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The Facts on File Dictionary of Proverbs 2nd Edition
Martin H. Manser Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Martin H. Manser, Rosalind Fergusson
ISBN(s): 9781438121130, 143812113X
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 1.85 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
THE FACTS ON FILE DICTIONARY OF

Pr o v e r b s
Second Edition

M A R T I N H . M A NS ER

A ssociate E ditor s:
R osalind Fergusson
D avid P ickering
The Facts On File Dictionary of Proverbs

Copyright © 2002, 2007 by Martin H. Manser

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by
any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the
publisher. For information contact:

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132 West 31st Street
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ISBN-10: 0-8160-6673-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-6673-5

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Manser, Martin H.
The Facts On File dictionary of proverbs/Martin Manser; associate editor,
Rosalind Fergusson. David Pickering.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-8160-6673-6
1. Proverbs, English. I. Title: Dictionary of proverbs. II. Fergusson, Rosalind.
III. Title.
PN6421 .M36 2002
082—dc21 2002067832

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This book is printed on acid-free paper.

To Hannah and Ben
Co n te n ts

Preface to the New Edition

vii

Introduction
ix

Entries A–Z
1

Boxes
African proverbs 3
Arabian proverbs 11
Biblical proverbs 27
Chinese proverbs 41
Dutch proverbs 69
French proverbs 95
German proverbs 100
Greek proverbs 111
Indian proverbs 142
Irish proverbs 144
Italian proverbs 145
Japanese proverbs 157
Literary proverbs 171
 Russian proverbs 235
Scandinavian proverbs 238
Scottish proverbs 239
South American proverbs 249
Spanish proverbs 250
Turkish proverbs 281
Yiddish proverbs 308

Index by Key Word

320

Index by Theme
444

Bibliography
499
 Pr e f a c e t o t h e
Ne w E d i t i o n

The text of this second edition of the dictionary has been expanded to include more
familiar, long-established proverbs (e.g., it takes one to know one; worse
things happen at sea) as well as a selection of more modern proverbial sayings
(e.g., you snooze, you lose; men are from Mars, women are from Venus).
As in the first edition, care has been taken not to confuse idiomatic sayings with true
proverbs and to include details of variant forms by which proverbs might be known
to different readers. Existing entries have also been updated to include modern
variants, e.g., the email of the species is more deadly than the mail, as a variant of the
female of the species is deadlier than the male; and the geek shall inherit the
earth, as a variant of the meek shall inherit the earth. The indexes have been
similarly expanded.

Boxes
In addition, this text of this new edition has been embellished with boxes containing
selections of interesting proverbs from a number of other languages and cultures.
The aim of these is to provide a glimpse of other proverbial traditions. Many of
these examples are foreign-language equivalents of familiar English sayings, while
others are unique to their particular cultural background. Further boxes group
proverbs that are related through their biblical or literary origins. Most of the prov-
erbs included in the boxes are not covered elsewhere in the main text.

vii
 In t r o d u c t i o n

A proverb is a saying, usually short, that expresses a general truth about life.
Proverbs give advice, make an observation, or present a teaching in a succinct and
memorable way. This dictionary covers the main English-language proverbs that are
widely recognized today.
We use proverbs or allude to them quite often in everyday speech: Better safe
than sorry;The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence; If at first you don’t suc-
ceed, try, try again; Let sleeping dogs lie; A trouble shared is a trouble halved.

Arrangement of proverbs
In this dictionary the proverbs are listed by strict letter-by-letter alphabetical order
of the proverb, excluding only at the beginning of a proverb, A, An, and The:
big fish eat little fish

the bigger they are, the harder they fall

a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush

a bird never flew on one wing

too much of a good thing is worse than none at all

toot your own horn lest the same be never tooted

to the pure all things are pure

Proverbs can also be found using the keyword index, which lists all the main nouns,
adjectives, and verbs.

Definitions
After the proverb itself comes an explanation of the meaning of the proverb:
pride goes before a fall

ix
Introduction

Arrogance and overconfidence often lead to humiliation or disaster; often used

as a warning . . .
uneasy lies the head that wears a crown

Those in power are weighed down by responsibilities, feelings of insecurity, or fears

of losing their position and can never rest easy . . .

Examples
Examples have been chosen to demonstrate the use of a proverb. They come from
English literature or have been specially compiled for this text:
boys will be boys

Boys must be forgiven for their bad or boisterous behavior; also used ironically
when grown men behave in an irresponsible or childish manner: “Aunt Sally was
a good deal uneasy; but Uncle Silas he said there warn’t no occasion to be—boys
will be boys, he said, and you’ll see this one turn up in the morning all sound and
right” (Mark Twain, Huckleberry Finn, 1884).
a good name is sooner lost than won

It takes a lot of time and effort to earn a good name for yourself, but you can lose it
in an instant with a single foolish act: Think carefully before you get involved in anything
that is not strictly legal—remember that a good name is sooner lost than won.

Origins
Many proverbs have been in use for many years:
every man is his own worst enemy

. . . The proverb was first recorded in Thomas Browne’s Religio Medici (1643).
every man is the architect of his own fortune

. . . The proverb is attributed to the Roman politician Appius Claudius Caecus, who
held the post of censor from 312 b.c. to 308 b.c.
Sometimes, proverbs are quotations:
the leopard can’t change its spots

. . . The proverb is of biblical origin: “Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the
leopard his spots?” (Jeremiah 13:23).

x
 Introduction

a rose by any other name would smell as sweet

. . . The proverb comes from Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet (2:2): “What’s in a
name? that which we call a rose/By any other name would smell as sweet.”
Some proverbs have come into use in contemporary times. These include:
garbage in, garbage out

. . . First recorded in 1964, the proverb originally referred to computer input and
output, and is still used in that context, often in the form of the acronym GIGO.
if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it

. . . The proverb was first recorded in 1977, popularized by Bert Lance, director of the
Office of Management and Budget in President Jimmy Carter’s administration.
it takes a village to raise a child

. . . Of African origin, the proverb was popularized by Hillary Clinton, wife of

President Bill Clinton, in the mid-1990s.
The “first recorded” date given is not the date of origin—most proverbs origi-
nated in spoken language, and this is simply the first known written record of the
proverb:
first impressions are the most lasting

. . . The proverb was first recorded in William Congreve’s play The Way of the World
(1700) in the form “There is a great deal in the first impression.”
Where an early form of a proverb or other quotation is taken from a named
source, the spellings of the original have been retained; in other cases spellings have
been modernized for the convenience of the user:
nature abhors a vacuum

. . . Of ancient origin, the proverb was first recorded in English in 1551, in Thomas
Cranmer’s Answer to Gardiner: “Naturall reason abhorreth vacuum.”
a cat has nine lives

. . . The proverb was first recorded in 1546 in the form “A woman has nine lives
like a cat.”

Variants and use of proverbs

Variants on the proverb are given after the main entry:
a word to the wise is sufficient

xi
Introduction

Variant of this proverb: a word is enough to the wise.

Alterations to the words of the proverb, shorter expressions of the proverb, or
humorous applications are also shown:
once a thief always a thief

. . . Other words may be substituted for thief, such as crook, drunkard, fool, or whore,
and the proverb is occasionally applied to those with enduring virtues rather than
persistent vices, as in “Once a lady, always a lady.”
to err is human, to forgive divine

. . . A modern facetious variant is “To err is human, but to really foul things up
requires a computer.”

Cross-references
Cross-references are given from all variant entries that are not alphabetically adja-
cent to the main form:
A word is enough to the wise See A WORD TO THE WISE IS SUFFICIENT.

Proverbs with similar or opposite meanings

Proverbs that express similar or opposite meanings are listed at the end of entries:
actions speak louder than words

Proverb expressing similar meaning: deeds are fruits, words are but leaves.
absence makes the heart grow fonder

Proverb expressing opposite meaning: out of sight, out of mind.

Indexes
Two indexes are included at the back of this dictionary:
Index of themes—a listing of proverbs under thematic headings.
Index of keywords—a listing of the nouns, adjectives, and verbs of the proverbs.

Martin H. Manser
Rosalind Fergusson
David Pickering

xii
ååå a å
absence is the mother of disillusion A Proverb expressing opposite mean-
period of separation may enable you to ing: out of sight, out of mind.
consider people or things more objec-
tively and see them in a truer but less See
the absent are always in the wrong
favorable light: While her boyfriend was away he who is absent is always in the
she became increasingly aware of all his little wrong.
faults, which she had ignored when they were
together—absence is the mother of disillusion. the absent are never without fault nor
The proverb is recorded as a regional the present without excuse See he
expression in the United States. who is absent is always in the wrong.

absence makes the heart grow fonder accidents will happen in the best-regu-
Your affection for those close to you— lated families No matter how careful
family and friends—increases when you you are, you may still do something
are parted from them: “. . . meantime he by accident or mistake; often used to
exhorts me to the exercise of patience, console somebody who has done such a
‘that first of woman’s virtues,’ and desires thing: “‘Copperfield,’ said Mr. Micawber,
me to remember the saying, ‘Absence ‘accidents will occur in the best-regulated
makes the heart grow fonder,’ and com- families; and in families not regulated by
fort myself with the assurance that the . . . the influence of Woman, in the lofty
longer he stays away the better he shall character of Wife, they must be expected
love me when he returns” (Anne Brontë, with confidence, and must be borne with
Tenant of Wildfell Hall, 1848). The proverb philosophy’” (Charles Dickens, David
was first recorded c. 1850, but the senti- Copperfield, 1850). The proverb was first
ment is expressed in earlier literature— recorded in George Colman’s play Deuce
for example, by James Howell Is in Him (1763) in the shorter form “acci-
(1593?–1666), who wrote “Distance dents will happen.”
sometimes endears friendship, and Variant of this proverb: accidents
absence sweeteneth it.” Compare Sextus will happen in the best of families.
Propertius (c. 54 b.c.–a.d. 2), “semper in
absentes felicior aestus amantes [passion is accusing the times is but excusing our-
always warmer toward absent lovers].” selves People who seek to blame the

1
action is worry’s worst enemy

times or conditions they live in are really admiration is the daughter of ignorance
trying to avoid taking the blame them- People often admire others about whom
selves: It strikes me that the prime minister they only have incomplete knowledge:
needs to be reminded that those who accuse the The president’s current popularity only proves
times are but excusing themselves. The prov- the rule that admiration is the daughter
erb was first recorded in 1732 by Thomas of ignorance. This U.S. proverb was first
Fuller in Gnomologia. recorded in 1733–58 by Benjamin Frank-
Proverb expressing similar mean- lin in Poor Richard’s Almanack.
ings: he who excuses himself accuses Proverb expressing similar meaning:
himself. what the eye doesn’t see, the heart
doesn’t grieve over.
action is worry’s worst enemy You can Proverb expressing opposite mean-
banish anxiety by keeping busy and active, ing: prejudice is the daughter of igno-
or by taking action to solve the problem rance.
that is worrying you: Action is worry’s worst
enemy, so don’t just sit there brooding—do adventures are to the adventurous
something! Those who are not bold, and who take
no risks, will not have exciting lives
actions speak louder than words What or achieve spectacular things: “He told
you do is more important than what himself that adventure was to the adven-
you say, or what you promise to do: turous. . . . If he could not make the
“The gallant foreigner, who could not tell effort for the small he would miss the big
them how he sympathized with them, but adventure” (Thomas Hinde, Mr. Nicholas,
whose actions spoke louder than words” 1952). The proverb was first recorded in
(F. McCullagh, With the Cossacks, 1906). Benjamin Disraeli’s Coningsby (1844).
The first recorded use of the proverb, in
the form “actions are more precious than adversity makes strange bedfellows In
words,” was in a speech by the English times of hardship or misfortune people
politician John Pym in 1628. Its current often befriend or form alliances with those
form is of U.S. origin. whose company they would normally avoid:
Proverb expressing similar mean- The merger of the two companies surprised every-
ing: deeds are fruits, words are but body, but these are hard times for the industry and
leaves. adversity makes strange bedfellows. The proverb
was first recorded in Shakespeare’s play The
action without thought is like shooting Tempest (2:2) in the form “Misery acquaints a
without aim Think before you act in order man with strange bedfellows.”
to achieve the best results: Disregarding the Variants of this proverb: misery
proverb that action without thought is like shoot- makes strange bedfellows; poverty makes
ing without aim, he went straight out and bought strange bedfellows.
a computer that proved to be totally unsuitable
for his needs. after a storm comes a calm A period
Proverb expressing similar meaning: of anger or trouble is usually followed
look before you leap. by a period of relative peace: “After a

2
ååååå
after dinner rest awhile, after supper walk a mile

AFRICAN PROVERBS
Every African country has its heritage of sayings and proverbs. Some are known throughout
the continent, while others are unique to particular countries. The following list includes
some of the most colorful examples, many of them inspired by the wildlife and landscape of
Africa.

The best trees grow on the steepest hills

By trying often, the monkey learns to jump from the tree
Do not blame God for having created the tiger, but thank him for not giving it wings
Even if the elephant is thin he is still the lord of the jungle
Even the best cooking pot will not produce food
Every beast roars in its own den
Fear is no obstacle to death
Goats cannot live in a herd of leopards
He on whose head we would break a coconut never stands still
The horizon will not disappear as you run towards it
Hunt in every jungle, for there is wisdom and good hunting in all of them
If there were no elephants in the jungle, the buffalo would be big
If they are offered winged ants, people will eat them
If you have escaped the jaws of the crocodile while bathing in the river, you will
surely meet a leopard on the way
If you have five wives, then you have five tongues
Rain does not fall on one roof alone
The smaller the lizard the greater the hope of becoming a crocodile
The viper assumes the colors of his surroundings
When you chop off a snake’s head all you are left with is a piece of rope
Where the cattle stand together, the lion lies down hungry
Where there is no wealth there is no poverty

storm comes a calm. Wearied with a for- dawn; when things are at the worst
mer blustering they began now to repose they begin to mend.
themselves in a sad silence” (Thomas
Fuller, Church History of Britain, 1655). The after death the doctor Help sometimes
proverb was first recorded in this form comes too late: “All his tricks founder, and
in 1582, but the sentiment it expresses is he brings his physic/After his patient’s death:
found in writing more than 200 years ear- the King already/Hath married the fair lady”
lier. It has given rise to the cliché the calm (William Shakespeare, Henry VIII, 3:2). The
before the storm, which reverses the order proverb was first recorded c. 1385–90 by
of things and describes a period of peace Geoffrey Chaucer in Troilus and Criseyde.
before an upheaval.
Proverbs expressing similar mean- after dinner rest awhile, after supper
ing: the darkest hour is just before walk a mile It is best for the digestion

3
age before beauty

to rest after a heavy meal and take some alcohol will preserve anything but a
exercise after a light meal: “As the prov- secret People have a tendency to talk too
erb says, for health sake, after dinner, or freely and become indiscreet when they
rather after supper, willingly then I’ll walk are drunk: I hoped that he would not have too
a mile to hear thee” (Philip Massinger, The much to drink at the reception—I had told him
Unnatural Combat, 1639). The proverb was about Kate’s pregnancy in confidence, and it’s
first recorded in 1582 in a slightly differ- well known that alcohol will preserve anything
ent form, with talk in place of rest. but a secret. The proverb is recorded as a
Variant of this proverb: after dinner regional expression in the United States.
sit awhile, after supper walk a mile. Proverbs expressing similar mean-
ing:drunkenness revealswhat soberness
age before beauty Older people have conceals; there’s truth in wine.
precedence over those who are younger
and more attractive; said when standing all animals are equal, but some are more
back to let another person go first or equal than others In a society or orga-
when pushing in ahead of somebody: “Age nization where all are supposedly equal, it
before beauty,” she said as she stepped in front of is often the case that some have special privi-
the young woman at the head of the line. The leges, or greater power than others: “Thus,
proverb was first recorded in 1843. Face- even on the night of such personal triumph,
tious retorts or extensions to the proverb Jason Gilbert was once again reminded
include “Beauty before the beast,” “Grace that although all Harvard undergraduates
before meat,” and “Pearls before swine.” are equal, some are more equal than oth-
ers” (Erich Segal, The Class, 1985). Other
the age of miracles is past Miracles no words may be substituted for animals, as
longer happen; used when some desirable in the above quotation. The proverb comes
occurrence seems highly unlikely: I didn’t from George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm
expect the authorities to take any action in (1945), where it is the ultimate slogan of a
response to my complaint—the age of miracles supposedly egalitarian regime set up by the
is past. The proverb occurs in Shakespeare’s animals of a farm, which gradually becomes
play All’sWell that EndsWell (2:3) in the form as tyrannical as the human one it replaced.
“They say miracles are past,” which implies Proverb expressing similar meaning:
that it is of earlier origin. all men are created equal.
Proverb expressing opposite mean-
ing: wonders will never cease! all arts are brothers, each is a light to
the other The arts should not be con-
agree, for the law is costly It is expen- sidered as separate entities but as parts
sive to settle disputes in court because of of one whole, each complementing and
the legal costs involved: “Come, agree, leading to a better understanding and
agree; the law’s costly” (Jonathan Swift, appreciation of the others: Looking at a
A Complete Collection of Polite and Ingenious great painting can move me in the same way
Conversation, 1738). The proverb was first as listening to a fine piece of music—they say
recorded in 1605 by William Camden in all arts are brothers. The proverb was first
Remains Concerning Britain. recorded in 1847.

4
 all is grist that comes to the mill

Variant of this proverb: all arts are all good things come in threes See
one, all branches on one tree. things come in threes.

all bad things come in threes See all good things come to those who
things come in threes. wait See all things come to those
who wait.
all cats are gray in the dark People
have no distinguishing features, and their all good things must come to an
appearance becomes unimportant, in the end Nothing lasts forever; often said
dark; sometimes used with reference to resignedly when a pleasant experience
a person’s choice of sexual partner: “You or sequence of events finally ends: We
forgot that all cats are grey in the dark and had had a wonderful vacation, but all good
so are uniformed policemen” (Jonathan things must come to an end. The proverb
Ross, Dark Blue and Dangerous, 1981). The was first recorded c. 1440: “Ye wote wele
proverb was first recorded in this form of all thing moste be an ende” (Partonope
in 1596. It was used with sexual con- of Blois). The word good was probably
notations in a letter written by Benjamin not added until the 19th or early 20th
Franklin in 1745: “And as in the dark all century.
Cats are grey, the Pleasure of corporal
Enjoyment with an old Woman is at least all is fish that comes to the net Anything
equal, and frequently superior.” that comes along is accepted and turned to
Variants of this proverb: all cats are advantage: “I don’t know that she cares for
black at night; at night all cats are gray. one more than the other. There are a cou-
ple of young Air Force chaps too. I fancy
all chiefs and no Indians See too many all’s fish that comes to her net at present”
chiefs and not enough indians. (Agatha Christie, Murder in Mesopotamia,
1936). First recorded c. 1520, the proverb
all commend patience, but none can is sometimes applied to a particular person
endure to suffer It is far easier to tell by substituting my, his, her, and so on for the,
somebody else to be patient than to be as in this example.
patient yourself: She said I should wait and Proverb expressing similar meaning:
see, but it was difficult to take her advice—all all is grist that comes to the mill.
commend patience, but none can endure to
suffer. The proverb was first recorded in all is grist that comes to the mill Every-
1948 in a U.S. proverb collection. thing, no matter how small or unpromis-
ing, can be put to use: She carried a notebook
all fish are not caught with flies In and pencil with her wherever she went—for a
some circumstances different methods writer, all is grist that comes to the mill. The
must be employed to achieve a desired proverb was first recorded, with slightly
end: The old man grinned and said something different wording, in 1655. It also occurs
about all fish not being caught with flies. The with my, his, her, and so on in place of the
proverb was first recorded in 1580 by and in the figurative phrase grist to the mill,
John Lyly in Euphues and his England. as in Charles Dickens’s novel A Tale of Two

5
all is not gold that glitters

Cities (1859): “The clearance was effected or to come to the same conclusion: “All
at last; the Stryver arrears were hand- roads lead to Rome: and even animal
somely fetched up; everything was got individuality throws a ray on human prob-
rid of until November should come with lems” (J. S. Huxley, The Individual in
its fogs atmospheric, and fogs legal, and the Animal Kingdom, 1912). The proverb
bring grist to the mill again.” Grist is grain was first recorded, with different word-
brought to a mill to be ground. ing, in Chaucer’s Prologue to Astrolabe (c.
Variant of this proverb: it’s all grist 1391). Compare the medieval Latin prov-
for the mill. erb “Mille vie ducunt hominem per secula
Proverb expressing similar meaning: Romam [A thousand roads lead man for-
all is fish that comes to the net. ever toward Rome].” In modern use other
place-names are sometimes substituted
all is not gold that glitters See all that for Rome.
glitters is not gold. Proverbs expressing similar mean-
ing: there are more ways of killing
all lay loads on the willing horseSee a cat than choking it with cream;
the willing horse carries the load. there’s more than one way to skin
a cat.
all men are created equal No person
is born superior or inferior to another, all’s fair in love and war Any action,
so all should have equal rights: “Colonel however mean or unscrupulous, is per-
Cathcart was infused with the democratic missible in certain situations; often used
spirit: he believed that all men were cre- to justify cheating or deception: “‘You
ated equal, and therefore spurned all men opened the letter!’ . . . ‘How was I to read
outside Group Headquarters with equal it if I hadn’t? All’s . . . fair in love and war,
fervor” (Joseph Heller, Catch-22, 1955). you know’” (Francis Edward Smedley,
The proverb comes from the Declara- Frank Fairleigh, 1850). The proverb was
tion of Independence (1776), in which first recorded, with different wording,
Thomas Jefferson wrote: “We hold these in 1620. In modern use an extra word is
truths to be self-evident, that all men are often added to or substituted for part of
created equal, that they are endowed by the proverb, as in “All’s fair in love—an’
their Creator with certain unalienable war—an’ politics” (George Ade, County
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, Chairman, 1903).
and the pursuit of Happiness.”
Proverbs expressing similar mean- all’s for the best in the best of all pos-
ing: jack’s as good as his master; all sible worlds Everything that happens
animals are equal, but some are more does so for a good reason, and things in
equal than others. general cannot be any better; generally
Proverb expressing opposite mean- used to present an optimistic worldview:
ing: equality begins in the grave. “The administrative departments were
consuming miles of red tape in the cor-
all roads lead to Rome There are many rectest forms of activity, and everything
different ways to achieve the same result, was for the best in the best of all possible

6
 all things come to those who wait

worlds” (George Bernard Shaw, The Shew- have to play: “Jackie [Onassis] never lets
ing-up of Blanco Posnet, 1911). The proverb down in public. The whole world is a stage
is a translation of a line from the French and she’s its leading lady” (New York Post,
writer Voltaire’s philosophical tale Candide 1994). The proverb was popularized in
(1759). In The Silver Stallion (1926), James this form in Shakespeare’s play AsYou Like It
Branch Cabell made the more cynical (2:7): “All the world’s a stage,/And all the
observation: “The optimist proclaims that men and women merely players:/They
we live in the best of all possible worlds; have their exits and their entrances;/And
and the pessimist fears this is true.” one man in his time plays many parts.”
Variant of this proverb: the world is a
all’s well that ends well Problems and stage and all the people in it actors.
misfortunes along the way can be for-
gotten when everything ends satisfac- all things are easy to industry, all things
torily: “When the books were signed difficult to sloth Anything can be
the vicar congratulated the husband and achieved by those who are prepared to
wife on having performed a noble, and work hard: You’ll never find a job if you sit in
righteous, and mutually forgiving act. front of the television all day—all things are
‘All’s well that ends well,’ he said smiling” easy to industry, all things difficult to sloth. The
(Thomas Hardy, Jude the Obscure, 1895). proverb was first recorded in 1734, in Ben-
First recorded in this form c. 1530, the jamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack.
proverb is perhaps best known as the title Variant of this proverb: sloth makes
of one of Shakespeare’s plays. all things difficult, but industry makes all
things easy.
all that glitters is not gold People and
things are not always as attractive or valu- all things are possible with God Noth-
able as they seem: “‘I do wish I hadn’t a ing is impossible to the divine will; often
penny in the world, then I should know used more generally to imply that any-
who my true friends were.’ ‘Poor little thing might happen: He seemed an unlikely
lass! She has found out that all that glitters candidate for the priesthood, but all things
is not gold, and the disillusion has begun,’ are possible with God. The proverb is of
said the doctor to himself ” (Louisa May biblical origin in its current form: “With
Alcott, Rose in Bloom, 1876). The proverb men this is impossible; but with God all
occurs in Shakespeare’s play The Merchant things are possible” (Matthew 19:26), but
of Venice (2:7) in the form “All that glisters the sentiment it expressed is found much
is not gold,” but the sentiment it expresses earlier, in Homer’s Odyssey (c. eighth cen-
was first recorded c. 1220. tury b.c.): “with the gods all things can
Variant of this proverb: all is not gold be done.”
that glitters.
Proverb expressing similar meaning: all things come to an end See every-
appearances are deceiving. thing has an end.

all the world’s a stage Everybody goes all things come to those who wait If
through life acting out the roles that they you are patient, you will have what you

7
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 HYDRODYNAMICS CHAPTER I THE EQUATIONS OF
MOTION 1. The following investigations proceed on the assumption
that the matter with which we deal may be treated as practically
continuous and homogeneous in structure ; i.e. we assume that the
properties of the smallest portions into which we can conceive it to
be divided are the same as those of the substance in bulk. The
fundamental property of a fluid is that it cannot be in equilibrium in
a state of stress such that the mutual action between two adjacent
parts is oblique to the common surface. This property is the basis of
Hydrostatics, and is verified by the complete agreement of the
deductions of that science with experiment. Very slight observation
is enough, however, to convince us that oblique stresses may exist in
fluids in motion. Let us suppose for instance that a vessel in the
form of a circular cylinder, containing water (or other liquid), is made
to rotate about its axis, which is vertical. If the angular velocity of
the vessel be constant, the fluid is soon found to be rotating with
the vessel as one solid body. If the vessel be now brought to rest,
the motion of the fluid continues for some time, but gradually
subsides, and at length ceases altogether; and it is found that during
this process the portions of fluid which are further from the axis lag
behind those which are nearer, and have their motion more rapidly
checked. These phenomena point to the existence of mutual actions
between contiguous elements which are partly tangential to the
common surface. For if the mutual action were everywhere wholly
normal, it is obvious that the moment of momentum, about the axis
of the vessel, of any portion of fluid bounded by a surface of
revolution about this axis, would be constant. We infer, moreover,
that these tangential stresses are not called into play so long as the
fluid moves as a solid body, but only whilst a change of shape of
some portion of the mass is going on, and that their tendency is to
oppose this change of shape. 2. It is usual, however, in the first
instance to neglect the tangential stresses altogether. Their effect is
in many practical cases small, and, independently of this, it is
convenient to divide the not inconsiderable difficulties of our subject
by investigating first the effects of purely normal stress. The further
consideration of the laws of tangential stress is accordingly deferred
till Chapter XI.
 The Equations of Motion [chap. I If the stress exerted
across any small plane area situate at a point P of the fluid be wholly
normal, its intensity (per unit area) is the same for all aspects of the
plane. The following proof of this theorem is given here for purposes
of reference. Through P draw three straight lines PA, PB, PC
mutually at right angles, and let a plane whose direction-cosines
relatively to these lines are I, m, n, passing infinitely close to P, meet
them in A, B, C. Let p, Pi, P2, Pz denote the intensities of the
stresses* across the faces ABC, PBG, PC A, PAB, respectively, of the
tetrahedron PABC. If A be the area of the first-mentioned face, the
areas of the others are, in order, IA, mA, raA. Hence if we form the
equation of motion of the tetrahedron parallel to PA we have px . lA
= pl . A, where we have omitted the terms which express the rate of
change of momentum, and the component of the extraneous forces,
because they are ultimately proportional to the mass of the
tetrahedron, and therefore of the third order of small linear
quantities, whilst the terms retained are of the second. We have
then, ultimately, p—p\, and similarly p = p2 = p3, which proves the
theorem. 3. The equations of motion of a fluid have been obtained
in two different forms, corresponding to the two ways in which the
problem of determining the motion of a fluid mass, acted on by
given forces and subject to given conditions, may be viewed. We
may either regard as the object of our investigations a knowledge of
the velocity, the pressure, and the density, at all points of space
occupied by the fluid, for all instants; or we may seek to determine
the history of every particle. The equations obtained on these two
plans are conveniently designated, as by German mathematicians,
the 'Eulerian' and the 'Lagrangian' forms of the hydrokinetic
equations, although both forms are in reality due to Eulerf. The
Eulerian Equations. 4. Let u, v, w be the components, parallel to the
co-ordinate axes, of the velocity at the point (x, y, z) at the time t.
These quantities are then functions of the independent variables x,
y, z, t. For any particular value of t they define the motion at that
instant at all points of space occupied by * Reckoned positive when
pressures, negative when tensions. Most fluids are, however,
incapable under ordinary conditions of supporting more than an
exceedingly slight degree of tension, so that^ is nearly always
positive. f " Principes generaux du mouvement des fluides," Hist, dc
VAcad. dc Berlin, 1755. " De principiis motus fluidorum," Novi
Comm. Acad. Petrop. xiv. 1 (1759). Lagrange gave three
investigations of the equations of motion; first, incidentally, in
 2-6] Eulerian Equations 3 the fluid; whilst for particular
values of x, y, z they give the history of what goes on at a particular
place. We shall suppose, for the most part, not only that u, v, w are
finite and continuous functions of x, y, z, but that their space-
derivatives of the first order (du/dx, dv/dx, dw/dx, &c.) are
everywhere finite*; we shall understand by the term 'continuous
motion,' a motion subject to these restrictions. Cases of exception, if
they present themselves, will require separate examination. In
continuous motion, as thus defined, the relative velocity of any two
neighbouring particles P, P' will always be infinitely small, so that the
line PP' will always remain of the same order of magnitude. It
follows that if we imagine a small closed surface to be drawn,
surrounding P, and suppose it to move with the fluid, it will always
enclose the same matter. And any surface whatever, which moves
with the fluid, completely and permanently separates the matter on
the two sides of it. 5. The values of u, v, w for successive values of t
give as it were a series of pictures of consecutive stages of the
motion, in which however there is no immediate means of tracing
the identity of any one particle. To calculate the rate at which any
function F (x, y, z, t) varies for a moving particle, we may remark
that at the time t + 8t the particle which was originally in the
position (x, ?/. z) is in the position (x + u8t, y + v8t, z + w8t), so
that the corresponding value of F is F(x + u8t, y + v8t,z + iv8t, t +
8t) = F+u8td-^ + v8t~- + w8t~ + 8t%- . 17 ox oy oz dt If, after
Stokes, we introduce the symbol D/Dt to denote a differentiation
following the motion of the fluid, the new value of F is also
expressed by F+DF/Dt.8t, whence DF dF dF dF dF Bt=Tt+UTx + Vdy
+ Wdz ' (1) 6. To form the dynamical equations, let p be the
pressure, p the density, X, T, Z the components of the extraneous
forces per unit mass, at the point {x, y, z) at the time t. Let us take
an element having its centre at (x, y, z), and its edges 8x, 8y, 8z
parallel to the rectangular co-ordinate axes. The rate at which the ^-
component of the momentum of this element is increasing is
p8x8y8z DujDt; and this must be equal to the ^-component of the
forces connection with the principle of Least Action, in the
Miscellanea Taurinensia, ii. (1760) [Oeuvres, Paris, 1867-92, i.];
secondly in his "Memoire sur la Theorie du Mouvement des Fluides,"
Nouv. mem. de V Acad, de Berlin, 1781 [Oeuvres, iv.]; and thirdly in
the Mecaniquc Analytique. In this last exposition he starts with the
second form of the equations (Art. 14, below), but translates them
at once into the ' Eulerian' notation. * It is important to bear in
mind, with a view to some later developments under the head of
Vortex Motion, that these derivatives need not be assumed to be
continuous.
 4 The Equations of Motion [chap, i acting on the element.
Of these the extraneous forces give pBxByBzX. The pressure on the
yz-fave which is nearest the origin will be ultimately that on the
opposite face (p + \dp\dx . 8%) By Bz. The difference of these gives
a resultant — dp/dx. BxByBz in the direction of ^-positive. The
pressures on the remaining faces are perpendicular to x. We have
then p Bx By Bz yc = pBxByBz X — ^-BxBy Bz. Substituting the
value of DujDt from (1), and writing down the symmetrical
equations, we have du du du du _ Y 1 dp dt dx dy dz pdx' •(2) dv dv
dv dv _ v 1 dp dt dx dy dz pdy' dw dw dw dw _ 7 1 dp dt dx dy dz p
dz 7. To these dynamical equations we must join, in the first place, a
certain kinematical relation between u, v, w, p, obtained as follows.
If Q be the volume of a moving element, we have, on account of the
constancy of mass, Dt \Dp 1 DQ . -Pm+QwrQ w To calculate the
value of 1/Q .DQ/Dt, let the element in question be that which at
time t fills the rectangular space BxByBz having one corner P at {%,
y, z), and the edges PL, PM, PN (say) parallel to the co-ordinate
axes. At time t + Bt the same element will form an oblique
parallelepiped, and since the velocities of the particle L relative to
the particle P are du/dx . Bx, dv/dx.Bx, dw/dx.Bx, the projections of
the edge PL on the co-ordinate axes become, after the time Bt,
(l+pSt)8*, d^ti.Zx, d^ St. Sec, \ dx ) dx dx respectively. To the first
order in Bt, the length of this edge is now and similarly for the
remaining edges. Since the angles of the parallelepiped * It is easily
seen, by Taylor's theorem, that the mean pressure over any face of
the element 5x by 5z may be taken to be equal to the pressure at
the centre of that face.
 6-t] Equation of Continuity 5 differ infinitely little from right
angles, the volume is still given, to the first order in Bt, by the
product of the three edges, i.e. we have 1 DQ dii dv dw (G>. or QDi
= dx+ dy+ dz~ ( } Hence (1) becomes _s^®4;+S)=° ^ This is
called the 'equation of continuity.' rvu - du dv dw //1X 1 he
expression a" "*" a — ^~2~' ' ' which, as we have seen, measures
the rate of dilatation of the fluid at the point (x,y,2), is conveniently
called the 'expansion' at that point. From a more general point of
view the expression (4) is called the 'divergence' of the vector
(u,v,w); it is often denoted briefly by div (u, v, w). The preceding
investigation is substantially that given by Euler*. Another, and now
more usual, method of obtaining the equation of continuity is,
instead of following the motion of a fluid element, to fix the
attention on an element BxByBz of space, and to calculate the
change produced in the included mass by the flux across the
boundary. If the centre of the element be at (x, y, z), the amount of
matter which per unit time enters it across the yz-f&ce nearest the
origin is and the amount which leaves it by the opposite face is f pu
+ \ — '- — Bx j ByBz. BxByBz, The two faces together give a gain d
.pu dx per unit time. Calculating in the same way the effect of the
flux across the remaining faces, we have for the total gain of mass,
per unit time, in the space BxByBz, the formula (d .pu 3 . pv d . pw\
j j j. Since the quantity of matter in any region can vary only in
consequence of the flux across the boundary, this must be equal to
^(p BxByBz), * I.e. ante p. 2.
 6 The Equations of Motion [chap, i whence we get the
equation of continuity in the form ^+9_£V_^ + ^ = 0 (5) dt ox Oy
oz v 8. It remains to put in evidence the physical properties of the
fluid, so far as these affect the quantities which occur in our
equations. In an 'incompressible' fluid, or liquid, we have Dp/Dt= 0,
in which case the equation of continuity takes the simple form a-
M4:=° • « It is not assumed here that the fluid is of uniform density,
though this is of course by far the most important case. If we wish
to take account of the slight compressibility of actual liquids, we
shall have a relation of the form p = /e(p-po)lpo, (2) or plp0 =
l+p//e, ..(3) where k denotes what is called the 'elasticity of volume.'
In the case of a gas whose temperature is uniform and constant we
have the ' isothermal ' relation PlPo = p/po> (4) where p0, p0 are
any pair of corresponding values for the temperature in question. In
most cases of motion of gases, however, the temperature is not
constant, but rises and falls, for each element, as the gas is
compressed or rarefied. When the changes are so rapid that we can
ignore the gain or loss of heat by an element due to conduction and
radiation, we have the 'adiabatic' relation PlPo = (plpo)y, (5) where
po and p0 are any pair of corresponding values for the element
considered. The constant 7 is the ratio of the two specific heats of
the gas ; for atmospheric air, and some other gases, its value is
about 1*408. 9. At the boundaries (if any) of the fluid, the equation
of continuity is replaced by a special surface-condition. Thus at a
fixed boundary, the velocity of the fluid perpendicular to the surface
must be zero, i.e. if l> m, n be the direction-cosines of the normal,
lu + mv + nw = 0 (1) Again at a surface of discontinuity, i.e. a
surface at which the values of u, v, w change abruptly as we pass
from one side to the other, we must have l(ux — u2)-\-m (v1—v2)+
n(w1 — w2) = 0, (2) where the suffixes are used to distinguish the
values on the two sides. The same relation must hold at the
common surface of a fluid and a moving solid.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.81%
accurate

7-9] Boundary Condition 7 The general surface-condition,

of which these are particular cases, is that if F(x, y, z, t) = 0 be the
equation of a bounding surface, we must have at every point of it
DF/Dt = 0 (3) For the velocity relative to the surface of a particle
lying in it must be wholly tangential (or zero), otherwise we should
have a finite flow of fluid across it. It follows that the instantaneous
rate of variation of F for a surface-particle must be zero. A fuller
proof, given by Lord Kelvin*, is as follows. To find the rate of motion
(v) of the surface F(x, y, z, t)=0, normal to itself, we write F(x +
lv8t, y + mv§t, z+nvdt, t + 8t) = 0, where I, m, n are the direction-
cosines of the normal at (x, yy z). Hence 7dF dF dF\ dF n Since
(l,m,n)=^, ^, -^)+R, i dF wehave V=-R W (•*) At every point of the
surface we must have v = lu + mv + nw, which leads, on
substitution of the above values of I, m, n, %o the equation (3N.
The partial differential equation (3) is also satisfied by any surface
moving with the fluid. This follows at once from the meaning of the
operator DjDt. A question arises as to whether the converse
necessarily holds ; i.e. whether a moving surface whose equation
F=0 satisfies (3) will always consist of the same particles.
Considering anv such surface let us fix our attention on a particle P
situate on it at time t. The equation 3 expresses that the rate at
which P is separating from the surface is at this instant zero : and it
is easily seen that if the motion be continuous (according to the
definition of Alt. 4\ the normal velocity, relative to the moving
surface F, of a particle at an infinitesimal distance f from it is of the
order f, viz. it is equal to G( where G is finite. Hence the equation of
motion of the particle P relative to the surface may be written
DUDt=GC. This shews that log £ increases at a finite rate, and since
it is negative infinite to beo-in with (when £=u)> it remains so
throughout, i.e. £ remains zero for the particle P. The same result
follows from the nature of the solution of dF dF dF dF ct ox dy dz '
(o) considered as a partial differential equation in F\. The subsidiary
system of ordinary differential equations is dt — — — dy _ dz u v
~~ w ' (6) * (W. Thomson) "Notes on Hydrodynamics," Camb. and
Dub. Math. Journ. Feb 1848 [Mathematical and Physical Papers,
Cambridge, 1882... , i. 83.] f Lagrange, Oeuvres, iv. 706.
 8 The Equations of Motion [chap, i in which #, y, z are
regarded as functions of the independent variable t. These are
evidently the equations to find the paths of the particles, and their
integrals may be supposed put in the forms x=fi(a,b,c,t),
y=f2(a,b,c,t), z=f3(a, b, c, t), (7) where the arbitrary constants a, b,
c are any three quantities serving to identify a particle ; for instance
they may be the initial co-ordinates. The general solution of (5) is
then found by elimination of a, b, c between (7) and F=yjr(a,b,c),
(8) where \jr is an arbitrary function. This shews that a particle once
in the surface F=0 remains in it throughout the motion. Equation of
Energy. 10. In most cases which we shall have occasion to consider
the extraneous forces have a potential; viz. we have X,Y,Z=-f,-f,-f (1)
ox dy oz w The physical meaning of fl is that it denotes the potential
energy, per unit mass, at the point (so, y, z), in respect of forces
acting at a distance. It will be sufficient for the present to consider
the case where the field of extraneous force is constant with respect
to the time, i.e. 9f2/3£ = 0. If we now multiply the equations (2) of
Art. 6 by u, v, w, in order, and add, we obtain a result which may be
written If we multiply this by Sx By Sz, and integrate over any
region, we find 5
 9-io] Energy 9 where the integration extends over the
whole bounding surface. Transforming the remaining terms in a
similar manner, we obtain ^t{T + V)=j\ p{lu + mv + nw)dS +
\\\p(^ + fy + dQdxdydz. ...(4) In the case of an incompressible fluid
this reduces to the form ^(T+V)=j[(lu + mv + nw)pdS. (5) Since lu
+ mv + nw denotes the velocity of a fluid particle in the direction of
the normal, the latter integral expresses the rate at which the
pressures pBS exerted from without on the various elements BS of
the boundary are doing work. Hence the total increase of energy,
kinetic and potential, of any portion of the liquid, is equal to the
work done by the pressures on its surface. In particular, if the fluid
be bounded on all sides by fixed walls, we have lu + mv + nw = 0
over the boundary, and therefore T+F= const (6) A similar
interpretation can be given to the more general equation (4),
provided p be a function of p only. If we write E -/*
 10 The Equations of Motion [chap, i The total energy, which
is now partly kinetic, partly potential in relation to a constant field of
force, and partly intrinsic, is therefore increasing at a rate equal to
that at which work is being done on the boundary by pressure from
without. On the isothermal hypothesis we should have E =
 10— ll] Generation of Motion 11 Let p be the density, u, v,
w the component velocities immediately before, u', vr, vf those
immediately after the impulse, X', Y', Z' the components of the
extraneous impulsive forces per unit mass, m the impulsive pressure,
at the point (x, y, z). The change of momentum parallel to x of the
element defined in Art. 6 is then p8x8y8z(u — u); the ^-component
of the extraneous impulsive forces is pSxSySzX' ', and the resultant
impulsive pressure in the same direction is — dm/dx. SxSySz. Since
an impulse is to be regarded as an infinitely great force acting for an
infinitely short time (t, say), the effects of all finite forces during this
interval are to be neglected. dm Hence, phxhyhz{u —u) —
pSxSySzX' — ^— SxSySz, dx or Similarly, X v=Y'w w = Z'\dm_ p dx
p dy ldvr p dz ■(i) These equations might also have been deduced
from (2) of Art. 6, by multiplying the latter by Bt, integrating
between the limits 0 and r, putting (T Zdt, vr={Tpdt, Jo Jo u — u =
— V — — w w = — ■(2) X'=\ Xdt, Fr= Ydt, Z' Jo Jo and then making
r tend to the limit zero. In a liquid an instantaneous change of
motion can be produced by the action of impulsive pressures only,
even when no impulsive forces act bodily on the mass. In this case
we have X', Y', Z' = 0, so thafc id™ p dx 19z? p dv Idja p dz If we
differentiate these equations with respect to x, y, zy respectively, and
add, and if we further suppose the density to be uniform, we find by
Art. 8 (1) that dy* + dz* ~ ' The problem then, in any given case, is
to determine a value of m satisfying this equation and the proper
boundary conditions* ; the instantaneous change of motion is then
given by (2). * It will appear in Chapter in. that the value of w is
thus determinate, save as to an additive constant.
 12 The Equations of Motion [chap, i Equations referred to
Moving Axes. 12. It is sometimes convenient in special problems to
employ a system of rectangular axes which is itself in motion. The
motion of this frame may be specified by the component velocities u,
v, w of the origin, and the component rotations p, q, r, all referred to
the instantaneous positions of the axes. If u, v, w be the component
velocities of a fluid particle at (x, y, z), the rates of change of its co-
ordinates relative to the moving frame will be Dx Dy Dz j^ = u-u +
ry-qz, j+=v-v + pz-rx, -^ =w- w + qa?-py. ...(1) After a time St the
velocities of the particle parallel to the new positions of the co-
ordinate axes will have become , (du du Dx du Dy du Dz\ ~ c - /ON
To find the component accelerations we must resolve these parallel
to the original positions of the axes in the manner explained in
books on Dynamics. In this way we obtain the expressions (3) du du
Dx du Dy du Dz dv dv Dx dv Dy dv Dz dt-VW+ru+dxDi+dyWt+diDi
dw dw Dx dw Du dw Dz __qM + p„+__+__+___ These will replace
the expressions in the left-hand members of Art. 6 (2)*. The general
equation of continuity is dp d ( Dx\ d ( Dy\ d ( Dz\ A reducing in the
case of incompressibility to the form du dv dw _ „ dx dy dz ^ as
before. The Lagrangian Equations. 13. Let a, b, c be the initial co-
ordinates of any particle of fluid, x, y, z its co-ordinates at time t. We
here consider x, y, z as functions of the independent variables a, b,
c,t\ their values in terms of these quantities give the whole history of
every particle of the fluid. The velocities parallel to * Greenhill, "On
the General Motion of a Liquid Ellipsoid...," Proc. Gamb. Phil. Soc. iv.
4 (1880).
 i2-u] Lagrangian Equations 13 the axes of co-ordinates of
the particle (a, b, e) at time t are dx/dt, dy/dt, dz/dt, and the
component accelerations in the same directions are d2x/dt2,
d2y/dt2, d2zjdt2. Let p be the pressure and p the density in the
neighbourhood of this particle at time t; X, Y, Z the components of
the extraneous forces per unit mass acting there. Considering the
motion of the mass of fluid which at time t occupies the differential
element of volume BwBySz, we find, by the same reasoning as in
Art. 6, d2x _ Y 1 dp di2 p dx ' dhj^ldp dt2 p dy ' d2z _ „ _ 1 dp dt2~
pdz' These equations contain differential coefficients with respect to
oc, y, z, whereas our independent variables are a, b, c, t To eliminate
these differential coefficients, we multiply the above equations by
dx/da, dy/da, dzjda, respectively, and add; a second time by dx/db,
dy/db, dz/db, and add; and again a third time by dxjdc, dy/dc,
dz/dc, and add. We thus get the three equations 'c2x M2' -*)£+©-
>)&♦©J da pea 'd2x 3t2 ' -*)S+@■*)&♦©■z)i+"i=»' 'd2x jt2 ' -
*)«+©-')&-©■ -z^+l*-o. jde pdc These are the 'Lagrangian' forms
of the dynamical equations. 14. To find the form which the equation
of continuity assumes in terms of our present variables, we consider
the element of fluid which originally occupied a rectangular
parallelepiped having its centre at the point (a, b, c), and its edges
Sa, 8b, Be parallel to the axes. At the time t the same element forms
an oblique parallelepiped. The centre now has for its co-ordinates x,
y, z\ and the projections of the edges on the co-ordinate axes are
respectively dx 5 dy * dz . fr- oa, TT'Oa, ^oa; oa oa oa !»■ >■ >■
£* i* s*
 14 The Equations of Motion [chap, i The volume of the
parallelepiped is therefore dx da dx db' dx do' da' dy db' dy dc' dz_
da dz_ db dz_ dc 8a 8b 8c, or, as it is often written, d (a, b, c) ■(1)
(2) Hence, since the mass of the element is unchanged, we have
d(x,y,z) _ Pd(a~J^)-p0> where p0 is the initial density at (a, b, c).
In the case of an incompressible fluid p = p0, so that (1) becomes
d(x,y,z) ^ 1 d(a,b,c) Weber's Transformation. 15. If as in Art. 10 the
forces X, Y, Z have a potential 12, the dynamical equations of Art. 13
may be written d2x dx d2y dy d2z dz _ 312 1 dp „ . dt2 da dt2 da
dt2 da~ da pda' Let us integrate these equations with respect to t
between the limits 0 and t. We remark that '* d2x dx o dt2 da dx dx
dt da dxdx . d dtda~Uo~ dc' •(2) * H. Weber, "Ueber eine
Transformation der hydrodynamischen Gleichungen," Crelle, lxviii.
(1868). It is assumed in (1) that the density p, if not uniform, is a
function of p only.
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14-16 a] Polar Co-ordinates 15 These three equations,

together with 3I=I*--*{©'+(l)'+(l)'} ; and the equation of continuity,
are the partial differential equations to be satisfied by the five
unknown quantities x,y, z,p>x'> P being supposed already
eliminated by means of one of the relations of Art. 8. The initial
conditions to be satisfied are x — a, y = b, z — c, % = 0. 16. It is to
be remarked that the quantities a, b, c need not be restricted to
mean the initial co-ordinates of a particle; they may be any three
quantities which serve to identify a particle, and which vary
continuously from one particle to another. If we thus generalize the
meanings of a, 6, c, the form of the dynamical equations of Art. 13
is not altered; to find the form which the equation of continuity
assumes, let x0,yQ, z0 now denote the initial co-ordinates of the
particle to which a, 6, c refer. The initial volume of the parallepiped,
whose centre is at (x0, y0, z0) and whose edges correspond to
variations Sa, Sb, Be of the parameters a, b, c, is d{yy°'*°haSbSc, d
(a, 6, c) sothatwehave p |£f*> = Po 3-^£o) (1) r d (a, b, c) ru 3 (a,
6, c) v ; or, for an incompressible fluid, d(xty,z)_d(x0yy0,z0) d(a,b,c)
d(a,b,c) VW Equations in Polar Co-ordinates. 16 a. In the preceding
investigations Cartesian co-ordinates have been employed, as is
usually most consistent in the proof of general theorems. For special
purposes polar co-ordinates are occasionally useful, and the
appropriate formulae, on the 'Eulerian' plan, are accordingly given
here for reference. In plane polars we may use u and v to denote
the radial and transversal velocities, respectively, at the point (r, 6)
at time t. Since the radius vector of a particle is revolving at the rate
v/r, the ordinary theory of rotating axes gives for the component
accelerations: Du v Dv v M-r-V< Di + r-U' « where, by the method of
Art. 5, I) d d d wrdt+udr+vri0 (2) The ' expansion ' (A) is found by
calculating the rate of flux out of the quasi-rectangular element
whose sides are Sr and rdd ; thus du u dv A +_+ (3) or r rod v '
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accurate

16 The Equations of Motion [chap, i In spherical polars we

denote the radial velocity at (r, 6, cf>) by u, the velocity at right
angles r in the plane of 6 by v, and the velocity at right angles to the
plane of 6 by w. A triad of lines drawn from the origin parallel to
these directors, when taken in this order, will, on the usual
conventions, form a right-handed system. The changes in the
angular co-ordinates of a particle in time dt are given by rdd = v8t, r
sin 08(f> = wdt. This involves a rotation of the above system
relative to its instantaneous position, with components cos 68(f), -
sin<9Sc£, S<9. Hence if p, q, r are the components of the
instantaneous angular velocity of the system, we have p = -cot0,
q=--, r=- (4) The required accelerations of the particle which is at (/
•, 6, (f>) are therefore .(5) Du Du v2-\-w2 --n- + qW=-^ — , Dv Dv
uv w2 m-vw+ru=m+7--cote, Dw Dio wu vw , , _-q% + p,= _- + _ +
-coU where j- = k\+u ^+v-^ + io-—. — ^- (6) Dt dt or rdd
rsmddcf* The expansion is found by calculating the flux out of the
quasi-rectangular space whose edges are 8r, rb&, rsin 68cf>, and is
du n u dv v , . dw /h,. dr r rdd r rsm&dcfi
 CHAPTER II INTEGRATION OF THE EQUATIONS IN
SPECIAL CASES 17. In a large and important class of cases the
component velocities u, v, w can be expressed in terms of a single-
valued function Q exists be taken as the origin of time; we have then
u0da + v0db + w0dc = — d0, throughout the portion of the mass in
question. Multiplying the equations (2) of Art. 15 in order by da, db,
dc, and adding, we get ^idx+ ^dy+~-dz — (u0da + v0db -\-w0dc)
——dx, or, in the 'Eulerian' notation, udx + vdy + wdz = — d ($0 +
%) = — d
 18 Integration of the Equations in Special Cases [chap, ii A
portion of matter for which a velocity-potential exists moves about
and carries this property with it, but the part of space which it
originally occupied may, in the course of time, come to be occupied
by matter which did not originally possess the property, and which
therefore cannot have acquired it. The class of cases in which a
single- valued velocity-potential exists includes all those where the
motion has originated from rest under the action of forces of the
kind here supposed ; for then we have, initially, u0da + v0db +
w0dc = 0, or cj)0 = const. The restrictions under which the above
theorem has been proved must be carefully remembered. It is
assumed not only that the extraneous forces X, Y, Z, estimated at
per unit mass, have a potential, but that the density p is either
uniform or a function of p only. The latter condition is violated, for
example, in the case of the convection currents generated by the
unequal application of heat to a fluid; and again, in the wave-motion
of a heterogeneous but incompressible fluid arranged originally in
horizontal layers of equal density. Another case of exception is that
of 'electro-magnetic rotations'; see Art. 29. 18. A comparison of the
formulae (1) with the equations (2) of Art. 11 leads to a simple
physical interpretation of (j>. Any actual state of motion of a liquid,
for which a (single-valued) velocity-potential exists, could be
produced instantaneously from rest by the application of a properly
chosen system of impulsive pressures. This is evident from the
equations cited, which shew, moreover, that (f> — vr/p + const. ; so
that ot = p> + C gives the requisite system. In the same way ts =
— p$ + C gives the system of impulsive pressures which would
completely stop the motion*. The occurrence of an arbitrary
constant in these expressions merely shews that a pressure uniform
throughout a liquid mass produces no effect on the motion. In the
case of a gas, (f> may be interpreted as the potential of the
extraneous impulsive forces by which the actual motion at any
instant could be produced instantaneously from rest. A state of
motion for which a velocity-potential does not exist cannot be
generated or destroyed by the action of impulsive pressures, or of
extraneous impulsive forces having a potential. 19. The existence of
a velocity-potential indicates, besides, certain kinematical properties
of the motion. A 'line of motion' is denned to be a line drawn from
point to point, so * This interpretation was given by Canchy, loc, cit.,
and by Poisson, Mem. de VAcad. roy. des Science*, i. (1816).
 17-20] Velocity-Potential 19 that its direction is everywhere
that of the motion of the fluid. The differential equations of the
system of such lines are dx dy dz ,_. — = — = — (2) U V w The
relations (1) shew that when a velocity-potential exists the lines of
motion are everywhere perpendicular to a system of surfaces, viz.
the 'equipotential5 surfaces dx dcj>dy d(j>dz , . , _ d dx ds dy ds dz
ds' ds' The velocity in any direction is therefore equal to the rate of
decrease of cf) in that direction. Taking 8s in the direction of the
normal to the surface $ = const., we see that if a series of such
surfaces be drawn corresponding to equidistant values of 0, the
common difference being infinitely small, the velocity at any point
will be inversely proportional to the distance between two
consecutive surfaces in the neighbourhood of the point. Hence, if
any equipotential surface intersect itself, the velocity is zero at the
intersection. The intersection of two distinct equipotential surfaces
would imply an infinite velocity. 20. Under the circumstances stated
in Art. 17, the equations of motion are at once integrable throughout
that portion of the fluid mass for which a velocity-potential exists
provided p is either constant, or a definite function of p. For in virtue
of the relations dv/dz = dw/dy, dw/dx = du/dz, du/dy = dv/dx,
which are implied in (1), the equations of Art. 6 may be written
d2cj> du dv dw 311 19p dxdt ox dx dx dx pox These have the
integral l + W + E = ft+F(t) (4) Here q denotes the resultant
velocity (u2 + v2 -f w2)%, F(t) is an arbitrary function of t, and E is
defined by Art. 10 (7), and has (in the case of a gas) the
interpretation there given. Our equations take a specially simple
form in the case of an incompressible fluid; viz. we then have MS-a-
w+m :■■«>
 20 Integration of the Equations in Special Cases [chap, ii
with the equation of continuity w + df + M-0> (6) which is the
equivalent of Art. 1 (8). When, as in many cases which we shall have
to consider, the boundary conditions are purely kinematical, the
process of solution consists in finding a function which shall satisfy
(5) and the prescribed surface-conditions. The pressure p is then
given by (4), and is thus far indeterminate to the extent of an
additive function of t. It becomes determinate when the value of p
at some point of the fluid is given for all values of t. Since the term
F{t) is without influence on resultant pressures it is frequently
omitted. Suppose, for example, that we have a solid or solids
moving through a liquid completely enclosed by fixed boundaries,
and that it is possible {e.g. by means of a piston) to apply an
arbitrary pressure at some point of the boundary. Whatever
variations are made in the magnitude of the force applied to the
piston, the motion of the fluid and of the solids will be absolutely
unaffected, the pressure at all points instantaneously rising or falling
by equal amounts. Physically, the origin of the paradox (such as it is)
is that the fluid is treated as absolutely incompressible. In actual
liquids changes of pressure are propagated with very great, but not
infinite, velocity. If the co-ordinate axes are in motion, the formula
for the pressure is -»('*-3H('B-a-'('&-'i9
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