical (spirit). In their cosmology, there is no
Author. clear distinction between the physical and spiritual
8 Adinkra Symbols

Close-up shot of two adinkra stamps carved out of calabash gourds, from Ghana. Used mainly when someone dies, the adinkra
symbols are stamped on fabric worn on funeral occasions.
Source: Karen Low Phillips/iStockphoto.

worlds—the two complement each other and often will transform into an unsettled and malevolent
overlap. The physical is directed by the power of the spirit and may come back to harm the family.
spiritual—Nyame, the Abosom (deities/divinities), Thus, great satisfaction is derived from the per-
and the Nsamanfo (ancestors). Each individual formance of the Ayie, and the community looks
transitions through these two realms by way of the down on those who do not properly bury their
Akan life cycle: birth, puberty, marriage, physical kin. Unlike in Western society, where the dead are
death, and rebirth. generally mourned by friends and family, in Akan
Thus, the Akan do not regard physical death as societies, the entire community mourns the loss
the end of life, but as the transition from Earthly of one of its members. Communal performance of
life to spiritual life. It is a transition that each indi- appropriate rites helps to strengthen the bond
vidual must make to reach the spiritual world and between the living and the Nsamanfo. The Ayie is
continue to live as Nsamanfo. Physical death performed in four stages: (a) Adware (preparation
instead renders family relationships eternal, of the corpse), (b) Adeda (lying in state) and Siripe
and the rituals performed by the living Abusua (wake-keeping), (c) Asie (burial), and (d) Ndaase
(family) emphasize the unbroken bonds between (thanksgiving). In contemporary times, the Ayie
those living on Earth, the departed sunsum usually takes place over the course of a weekend.
(spirit), and Nsamanfo. It is the responsibility of To demonstrate the grief caused by the loss of a
those living on Earth to perform the Ayie so loved one, family members must wear black and
that the sunsum can properly transition to the refrain from wearing white or any bright colors,
Asamando (ancestral world); if not, the sunsum jewelry, or any adornment that may be perceived
 Adinkra Symbols 9

as “flashy” until the Ayie has been performed. “Abodee santan yi firi tete; obi nte ase a onim
During the funerary rituals, the wearing of partic- n’ahyase, na obi ntena ase nkosi n’awie, gye
ular and appropriate cloths demonstrates the Nyame.”
attendees’ spiritual and emotional state—that of This Great Panorama of creation dates back to time
mourning. Those who attend the funeral must immemorial, no one lives who saw its beginning
wear colors of mourning, which include dark red, and no one will live to see its end, except Nyame.
brown, black, and maroon. If the person dies at Symbol of the omnipotence, omniscience,
an old age, mourners may wear white; and often omnipresence, and immortality
to connote extreme mourning, chief mourners
(close relatives) may wear bright red.
During the initial stages, it is appropriate for
close relatives to wear solid black cloth, whereas
friends and distant relatives may wear cloth
adorned with hand-painted and hand-embroidered
adinkra symbols. The wearing of adinkra cloth com-
municates farewell messages to the transitioning/ Figure 3 HYE WO NYHE
departed soul and furthermore informs the larger
community in attendance of the message that par-
ticular attendees wish to offer. “Burn; You do not Burn”
Many of adinkra symbols are representative of “Because God does not burn, I will not burn.”
Akan cosmology. They represent symbolic illus- Symbol of permanancy
trations of Akan proverbs that portray the ontol-
ogy, ideology, and spirituality of the people. Many
express particular notions about Nyame and his
or her attributes. Some examples of adinkra sym-
bols that specifically encode Akan cosmology are
shown as follows.

Figure 4 Nsoroma

“Oba Nyankonsoroma te
Nyame so na nte ne ho so.”
A child of Nyame, I do not depend on myself.
My illumination is only a reflection of His.
Symbol of faith and dependency
on a Supreme Being
Figure 1 Asase ye Duru

“Asase ye duru se po.”

The earth is heavier than the sea.
Symbol of providence and the divinity of Mother
Earth

Figure 5 Nyame Biribi Wo Soro

“Nyame biribi wo soro na ma me nsa nka!”

God, there is something in the heavens,
pray let it reach me!
Figure 2 Gye Nyame Symbol of hope and inspiration
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. 1067
daughter of Reuben Ewing, one of the pioneer settlers of Cooper
county. Mrs. Miller is a member of the Cumberland Presbyterian
church, and the doctor is a member of the A. F. and A. M.,
atBuuceton, Lodge No. 456. S. C. MITCHELL, M. D., physician and
surgeon ; also interested in farming and stock raising, Palestine.
Doctor Mitchell, a leading physician, and influential citizen of
Palestine township and that section of the county, is a representative
of one of the oldest and most highly respected families in the
county. His father, W. N. Mitchell, who was a native of Tennessee,
came here as early as 1816, and located at that time, at or near
Cole's Fork, the central place of rendezvous for most of the early
settlers of the county. His wife, Miss Margaret Miller, was originally of
North Carolina. They reared a family of four sons and four
daughters, of whom the doctor was the youngest child. His father
became a prominent farmer of the county, and died here May 6,
1865. The doctor was born November 26, 1839, and grew up on his
father's farm. In youth, by study, in the ordinary country schools,
and at home, during his leisure from farm employment, he acquired
a substantial and practical education. At the age of twenty-three, he
commenced the study of medicine, atBoonville, Missouri, under Dr.
H. C. Gibson, one of the most thorough and scientific physicians of
central Missouri, and in due time became a matriculate in the St.
Louis medical college, from which he was graduated with marked
honor, in 1865. Returning then to Cooper county, he at once entered
actively upon the practice of his profession, which he has since
continued with untiring energy, and with the most gratifying success.
Although more of a physician than a business man, in the sense of
accumulating property, his twenty years, nearly, of hard work in his
profession have not been altogether without substantial returns.
Besides being comfortably situated at Palestine, he has a neat farm
near this place, where he is interested in both grain growing and
stock raising, the latter, however, only in a general way. As a citizen,
he is progressive and public-spirited, and as a neighbor and friend,
he is universally esteemed. Doctor Mitchell was married November
15, 1867, to Miss Ann Eliza, daughter of James and Lucinda Craig,
old and valued residents of the county. The doctor and his estimable
wife have one daughter, Miss Mattie E., a cultured and amiable
young lady. He and his family are members of the Baptist church.
 1068 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. J.
HENDERSON MOORE. In the biographies of such families as that of
which Mr. Moore is a worthy representative, is to be read the true
history of the development and prosperity of Cooper county. His
father, G. W. Moore, was one of its early settlers, and opened up a
large farm here, leaving the county at his death the richer and more
prosperous by his having lived in it, and with a large family to carry
forward the work of developing its resources and improving it. He
was a native of North Carolina, and came here when a young man
and located in Palestine township. He made his farm on land he
entered from the government, and was married to Miss Frances T.
Stephens, originally from Virginia, a lady worthy to have taken part
with him in building up a comfortable fortune. After forty years of
intelligent and successful industry in the county, he died at his
homestead on the 18th of April, 1861, sadly regretted by a wide
circle of friends and acquaintances, and deeply mourned by his
family. He and his good wife reared a family often children: eight
sons and two daughters. Of these J. Henderson, the subject of this
sketch, was the eldest. He was born March 22, 1822, and was
reared in the family homestead. After he grew up, and some years
after he attained his majority, he was married to Miss Mary A.,
daughter of James and Elizabeth (Miller) McCarty. She (Mrs. Moore)
was a granddaughter of Judge James Miller, one of the three first
judges of the county court. They were married on the 24th of
January, 1850. Three children, now living, followed this long and
happy union, viz. : Lorenzo H., J. Warren and Hattie J., wife of O. N.
Dills, all residents of Palestine township. After his marriage Mr.
Moore located on the farm where he now lives, an excellent
homestead of 330 acres, well improved and in good condition. He is
a modern, ideal, progressive farmer, paying more regard to the
quality of the products and stock he raises than to the quantity. Neat
about his farm and enterprising in its management, he is one of the
business-like, successful farmers of the county. Personally, he is
regarded as a valued citizen, and a kind and and accommodating
neighbor. His excellent lady, Mrs. Moore, is an earnest and devoted
member of the Cumberland Presbyterian church. J. WARREN
MOORE, proprietor general store, Palestine. Mr. Moore, a son of J.
Henderson Moore, a prominent farmer of this county whose sketch*
precedes ' f this, was born at the family homestead December 28,
1856 and was m
 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. 1069
reared on the farm. His father being a man of advanced and liberal
ideas with regard to education, as well as other matters, gave his
son good school advantages in youth. J. Warren, after the usual
course in the preparatory schools, entered William Jewell college, of
Liberty, Missouri, where he prosecuted his studies with great zeal
and energy, and in his course at that institution acquired an
excellent Euglish education. After his return from college, in
February, 1880, he established his present store at Palestine. He
carries an excellent stock of goods in the general mercantile line,
and, by his energy, fair dealing and pleasant, popular bearing, has
built up an extensive and profitable trade. He was married March 20,
1882, to Miss Clara Pasmore, originally of Canada, but reared and
educated at Liberty, Missouri— an accomplished and most estimable
lady. Mr. and Mrs. Moore have one child, a bright little daughter,
Pearl. Mrs. Moore is a member of the Baptist church. CHARLES F.
MOORE, farmer, stock raiser, trader, veterinary surgeon and
piscatorist. Few men, if any, in Cooper county, or in this section of
the state, have led more active lives, and, in the pursuits in which
Mr. Moore has been engaged, more successful ones than his has
been. Reared in the country, and to a farm life, to'whieb
circumstances and his own tastes inseparably attached him, in this
situation his great energy and enterprise have found various
employments of profit to himself and of value to the community, in
all of which he has been entirely successful. The common average of
men are content to follow one line of industry— whatever they may
happen to fall into in youth or early manhood. Others of strong
character and of vigorous intellect and energy, strike out into new
fields of existence — anywhere and everywhere that promises
favorable results. To this class the biography of Mr. Moore shows him
to belong. He was born in Cooper county May 6, 1826, near the
place where he now resides, and was a son of George W. and
Frances T. (Stephens) Moore, reference to whom is made in the
sketch of J. Henderson Moore, on a previous page of this work. At
the age of about twenty-two, July 26, 1846, he was married to Miss
Martha A., daughter of Hutchins Euglish, of Moniteau county, where
she was reared and educated. He resided one year in Moniteau after
his marriage, and then removed to his own native county, in which
he has since made his home. For five years he followed farming here
with great assiduity and energy, giving his attention to nothing else.
At the expiration of this time such had been his 69
 1070 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES.
success that he was able to engage also in merchandising, which he
did at Palestine, and, by a nine years' experience in this line, showed
that he had the qualities to win success in this calling as well as in
farming. He then turned his attention to buying and shipping
tobacco, and in 1863 began buying and shipping live stock to the
wholesale markets, which he followed for three years, reaping
annually a rich harvest from this business. In 1866 Mr. Moore
withdrew from all other pursuits and turned his attention exclusively
to his present magnificent farm. This splendid estate contains 225
acres of the finest quality of land, all under fence and handsomely
improved. His buildiugs, including dwelling, barns, sheds, etc., are all
neat, substantial and comfortable. He follows grain growing and
stock raising on a large scale, and also deals largely in wheat and
other grain, which he has followed since 1857. He ships annually
from 50,000 to 100,000 bushels of grain to the general wholesale
markets. On his place he has a fine orchard, consisting of 1,000
grafted peach trees of the best varieties, and about 300 apple trees,
all of fine grades. An intelligent, educated stockman, he has made a
specialty of studying the diseases of domestic animals, and has
become, both by scholarly research and many years' practical
experience, one of the best posted and most thorough veterinary
surgeons in this section of the state. He has a wide reputation and
an extensive practice in this profession. On his estate he has two
large ponds, or more properly small lakes, each of Which covers
about one acre of land, and these are devoted to fish culture, as well
as being used for stock purposes. He has a large variety of fine fish,
in the propagation and cultivation of which he takes an active
interest. Mr. Moore arid his excellent wife have reared a family of six
children: George H., R. L., general railway agent at Boonville;
Cornelia, now the wife of L. B. Windsor; Florence, Gillie and Gertie.
Mr. Moore and family are members of the Baptist church, and he has
been a member of the Masonic lodge at Boonville. JAMES M.
MOORE, farmer and stock trader. Mr. James M. Moore is another
worthy representative of the George W. Moore family mentioned in
the sketches of J. Henderson, Charles F., and R. L. Moore in this
volume. He was born in this county on the old homestead, February
2, 1834. Like his brothers he was reared to the occupation of a
farmer, in which his father was a marked success, and at the age of
about twenty years was married, November 16, 1854, to Miss
Rebecca,
 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. 1071
aughter of J. C. Todd, of Morgan county. They settled on a irm in
Cooper county, and he and his worthy wife went to work to arve out
their fortunes by honest, patient industry. But seven years ad not
circled round before the hand of death was laid upon her, ndshe was
no more. She died January 5, 1861. Of this union one on is now
living, J. T. Moore. Afterwards the father was married 3 Miss Jane, a
daughter of Robert Seaton, formerly of Natchez, Missisippi, but for
many years prior to his daughter's marriage a citizen of !ooper
county. She was born in Natchez but was reared in this ounty. They
were married June 5, 1862. Three children were eared by this
marriage : Aggie, Minnie and Myrtle. Mr. Moore ettled on his present
farm in March, 1867, a comfortable homestead f over 100 acres,
exceptionally well improved. He is a neat farmer nd an intelligent,
business-like manager, and succeeds better with a mall farm than
many do with twice or thrice his number of acres. Ie has been
engaged in stock trading a number of years, and in this usiness
achieves satisfactory success. Mr. and Mrs. Moore are 'orthy and
exemplary members of the Christian church . FREDERICK NUNN,
inner and stock raiser. Mr. Nunn, who is one of the neatest and lost
intelligent farmers of Palestine township, is a native of Bavaria, ud is
a self-educated, self-made man. He was born September 9, 815, and
was a son of Michael and Barbara (Ulrich) Nunn, of the line
kingdom. He was reared in his native country and acquired is
education, sufficient for all practical purposes, by private study of
renings after working hours, and at other times when not at work,
f'ter he had reached his majority. He came to America in 1835 and
ved in Virginia for nineteen years. There he obtained his start in ie
world by digging wells — dug eighty-five in Jefferson county, in ie
vicinity of Harper's Ferry, that averaged 100 feet in depth each, 11
through rock. He also improved two farms in that county. From lere
he came to Cooper county in 1854, where he has since lived and aen
engaged in farming. He has one of the neatest, best kept farms "
over 200 acres in the county. Besides ordinary grain growing he ves
considerable attention to stock raising, in which he is very sucsssful.
Mr. Nunn has been married twice : First, in his native »untry in 1833,
to Miss Catherine Page. She died eleven days after ieir arrival in
Boonville in 1854. Of his family of three children by is union, two are
living, John and George. In the fall of 1855 he was arried to Miss
Catherine, daughter of David Wedneltou,, originally
 1072 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. ) of
Germany. Eight children have followed their marriage : David C,
Barbara, wife of George Watson ; Fannie, deceased ; Maggie,
deceased ; Jennie, William M., Lulu and Lena. Mrs. Nunn is a
member of the Baptist church. H. F. OGLESBY, farmer. Among the
well-to-do farmers of Palestine township who are natives of the
county is Mr. H. F. Oglesby, who was born here May 13, 1836, and
has spent his whole life so far in the countv of his nativity. He was
one of two children of P. G. Oglesby and wife, Millie C, a daughter of
Henry Woolery. His father, who was born in Kentucky in 1804, came
here with his parents from that state when a young man and lived in
this county until his death July 2, 1845. He was married to Miss
Woolery a short time after his arrival here, and besides H. F. they
had a daughter Nancy E., now Mrs. Henry S. Titsworth. H. F., after
he grew up, was married April 14, 1859, to Miss Martha C. Nichols,
who bore him three children : Mary, now the wife of C. W. Cordry,
Charles W. and Pleasant G. But on the 4th of June, 1864, death
invaded his home and took his uoble wife, the devoted mother of his
children. Two'years and a half afterwards Mr. Oglesby was again
married, November 24, 1871, Miss Nancy E., daughter of Joseph and
Nancy Woolery, then becoming his wife. This union is blessed with
two children : Mattie Hamilton and Eobert F. Farming has constituted
Mr. Oglesby's life occupation. Immediately after his first marriage he
settled on the old homestead in Palestine township, where he has
since lived. He has 200 acres in this place, and has it substantially
and comfortably improved. He is a good practical farmer and a well
respected citizen and neighbor. Mr. Oglesby and his wife are both
members of the Missionary Baptist church GEORGE A. ORMROD,
farmer and fine-stock breeder. Mr. Ormrod is a representative of the
younger, well educated class of farmers of Cooper county, who find
as much use for their heads in farming as for their hands. By these
the old course of going to mill with a rock in one end of the sack and
the corn in the other, and all similar crudities, have long since been
discarded. They believe in farming on intelligent business principles.
Hence he is a representative of this class. Mr. Ormrod, instead of
conducting his fine farm of a section of land in a slip-shod sort of
way, sows and plants the best qualities of grain and raises the finest
class of stock, thus making his farming operations undoubtedly
profitable,
 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. 1073
'hereas otherwise they would probably result iu actual loss, at least 1
no profit. He has a flock of 1,000 head of fine Merino sheep, mong
which are a large number of registered representatives of this reed.
His cattle are also of the thoroughbred breeds, and some of hem are
of the very finest grades. Mr. Ormrod is a son of Joseph )rmrod,
deceased, formerly a leading farmer of this county. The ither was a
native of England, and was a thoroughly educated man. le was born
in 1791, and came to America in 1817. After stopping t Bedford,
Pennsylvania, about four years, he came to Boonville, and lere for a
long time was engaged in editing a paper. Here subseuently he
engaged in mercantile pursuits and conducted important earning
interests. From these affairs he turned his attention to farmng, in
which he proved a marked success, and which he followed unil his
death, August 22, 1854. He was twice married : First to Lmanda
Adams, in Boonville, November 7, 1824. She died April 17, 846. By
this union there were twelve children, but three of whom, lowever,
grew to maturity. These also are now dead. His second rife, who still
survives him, was at the time of her marriage to him a ilrs. Eliza A.,
widow of John L. Hickman. She was a daughter of ?hotnas
Hutchison. They were blessed with seven children, five of rtiom are
living, four of these being residents of this county and the ither is in
California. The only son, however, by this last marriage, 3 George A.,
the subject of this sketch. He was born February 2, .848. He was
educated in the common schools and spent three years Q the high
school at Boonville. February 18, 1880, he was married o Miss
Florence Buchanan, born in California, but reared in this ounty. She
is a daughter of Andrew Buchanan. One child was lorntothem, little
Mary, who died in infancy. Mr. Ormrod's mother ives with them on
the family homestead. All these are members f the Baptist church,
and he is an active member of the I. O. G. T. THOMAS J. PARRISH,
iU-mer, also constable of Palestine township. Mr. Parrish comes of n
excellent Old North state family, but is himself a native of this ounty.
His father, David Parrish, was a representative of the wellnowu
Parrish family of North Carolina, where he himself was born nd
reared. But soon after his marriage in that state, in 1840, he reloved
to Missouri and settled in Cooper county, where he became a fell-to-
do farmer and lived until his death. He died in 1872. His 'ife was
formerly a Miss Lively Waller, also of North Carolina. T. ., the subject
of this sketch, was born the second year after the immi 
 1074 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES.
gration of his parents to this county, viz., in 1842. Reared on a farm,
he not unnaturally adopted the life to which he had been brought up
when the time came for him to start out in the world for himself. In
his early years he had attended the common schools of the district
and succeeded in acquiring the practical rudiments of an ordinary
education, so that later in life he has not only proven a good,
intelligentminded farmer^ but is also a capable, clear-headed
business maq. Recognizing his qualifications for the discharge of the
duties of constable of the township, the people by a highly
complimentary majority elected him to that office, which he is now
filling. In July, 1869, he was married to Josephine, daughter of
Ambrose C. George, a former citizen of the Blue Grass state. Five
children have blessed their married life: Mollie Maud, Clarence H.
and Samuel M. The other two, alas ! are dead, one in boyhood, the
other in infancy. After his marriage Mr. Parrish settled on a farm near
Bunceton, where he lived about five years, but in 1874 removed to
his present place, a neat farm, comfortably improved. He and his
wife are both members of the Christian church. ANTHONY J. READ,
deceased. He whose name heads this memoir lived a life that was
useful and just to those around him, and died a death unracked by
regrets for the past, and unclouded by fears of the future. To have
done this is to have fulfilled to the utmost one's mission upon the
earth — to have, accomplished the divine purpose of his creation. In
the affairs of the , world Anthony J. Read was upright and successful
; in the concerns of the future life he was a deeply pious man, an
earnest, faithful Christian. He was born in Nelson county, Kentucky,
December 23, 1823, and was a son of Judge A. F. and Ellen C.
(Ewing) Read, of that county, but later of Cooper county, this state,
where both parents lived until their deaths. Judge Reed removed
from Nelson county first to Todd county, Kentucky, in which he filled
the office of sheriff, and in about two years afterward, in 1826,
immigrated to Cooper county, Missouri. Judge Reed was a man of
liberal ideas with regard to education, and gave his children good
school advantages. Anthony J. was educated at Hanover college,
Indiana, an institution of high standing at that time in the west.
Returning home after his college oourse, he remained on his father's
farm until his marriage, immediately after which he settled on the
farm where he continued to live through life, and where his family
now resides. He was married January 14, 1847, to Miss Evaline,
daughter of Robert Ewing, of Lafayette county. She
 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. 1075 is a
granddaughter of Chatam Ewing, and a niece of Rev. Finis Ewing,
the noted Cumberland Presbyterian divine. Eight children of their
family are now living; Rettie, wife of John Decker; Eva, Ewing, wife
of George E. Titsworth ; Finis C, Sally, Blanche, Anthony J. and Katie.
Their homestead, at Mr. Read's death, contained 800 acres of land,
but since that a portion has been disposed of. Besides farming, Mr.
Read also gave his attention to dealing in stock, principally cattle,
hogs and mules, in which he was extensively engaged. He was for
many years prior to his death an earnest, active member of the
Cumberland Presbyterian church, and contributed liberally of his
means whenever necessary to advance the cause of religion. As a
neighbor he was a friend to all around him, and always strove to
keep peace and good feeling in the neighborhood by exerting
himself to bring together those who had fallen out. He took an active
part in the grange, and was three times elected master of the
grange in his township. He died July 25, 1876, sadly regretted by all
who knew him, and deeply mourned by his family and a wide circle
of friends. Mrs. Read and all her family, except the two youngest
children, are members of the Cumberland Presbyterian church. A. J.
REAVIS, farmer, fruit grower and stock raiser. There are few, if any,
neater, more business-like and successful farmers in Cooper county
than Mr. A. J. Reavis. His plac^ contains 400 acres, all within
excellent fencing, and most of it subdivided into fields of forty acres
each. In other respects, also, his place is exceptionally well
improved. His residence is a spacious, well constructed and
comfortable brick ; his barn is a large, neatly finished and substantial
one ; his fields, meadows and pastures are in good condition ; in
short, everything about him reveals the thorough, intelligent farmer
that he is. He has an apple orchard of forty-two acres, bearing the
best varieties of that class of fruit. Besides this, he has a peace
orchard of some two hundred trees. His annual yields of fruit often
amounts to twenty carloads. He also raises and feeds stock for the
wholesale markets, and grows large quantities of grain for shipment.
The biography of such a farmer is well worth perusing. He is a native
of the county, and was born in Kelly township, October 11, 1838. His
father, W. T. Reavis, came to this county with his parents in 1821,
when a lad ten years of age ; the family, however, removed from
North Carolina (in Rutherford county of which W. T. was born
September 14, 1811) to Missouri in about 1818, but stopped in St.
Louis and Franklin conn 
 1076 HISTOK? OP HOWARD AND COOLER COUNTIES. ties
some three years. la Cooper county they settled in Kelly township,
near Vermont station. W. T., after he grew up, was married to Miss
Mary A. McCulloch, originally of Culpepper county, Virginia, who
came here with her parents when she was about thirteen years of
age. Having entered a body of 480 acres of land, W. T. Reavis
improved a large farm, and there both parents lived until their
deaths; she died January 13, 1877 ; he, November 18, of the same
year. In youth A. J., their son and the subject of this sketch, received
a good common school education. He was married March 28, 1865,
to Miss Lotta A., daughter of Abner Bailey, of Howard county. Prior to
this, he had been engaged in the mercantile business in this county,
and afterwards in St. Louis. After his marriage he engaged in
business at Tipton, and sold goods there about a year. During all this
time he was a member of the firm of B. F. Reavis & Co., the former
being his brother. In 1866 Mr. Reavis came to his present farm,
where he has since resided. As a farmer he is a marked success.
Over three years ago he had the misfortune to lose his wife, who
died April 30, 1880. She was a member of the Cumberland
Presbyterian church, and a woman of devout piety and of great
personal worth. She left two children: Minnie L. and Benjamin F.
November 17, 1882, Mr. Reavis was married a second time ; his
present wife, a most amiable and excellent lady, is a daughter of
James O. Nelson, and was formerly Miss Nora R. She is a member of
the Baptist church. WILLIAM ROBERTS, farmer and proprietor of saw
and grist mill. Mr. Roberts is a native of Ohio, and was born in
Muskingum county, October 17th, 1835. His father, Joseph Roberts,
was born in Pennsylvania, but came out with his parents to Ohio in
early youth, where he grew up and was married to Miss Mary Berry,
by whom he reared his family. In 1847 the family removed to Iowa,
and settled in Davis country, where they still live, and where William,
the subject of this sketch, was principally reared and educated. On
the 1st of May, 1856, William was married to Miss Mary, daughter of
Abdel Pnrsons, of Clark county, Missouri. After their marriage, they
continued to live in Davis county, Iowa, where Mr. Roberts was
engaged in farming until 1865, when he sold his farm in that county
and removed to near Arrow Rock, Missouri. There he lived nearly
two years, following farming, and in the spring of 1867 came to his
present farm, where he has 120 iicres of good land substantially and
comfortably improved. He also has a saw and grist mill, which he
has been running with excel 
 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. 1077 lent
success, since his removal here. Mr. and Mrs. Eoberts have a family
of seven children : Maggie, now the wife of John P. Sheets ; Ella,
now the wife of Thomas Orr ; William E., Thomas M., Mary M.,
Florence and Edwin E. Both parents are members of the Methodist
Episcopal church. E. H. RODGERS, farmer and breeder of the
Atwood merino sheep. Mr. Rodgers is a native of Virginia, and was
born in Ohio county, December 6th, 1843. His parents, John G. and
Margaret Rodgers still reside in that county. Their homestead is
composed of land entered of the family several generations ago. His
grandmother, of the fourth generation, on the father's side, was the
first white woman that ever set foot in the county. His father is now
seventy-one years of age, and is as hale and vigorous in mind and
body as men usually are at fifty. He is a large and successful farmer
of Ohio county, and still manages and conducts his farm himself. In
the late war E. H. Rodgers, still a youth, espoused the Union cause,
and in his nineteenth year, in August, 1862, enlisted in company D,
12th West Virginia volunteer infantry, and served until the close of
the war, witnessing the final surrender of Lee at Appomattox, in
1865, in person. He was in the battle of Winchester, under General
Milroy, and numerous other engagements. After the restoration of
peace he farmed for two years in his native county, and then in 1868
removed to Missouri, and located in Pilot Grove township, Cooper
county, where he lived for twelve years. In 1880 he sold his farm in
PilotGrove, and bought his present place, a splendid farm of 720
acres of land, principally under fence, and otherwise well improved
Besides general farming he makes a specialty of breeding and
raising the celebrated Atwood*stock of merino sheep, of which he
has a flock of 1,250 head. Mr. Rodgers was married in Ohio county,
Virginia, to Miss Mary L., daughter of James Elliott, of that county,
August 18th, 1870. They have one child, an interesting daughter,
Mary M. A. ROBERT ROE, farmer and stock raiser. Mr. Roe is a native
of Maryland, and was born in Caroline county, February 27th, 1815.
He is therefore closely ipproaching the allotted age of three score
and ten. His parents, Samuel and Elizabeth (Leith) Roe, emigrated
from that state to 3ooper county, Missouri, in 1827, and entering the
land where Pilot Grrove now stands, opened and improved their
farm there. The
 1078 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES.
father continued to reside in this place until his death, in 1878, at
the advanced age of ninety, having been born in 1788. He held
various local offices, and was postmaster at Pilot Grove some fifteen
years. He was also justice of the peace a number of years. Robert
was a lad twelve years of age when his parents removed to this
county. After he grew up he learned the cabinet-maker's trade, at
Boonville, where he worked nearly three years. He then went to
Calhoun, Henry county, where he carried on a shop two years, after
which he sold out and engaged in farming, in that county. He
followed farming there for fifteen years, and returned to Cooper
county, in 1857, locating on a farm two miles and a half east of Pilot
Grove. This place he sold in 1869, and bought his present farm,
which contains 200 acres of good land, and is in a good state of
cultivation and improvement. Mr. Roe was married in Henry county,
in December, 1840, to Miss Fanny, daughter of Bennett Harrelson,
then of that county. She, however, is a native of Cooper county. Of
their family of twelve children seven are now living : Martha, Anna,
wife of William Annan; Mary A., wife of E. F. Waller; J. B., R. S., E. H.
and O. L. Mr. and Mrs. Roe are members of the M. E. church.
ROBERT SEATON, farmer and stock raiser, Mr. Seaton, who is a well-
to-do farmer and highly respected citizen of Palestine township, is a
native of Scotland, and commenced life for himself by learning the
carpenter's trade, at which he worked in that county until his
immigration to America, and afterwards in this country for about
twenty years. He was born in May, 1797, and in boyhood and early
youth, up to his fifteenth year, had the advantages afforded by the
excellent free schools of Scotland, then, as now, one of the best
systems of public education on the globe. In 1812 he became
apprenticed in the carpenter's trade, in which he served, under a
skilful master, for five years. He then cast his fortunes in the great
city of Glasgow, the metropolis of his native country, and worked
there at the ligneous art ten years. In the meantime he had met
Miss Joan Lyle, a fair maiden of his native country, and a mutual
attachment grew up between them, resulting in their marriage, in
about 1829. This union proved a long and happy one, and was
blessed with a numerous and worthy family of children. In 1833, Mr.
Seaton, believing there were better opportunities to make himself
comfortable in life in the new world than in the old and thickly
settled country, where he was born and reared, immigrated to the "
virgin continent beyond the Atlantic," and landing
 HISTORY OF HOWARD AND COOPER COUNTIES. 1079 at
New York went from there, with his family, to Hartford, Connecticut,
where he followed his trade three years. About this time good
carpenters were in great demand at Natchez, Mississippi, and he at
once went to that city, where he worked three years, to good
advantage. During the "thirties" and "forties" there was an immense
rush of immigration to the Boone's Lick country, in Missouri, and, in
fact, to the whole Missouri river valley, in this state. Wisely divining
that carpenters would command good wages here, he came to
Boonville, in 1839, and in this city was kept busy at his trade for five
years. By this time, however, his family of children were growing up
around him, and he was anxious to be settled on a farm, so that his
sons might be reared in the country to the honest, industrious lives
of farmers. Accordingly he bought a place in Palestine township, and
moved into it, whei-e afterward his boys took the leading part in
managing the farm for some years, and he continued working at his
trade. He was a thorough carpenter, and was in great request all
over the country, being constantly employed in his chosen
occupation. Every where, in this section of the country, may be seen
the houses that were built by his honest, industrious hands. But, as
age began to slacken the vigor and steadiness of his activity, he
retired from his trade and lives upon the farm, in the enjoyment of
the fruits of his labors and the society of his family and friends. Of
his family there were twelve children, three of whom died in infancy
and two in mature years. Those surviving are John Seaton, of Cass
county: Jeannette, wife of Henry Knaus ; Jane, wife of James M.
Moore ; Henry, Mary, wife of Robert Herst ; Martha, and Robert.
Robert-A, the youngest, conducts the farm, and is engaged in both
grain growing and stock raising. Robert Seaton, Sr.,is a member of
the Lone Elm Christian church. REV. G. B. SERGEANT, deceased. Rev.
G. B. Sergeant was born in Trigg county, Kentucky, March 19th,
1844, and died at San Antonio, Texas, where he had gone from
Cooper county, Missouri, his adopted home, for the benefit of his
health, April 16, 1881. Within this period, of scarcely more than
thirty-seven years, was lived a life of as little evil and as much purity
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