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The Asian Monsoon Causes History and Effects 1st
Edition Peter D. Clift Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Peter D. Clift, R. Alan Plumb
ISBN(s): 9780521847995, 051141014X
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 13.92 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
This page intentionally left blank
The Asian Monsoon: Causes, History and Effects
The Asian monsoon is one of the most dramatic climatic phenomena on
Earth today, with far reaching environmental and societal effects. But why
does the monsoon exist? What are its driving factors? How does it influence
the climate and geology of Asia? How has it evolved over long periods of
geologic time?

Almost two-thirds of humanity lives within regions influenced by the monsoon.

With the emerging economies of China, Vietnam and India now adding to
those of Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, the importance of the region to the
global economy has never been greater. Monsoon strength and variability
have been and will continue to be crucial to the past and future prosperity of
the region.

The Asian Monsoon describes the evolution of the monsoon on short and long
timescales, presenting and evaluating models that propose a connection
between the tectonic evolution of the solid Earth and monsoon intensity.
The authors explain how the monsoon has been linked to orbital processes
and thus to other parts of the global climate system, especially Northern
Hemispheric Glaciation. Finally, they summarize what is known of the
monsoon evolution since the last ice age and note how this has impacted
human societies, as well as commenting on the potential impact of future
climate change.

This book presents a multi-disciplinary overview of the monsoon for

advanced students and researchers in atmospheric science, climatology,
oceanography, geophysics and geomorphology.
P E T E R D . C L I F T is Kilgour Professor in the School of Geosciences at the
University of Aberdeen, a Research Affiliate at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology and a visiting professor at the Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Guangzhou. His research focuses on the integration of marine and terrestrial
data sets to understand how the monsoon changes with time. He has authored
over 100 peer reviewed papers and has acted as lead editor on two other books,
as well as a special collection concerning the monsoon for Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. He is co-leader of IGCP 476 “Monsoons and
Tectonics”.

R . A L A N P L U M B is Professor of Meteorology and Director of the Program in

Oceans, Atmospheres, and Climate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
He has been an editor of Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences and of Pure and
Applied Geophysics and has published approximately 100 peer reviewed papers,
as well as co-editing one previous book and co-authoring an undergraduate
textbook on The Circulation of the Atmosphere and Ocean (Marshall and Plumb, 2008).
 The Asian
Monsoon
Causes, History and Effects

P E T E R D. C L I F T
University of Aberdeen, UK

R. A L A N P L U M B
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521847995

© P. D. Clift and R. A. Plumb 2008

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2008

ISBN-13 978-0-511-40907-3 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-84799-5 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgements x

1 The meteorology of monsoons 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Meteorology of the tropics 2
1.3 The Indian Ocean monsoon system 14
1.4 Theory of monsoons 22

2 Controls on the Asian monsoon over tectonic timescales 29

2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 The influence of Tibet 32
2.3 Oceanic controls on monsoon intensity 45
2.4 Summary 48

3 Monsoon evolution on tectonic timescales 49

3.1 Proxies for monsoon intensity 49
3.2 Monsoon reconstruction by oceanic upwelling 49
3.3 Continental climate records 60
3.4 Eolian dust records 68
3.5 Evolving flora of East Asia 82
3.6 History of Western Pacific Warm Pool and the Monsoon 89
3.7 Summary 92

4 Monsoon evolution on orbital timescales 95

4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Orbital controls on monsoon strength 96
4.3 Eolian records in North-east Asia 103
4.4 Monsoon records from cave deposits 114
4.5 Monsoon variability recorded in ice caps 124

v
vi Contents

4.6 Monsoon variability recorded in lacustrine sediments 125

4.7 Salinity records in marine sediments 130
4.8 Pollen records in marine sediments 135
4.9 Paleoproductivity as an indicator of monsoon strength 139
4.10 The Early Holocene monsoon 145
4.11 Mid–Late Holocene monsoon 152
4.12 Summary 156

5 Erosional impact of the Asian monsoon 159

5.1 Monsoon and oceanic strontium 159
5.2 Reconstructing erosion records 160
5.3 Reconstructing exhumation 163
5.4 Estimating marine sediment budgets 164
5.5 Erosion in Indochina 167
5.6 Erosion in other regions 174
5.7 Monsoon rains in Oman 175
5.8 Changes in monsoon-driven erosion on orbital timescales 176
5.9 Tectonic impact of monsoon strengthening 184
5.10 Climatic control over Himalaya exhumation 193
5.11 Summary 195

6 The Late Holocene monsoon and human society 197

6.1 Introduction 197
6.2 Holocene climate change and the Fertile Crescent 203
6.3 Holocene climate change and the Indus Valley 205
6.4 Holocene climate change and early Chinese cultures 211
6.5 Monsoon developments since 1000 AD 216
6.6 Monsoon and religion 223
6.7 Impacts of future monsoon evolution 227
6.8 Summary 231

References 232
Further reading 263
Index 266
Color plates between pages 94 and 95
 Preface

The Asian monsoon is one of the most dramatic climatic phenomena

on Earth today, with far-reaching environmental and societal effects. Almost
two thirds of humanity live within regions influenced by the monsoon.
Monsoon strength and variability have been and will continue to be crucial to
the past and future prosperity of the region. With the emerging economies of
China, Vietnam and India now adding to those of Japan, South Korea and Taiwan
the importance of the region to the global economy has never been greater.
Continuation of this growth is dependent on the climate and environment.
Recent detailed climate reconstructions now show that the development and
collapse of civilizations in both South and East Asia have been controlled in
large measure by monsoon intensity. Modern technology now allows society
to respond more effectively to environmental stresses, yet in the face of the
destructive powers of typhoons or long duration droughts there is still little
man can do when environmental catastrophe strikes.
As a result, understanding what controls the Asian monsoon and how it has
changed in the past is important not only to scientists but also to the general
population. In this book we present a multi-disciplinary overview of the monsoon
for advanced students and researchers, spanning recent advances in atmospheric
sciences, climatology, oceanography and geology. Finally we consider how the
evolving monsoon has both helped and hindered the development of human
civilizations since the Last Glacial Maximum, 20 000 years ago. The monsoon
represents a large-scale seasonal reversal of the normal atmospheric circulation
pattern. In this model, low-pressure systems develop in the tropics owing to
rising hot air masses that cool and descend in the subtropics, which are thus
characteristically arid regions. In contrast, summer heating of the Asian contin-
ent, especially around the Tibetan Plateau, generates low-pressure cells and thus
summer rains in South and East Asia. In the winter a reversed high-pressure
system is established, with dry, cold winds blowing out of Asia.

vii
viii Preface

The links between the Tibetan Plateau and monsoon intensity have formed
the basis of a long-running debate because this proposed relationship would
appear to be one of the strongest examples of how the solid Earth, which is
being continuously deformed and remodeled by plate tectonic forces, may be
influencing the global climate system. The intensity of the modern monsoon
likely reflects the fact that Tibet is the largest mountain chain seen on Earth for
more than 500 million years and has correspondingly made a particularly large
impact on the planet’s atmospheric systems. Progress has been made in estab-
lishing links between the relatively slow growth of the plateau and monsoon
strength, yet until the developing altitude of Tibet is better established and a
truly long-scale climate history for the monsoon has been reconstructed it will
remain impossible to test the linkages definitely. In particular, climatologists
need an appropriate, long-duration sedimentary record dating back to the
collision of the Indian and Asian plates that generated Tibet in the first place.
In practice this means around 50 million years. Such a record exists in the oceans
and continental margins around Asia, but has yet to be sampled.
While recognizing that the monsoon has strengthened over periods of
millions or tens of millions of years, research focus over the past 10–15 years
has demonstrated that not only does monsoon intensity vary dramatically on
much shorter timescales, but that these are often linked to other parts of the
global climate system. In particular, the detailed climate records now available
for the past few million years show coherent, if sometimes lagged, development
of the monsoon with the glaciation of the northern hemisphere. Clearly the
monsoon cannot be studied in isolation from other systems, especially the
oceanic–atmospheric systems of the North Atlantic (Gulf Stream and North
Atlantic Deep Water) and the El Niño Southern Oscillation system of the Pacific
Ocean. Indeed, it has been suggested not only that these systems control
monsoon strength, but also that the monsoon can affect their evolution.
A general pattern has emerged of summer monsoons being strong and winter
monsoons generally weaker during warm, interglacial periods, and the reverse
situation dominating during glacial times. As a result monsoon strength varies
on the 21, 40 and 100 thousand year timescales that control periods of glacial
advance and retreat. In detail, however, the situation is complicated by lags in
the climate system that offset the response of the monsoon to solar forcing.
In addition, there continues to be debate regarding how the monsoon differs in
South and East Asia over various timescales. Current data suggest a generally
coherent development between the two systems over millions of years but
differences at the orbital and sub-millennial scale. Determining how and why
they differ requires more high-resolution climate reconstructions from across
the entire geographic range of the monsoon, involving both the “core area”
 Preface ix

of monsoon activity, such as the Bay of Bengal, and the “far-field” regions, such
as the Sea of Japan and the Gulf of Oman, which may be more sensitive to modest
changes in strength. Observations alone are not enough and a deep understand-
ing of how the monsoon evolves and what the key controls are will require better
climate models, ground-truthed with both oceanic and continental climate
records.
The interactions of monsoon and society are a particularly fertile area of
recent and future research. This field has developed as better climate records
have been reconstructed over the past 8000 years or so. In particular the reso-
lution permitted by ice cores and some high accumulation rate sediments in
the oceans and lakes allows changes in monsoon intensity to be compared with
human history. Indeed the 14C dating used to constrain these records is the
same method used to date archaeological sites, allowing a robust comparison
to be made. Global warming, as a result of human activities, as well as natural
processes, would tend to favor a stronger summer monsoon in the long term,
yet in detail there is much potential complexity. Melting of the Greenland ice
sheet may disrupt the overturn of waters in the North Atlantic and result in a
cooling of that region. Comparison with similar natural events in the past
suggests that such an event would result in weaker summer monsoons. Not only
the strength of the monsoon can be affected by climate change but also its
variability. Historical records indicate that the number and intensity of summer
typhoons striking the densely populated coast of southern China have increased
significantly over the past 200 years. If that trend were to continue, its economic
and humanitarian effects could be disastrous.
Whatever part of the Earth we live in, the Asian monsoon is of significance
to our lives and understanding of how the planet and society operates. Much
work remains to be done in quantifying the monsoon and how it functions at
a variety of timescales. Despite this great progress has been made in under-
standing this system. In this book we have attempted to synthesize what is
now known and highlight those areas where significant research remains to
be done.

peter clift
Aberdeen, UK
alan plumb
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
 Acknowledgements

Clift would like to thank the following friends and colleagues for their
generous help in putting this book together: Mark Altabet, An Zhisheng, David
Anderson, Jon Bull, Doug Burbank, Stephen Burns, Kevin Cannariato, Marin Clark,
Steve Clemens, Kristy Dahl, Dominik Fleitmann, Christian France-Lanord, Carmala
Garzione, Liviu Giosan, Ananda Gunatilaka, Anil K. Gupta, Naomi Harada, Nigel
Harris, Ulrike Herzschuh, David Heslop, Ann Holbourn, Yetang Hong, Tomohisa
Irino, Hermann Kudrass, Wolfgang Kuhnt, Michinobu Kuwae, Peter Molnar, Delia
Oppo, Dave Rea, Stephan Steinke, Ryuji Tada, Federica Tamburini, Ellen Thomas,
Ruiliang Wang and Pinxian Wang. The idea for this book came from Clift’s
involvement in IGCP 476 “Monsoons and Tectonics,” an international program
supported by UNESCO and organized by Ryuji Tada.
Clift would also like to thank the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation
for supporting his time in Bremen during a visiting fellowship at the Research
Center for Ocean Margins (RCOM) and the Fachbereich Geowissenschaften at
the Universität Bremen, when much of the writing was completed. Related
research was completed thanks to financial support from the National Science
Foundation (USA), the Natural Environment Research Council (UK), the Royal
Society and the Carnegie Foundation for the Scottish Universities. Clift wishes
to thank his wife Chryseis Fox for putting up with all the lost family time as a
result of writing this book and the associated travel and research activities.
Without her understanding and support this book would not have been possible.
We also wish to thank Bill Haxby and Suzanne Carbotte at the Lamont-
Doherty Earth Observatory for their help with GeoMapApp, which is supported
by the National Science Foundation.
We thank all the staff at Cambridge University Press who have helped with
the production of this book, especially Matt Lloyd, Susan Francis, Dawn Preston,
Denise Cheuk and Annette Cooper.

x
 1

The meteorology of monsoons

1.1 Introduction

Monsoon circulations are major features of the tropical atmosphere,

which, primarily through the rainfall associated with them, are of profound
importance to a large fraction of the world’s population. While there is no
universally accepted definition of what constitutes a monsoon, there are some
criteria that are widely accepted (see, e.g., the discussions in Ramage (1971),
Webster (1987), and Neelin (2007)). Fundamentally, monsoonal climates are
found where a tropical continent lies poleward of an equatorial ocean and are
characterized by a strong seasonal cycle, with dry winters and very wet summers,
and a reversal of wind direction from, in the dry season, the equatorward–
easterly flow that is typical of most of the tropics to poleward–westerly flow after
monsoon onset. Low-level flow from the ocean imports moisture onto the land
to supply the rainfall there (although much of the rainfall within the monsoon
system as a whole may actually fall over the neighboring ocean). In fact, in most
monsoon systems this inflow includes strong cross-equatorial flow at low levels,
from the winter to the summer hemisphere; however, this is not satisfied in all
cases (such as the North American monsoon; Neelin (2007)). Indeed, given the
differences in detail between different monsoon systems, even though they
satisfy the most obvious criteria, it is inevitable that any attempt at definition
will be imprecise, and even that classification of some regional meteorological
regimes as monsoons may not be universally accepted.
The Asian–Indian Ocean–Australian monsoon system is, by some way, the
most dramatic on the planet in terms of its intensity and spatial extent, but
there are other regions of the globe, specifically North and Central America,
and West Africa, that display similar characteristics and are thus classified as

1
2 The meteorology of monsoons

monsoons. It is important to recognize at the outset that, despite these regional

classifications, the monsoons form part of the planetary-scale circulation of
the tropical atmosphere: they are influenced by, and in turn influence, the
global circulation. Accordingly, we shall begin this overview with a brief review
of the “big picture” of the tropical circulation, which will lead into a more
focussed discussion of the Asian–Indian Ocean–Australian monsoon system.

1.2 Meteorology of the tropics

1.2.1 Observed zonal mean picture

A good starting point for understanding the general circulation of
the global atmosphere is to look at the zonally (i.e., longitudinally) averaged
circulation in the meridional (latitude-height) plane. Since the circulation
varies seasonally (an essential fact of monsoon circulations) it is better to look
at seasonal, rather than annual, averages. In turn, the atmosphere exhibits
interannual variability – it is a matter of basic experience that one year’s weather
differs from the last, and this is especially true in the tropics – and so, in a general
overview such as this, we shall look not at individual years, but at climatological
averages, i.e., averages over many summers or winters, which show the normal
picture for that season.
Figure 1.1 shows the climatological distribution of mean zonal wind and
temperature for the two solstice seasons DJF (December through February)
and JJA (June through August). The dominant features of the zonal wind distri-
bution are two westerly subtropical jets straddling the equator at altitudes of
about 12 km (near 200 hPa pressure). The core of the stronger jet is located at
about 30
latitude in the winter hemisphere, while that of the weaker jet is
at 40–50
latitude in the summer hemisphere. Within the deep tropics, the zonal
wind is easterly, though mostly weak, all the way down to the surface. Outside the
tropics, at latitudes greater than about 30
, the mean surface winds are westerly.
Several features of the mean temperature distribution are worthy of note.
Temperature generally decreases rapidly through the troposphere up to the
tropopause whose mean altitude varies from about 17 km in the tropics down
to around 8 km (near 400 hPa) at the poles. Above, temperature increases,
or decreases more slowly, with altitude through the stratosphere. As will be
seen in Figure 1.3, almost all atmospheric water (along with most dynamical
processes relevant to surface weather and climate) is located in the troposphere.
Within the troposphere, temperature decreases systematically poleward from
a broad maximum centered in the summer tropics. Note, however, the weak
temperature gradients between the two subtropical jets, which contrast with
the strong gradients in middle latitudes, poleward of the jet cores.
 1.2 Meteorology of the tropics 3

−2 0
30 30

−80
20

−10

40
30
10

0
20
20 20

−10
z (km)

20
20

30

10
10

−60
−60

30
−6

40
0
20

0
10 10 −6
0
−4

0
0
−40
0
10

−20
−20

0
0 0
0
20
0 0
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90 −90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
latitude latitude

Figure 1.1 Climatological zonal mean zonal wind (solid; ms1) and temperature
(dashed;
C) for (left) December–February and (right) June–August. Contour intervals
are 5 ms1 and 10
, respectively; easterly winds are shaded. The data are averaged on
pressure surfaces; the height scale shown is representative. Data provided by the
NOAA-CIRES Climate Diagnostics Center, Boulder, Colorado, through their website
at www.cdc.noaa.gov/.

Continuity of mass requires that the zonal mean circulation in the meridional
plane be closed, so that northward and vertical motions are directly linked.
A convenient way to display the meridional circulation on a single plot is to
show the mass streamfunction w, which is done in Figure 1.2 for the two solstice
periods. The mean northward and upward velocities (v,w) are related to the
mass streamfunction w through

1 @w 1 @w
v¼ ; w¼ ;
2pracos’ @ z 2pra2 cos’ @’

where r is the density, a is the Earth’s radius and f the latitude. The velocities
are thus directed along the w contours, with mass flux inversely proportional
to the contour spacing. In this plane, the mean circulation is almost entirely
confined to the tropics. This tropical cell is known as the Hadley circulation,
with upwelling over and slightly on the summer side of the equator, summer-
to-winter flow in the upper troposphere, downwelling in the winter subtropics,
and winter-to-summer flow in the lower troposphere. The latitude of the pole-
ward edge of the cell coincides with that of the winter subtropical jet. There is
a much weaker, mirror-image, cell on the summer side of the equator. Around
the equinoxes, the structure is more symmetric, with upwelling near the equator
and downwelling in the subtropics of both hemispheres.
The distribution of atmospheric moisture is shown in Figure 1.3. Humidity
is expressed in two forms: specific humidity, the amount of water vapor per unit
4 The meteorology of monsoons

20 20
DJF JJA

−1
2
z (km)

10 10

−2

−4
−20
−2
16

10
4

−4
0 0
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90 −90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
latitude latitude

Figure 1.2 Climatological zonal mean overturning streamfunction (10 kg s1 for
December–February (left) and June–August (right). Solid contours denote positive
values, dashed contours are negative; the zero contour is not plotted. The meridional
flow is directed along the streamfunction contours, clockwise around positive cells,
anticlockwise around negative cells, as indicated for the dominant cells by the
arrows on the plots. The magnitude of the net mass circulation around each cell is
equal to the value of the streamfunction extremum in the cell. Data provided by the
NOAA-CIRES Climate Diagnostics Center, Boulder, Colorado, through their website
at www.cdc.noaa.gov/.

mass of air, conventionally expressed as g kg1, and relative humidity, the ratio of
specific humidity to its saturation value (the value in equilibrium with liquid
water at the ambient temperature and pressure). On this zonally and climatolo-
gically averaged view, the near-surface relative humidity varies remarkably little
across the globe, being mostly between 65 and 85%. The driest surface regions are
near the poles, and in the desert belt of the subtropics. There is a general
decrease of relative humidity with height, a consequence of the drying effects
of precipitation in updrafts followed by adiabatic descent; the regions of subsid-
ence on the poleward flanks of the Hadley circulation are particularly under-
saturated. The zonally averaged specific humidity is as large as 17 g kg1 near
the surface just on the summer side of the equator, decaying to less than 1 g kg1
in high latitudes and in the upper troposphere and above. Indeed, the variation
of specific humidity is much greater than that of relative humidity, indicating
that the former primarily reflects variations of saturation vapor pressure, which
has a very strong dependence on temperature (expressed as the Clausius–
Clapeyron relationship; see, e.g., Bohren and Albrecht (1998)). Thus, the highest
specific humidities are found where the atmosphere is warmest: at low altitudes
in the tropics.
 1.2 Meteorology of the tropics 5

10 10
q (g kg−1) U (%)
40
z (km)

5 5

60
7

3
9

80
11
13 80
0 0
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90 −90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
latitude latitude

Figure 1.3 Climatological annual- and zonal-mean specific humidity (left, g kg1;
values greater than 5 g kg1 are shaded) and relative humidity (right, %; values greater
than 50% are shaded). Data provided by the NOAA-CIRES Climate Diagnostics Center,
Boulder, Colorado, through their website at www.cdc.noaa.gov/.

1.2.2 Dynamical and thermodynamical constraints on the circulation

At first sight, some of the characteristics of the zonally averaged
atmosphere may seem puzzling. Ultimately, what drives the atmospheric circu-
lation is the spatial variation of the input of solar energy (per unit surface area)
into the atmosphere, which generally decreases monotonically from a maximum
in the summer tropics to minima at the poles, yet the meridional circulation is
not global in extent. Rather, it terminates at the edge of the tropics where the
subtropical jets are located, and there is a distinct contrast between, on the one
hand, the tropical region between the jets, characterized by weak horizontal
temperature gradients, the strong Hadley circulation, and easterly winds and,
on the other hand, the extratropical regions of strong temperature gradients,
weak mean meridional flow, and westerly winds poleward of the jets. There is no
such sharp distinction in the external forcing.
The most important controlling factor separating the meteorology of the
tropics from that of middle and high latitudes is the Earth’s rotation. Consider
air rising near the equator, and turning toward the winter pole as seen in
Figure 1.2. If for the moment we consider zonally symmetric motions, the air
aloft (where frictional losses are utterly negligible) will conserve its absolute
angular momentum – angular momentum relative to an inertial reference
frame, which includes components associated with the planetary rotation as
well as with relative motion – as it moves. As air moves away from the equator
and thus closer to the rotation axis, the planetary component decreases; conse-
quently, the relative motion must increase. The further poleward the air moves,
6 The meteorology of monsoons

the more dramatic the effects of rotation become, just because of the geometry
of the sphere. Thus, the winds would become increasingly westerly (eastward)
with latitude, and dramatically so: 58 ms1 at 20
, 134 ms1 at 30
, 328 ms1
at 45
. In fact, the westerly wind would have to become infinite at the pole.
At some point, the atmosphere cannot sustain equilibrium with such winds.
Consequently the poleward circulation must terminate at some latitude; exactly
where is determined by many factors, most importantly a balance between the
strength of the external forcing and the effective local planetary rotation rate
(Held and Hou, 1980; Lindzen and Hou, 1988). These termination latitudes
mark the poleward boundaries of the Hadley circulation, and the latitude of
the subtropical jet. (In reality, the jets are weaker than this argument would
imply; processes we have not considered here – most importantly, angular
momentum transport by eddies – allow the air to lose angular momentum as
it moves poleward.)
Rotational effects are manifested in the balance of forces through the Coriolis
acceleration which, for the large-scale atmospheric flow, is more important
than the centripetal acceleration. In general, the vector Coriolis acceleration is
2V  u, where V is the vector planetary rotation rate and u the vector velocity.
However, the atmosphere is so thin that the vertical component of velocity
is necessarily much smaller than the horizontal components and, in conse-
quence, the important components of acceleration can be written as f ^z  u,
where f ¼ 2Osin’, the Coriolis parameter, is just twice the projection of the
rotation rate onto the local upward direction ^z. At low latitudes f, and hence
the influence of planetary rotation, is weak, thus permitting the Hadley circula-
tion to exist there. This fact also implies that pressure must approximately be
horizontally uniform, just as the surface of a pond must generally be flat (ponds
typically being much too small for planetary rotation to matter). Since, in
hydrostatic balance, the pressure at any location is just equal to the weight of
overlying air per unit horizontal area, and density depends on temperature, the
horizontal temperature gradients there must also be weak, as is observed in the
tropical atmosphere (Figure 1.1). In fact, the fundamental role of the Hadley
circulation is to maintain this state. Thus, the existence of a separation of
characteristics between the tropical and extratropical regions of the atmosphere
is, in large part, a consequence of planetary rotation.
These, and essentially all other, atmospheric motions derive their energy
ultimately from the input of solar energy or, more precisely, from the differen-
tial input between low and high latitudes, which creates internal and potential
energy within the atmosphere, a portion of which is then converted into the
kinetic energy of atmospheric winds. For a compressible atmosphere in hydro-
static balance, internal and potential energy are closely related to each other;
 1.2 Meteorology of the tropics 7

20 20
h (105 J kg −1) hm (105 J kg −1)
z (km) 3.6 3.6

3.2 3.2
10 10

3.2
2.8

2.8
8
2.
0 0
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90 −90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
latitude latitude

Figure 1.4 Climatological annual- and zonal-mean meridional distribution of (left)

dry static energy and (right) moist static energy ( J kg1). Data provided by the
NOAA-CIRES Climate Diagnostics Center, Boulder, Colorado, through their website
at www.cdc.noaa.gov/.

accordingly, it is conventional to combine them into a quantity known as dry

static energy, which, per unit mass of air, is

h ¼ cp T þ gz;

where z and T are altitude and temperature, g is the acceleration due to gravity,
and cp is the specific heat of air at constant pressure. The annual- and zonal-mean
distribution of h is shown in the left frame of Figure 1.4.
Just as planetary rotation constrains horizontal motion, so thermodynamic
effects and gravity restrict vertical motion. Dry static energy increases with
height at all latitudes. Therefore, for near-equatorial air in the upwelling branch
of the Hadley circulation to move from the surface up to the upper troposphere
(Figure 1.2), its dry static energy must increase. Moreover, in practice what
appears in Figure 1.2 as a broadscale, slow, upwelling is in fact the spatial and
temporal average of much more rapid motion within narrow convective towers;
in such towers, air typically moves from surface to tropopause in an hour or so.
Radiation cannot provide the implied diabatic heating: it is much too weak and,
besides, radiation is generally a cooling agent in the tropics. However, as was
evident in Figure 1.3, tropical surface air is very moist, and the near-equatorial
upwelling is thus characterized by saturation, condensation and intense rainfall.
Condensation is a major contributor to the thermodynamic balances. Many
treatments focus on the thermodynamics of dry air, but add adiabatic heating
equal to L  dq/dt per unit mass per unit time, where L is the enthalpy (latent
heat) of vaporization and q the specific humidity, so that dq/dt is the rate of
condensation per unit mass of air.
8 The meteorology of monsoons

radiative cooling radiative cooling

in downdraft in downdraft

Height (a) (b)

Height
Latitude latent heating Latitude
heat and moisture energy supply
in updraft
supply from surface from surface

Figure 1.5 Schematic depiction of the energetics of the Hadley circulation. In frame
(a), moisture is treated as a source of static energy; in frame (b), it is treated as an
integral component of the atmospheric static energy. (See text for discussion.)

The thermodynamic driving of the tropical meridional circulation can thus

be described as illustrated in Figure 1.5(a). Air is supplied with heat and moisture
in the near-surface boundary, as it flows across the warm tropical ocean (and
the stronger the low-level wind, the more turbulent the boundary layer and the
greater the evaporation from the ocean surface). Ascent, requiring increasing h,
is facilitated by the release of latent heat associated with condensation of
water vapor, and consequent precipitation, in the relatively concentrated
updraft. The compensating loss of energy occurs in the downwelling region.
Descending air tends to warm adiabatically; this warming must result in
enhanced emission of thermal radiation. So the picture of Figure 1.5(a) is one
of heating in the updrafts, cooling in the downdrafts.
The foregoing description, although commonly found in meteorology texts
until quite recently, is imperfect for many reasons. For our purposes, the one
important reason is that it misleads us into believing that the underlying driver
for such circulations is the latent heat release consequent on precipitation in the
updraft, whereas the energy of the circulation is, in fact, supplied ultimately
from the warm underlying ocean. More completely, it is the contrast between
energy gain in the warm surface boundary layer and the radiative energy loss at
lower temperature (in the cooler middle and upper troposphere) in the down-
welling. Thus, this kind of circulation is just a classical Carnot heat engine1
(Emanuel, 1986). To appreciate this fact, we need to recognize that latent heat

1
This statement is true of many tropical circulation systems. With a modest change of
geometry, Figure 1.5 could equally well depict a hurricane or, as we shall see, a monsoon
circulation.
Other documents randomly have
different content
“me” does not quite know myself yet in cap and gown. At
least it may remind you sometimes of most hearty gratitude
for all your kind care which enabled me to come to
personally receive the great honour symbolised.
Dr. MacDougall was good enough to send me some
splendid specimens of bark infested by Hylesinus crenatus
(Greater ash-bark beetle), which have enabled me to figure
this attack. I should like very much indeed to form a
“Handbook of Insects Injurious to Forest Trees,” and I have a
mass of material in my Annual Reports bringing the subject,
I think, up to date, and a beautiful supply of figures, but
there is such a run of application and correspondence that I
do not see my way to doing it myself—and yet it seems a
pity for the information to be lying comparatively idle.

May 29, 1900.

Now I must say that you wrote exactly what I was wishing
about my proposed book, “Insects Injurious to Forest
Trees.”[101] In case Dr. MacDougall would not think me taking
a liberty in suggesting the plan, I should very much indeed
like to have the benefit of his skilled help in preparing the
book, that is bringing it out in collaboration with him, and
with our names on the title-page. Would you kindly take the
trouble when you see him to lay the matter before him, for I
scarcely like to come upon him suddenly without, so to say, a
“sponsor.” My idea is that the forest attacks would work out
much like the papers in my “Handbook,” of which of course I
would gladly send a copy for his acceptance as well as
material, i.e., Annual Reports or sometimes, if more
convenient, extracted papers and a copy of “General Index.”
I would undertake all expenses, i.e., printing, publishing,
furnishing figures, and the like. I think I have of my own
nearly as many of good up-to-date illustrations as we should
need to illustrate every attack, but where additions are
needed I propose (as I am doing now from one of Dr.
MacDougall’s specimens) to have them figured from life by
Mr. Knight.[102] I fancy the book would be about twothirds as
long as my “Handbook of Orchard Fruits,” but being intended
at first for University services, possibly the plan would be
different. This he, you, and possibly Colonel Bailey [lecturer
on Forestry in Edinburgh University] might have a word to
say about. I should like very much to hear from you on the
subject, and perhaps from Dr. MacDougall.

June 5, 1900.
You will tell me presently when you can come, but would
not Mr. John Garton [of Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire, the
originator of the scientific system of producing new breeds of
crop plants by multiple-crossing] come too? I should like it
very much if it were agreeable to him, as there are so many
points of interest we three could go over together. You could
assure him that he can be as quiet as ever he likes, and rest
in his own room, just as he pleases. Will you both come on
Saturday for Sunday? When you come we can have a good
talk about the “Forestry Insect Text Book.” I am very glad to
have it from you that Dr. MacDougall likes the idea of
colleagueship. I have had a very nice letter from him with
promise of one of details to follow, but when I found that he
had been collecting notes for some years, I felt so very
uneasy lest he should think me intruding on his projects (in
fact very presumptuous) that I wrote him specially on this
head. I shall be delighted to put every morsel of
observations, and blocks, and all I can to help at his service,
but it is to his skill that I look to form the book into what he
knows, much better than I, will suit University needs.
The weather surely needs a little putting to rights. It
caught me rather sharply, and I have had to spend some
days in bed, but I am up again now, and getting some good
observations.
P.S.—I have some such nice letters from Edinburgh about
my photo. A very charming one from Sir Ludovic Grant, also
from Professor Seth.[103] I mean to keep them as great
treasures.

June 14, 1900.

I am in receipt of a long letter from Dr. MacDougall about
the text-book of “Forest Insects,” and it seems to me that his
plan is excellent. For my good folks, who want the plainest
facts fairly driven into their heads in the very plainest words,
I think it would be too scientific in the possession of special
entomological chapters, but I quite think in the present case
these are needed, and my only fear is lest he should wish me
to collaborate in these. All the rest I think I should be quite
at home in, and I am going to write him about it, as I should
very much like the joint work.
I am writing down bits (long or short as they come into my
head) of “Recollections,” on pages with appropriate headings
in my letter book, which usually lies on the table most of the
day, so is at hand; and most miscellaneous reminiscences go
in which I feel sure I should not have courage to think of
giving excepting on our plan. I rather think they might be
interesting, and I mean to see in good time about the
shorthand writer. The head reporter of our best local paper
can take down well a report from my dictation. Do not you
think that if we can get the “Recollections” (how would
“Recollections of Changing Times” do for a title?) into shape
that—instead of publishing as I usually do with any amount
of trouble and little return for the expense—it would be a
good plan to offer the MS. to some publisher, who might, I
think, take it off my hands on terms to be agreed upon? But
when next we meet I hope we shall go into all these matters
comfortably, as you say, “after dinner.”
P.S.—The French medal (plate XXII.) appeared to-day in a
registered letter. I wonder whether Professor Ewart has got
his? I have information of the worst attacks of eel-worms in
broad beans that I ever saw, after oats in the spring of 1898
and of 1899.

July 18, 1900.

I feel sure, wherever you are, that you are so much
occupied that you have not a morsel of spare time, but if you
could presently give me a little advice it would be of great
value to me. I was urged to let my name be put on the
Agricultural Education Committee, and agreed, and by way of
something solid I suggested that I should form a set of
papers on “Common Fly attacks to Farm Stock,” and I set to
work. But as I go on I really think that they are more fitted
for regular agricultural work, and I should value a few words
of guidance from you very much. The subjects I am thinking
of taking as what I know personally are: Sheep—Nostril fly,
with note of “Gad” as different, and “Spider” fly; Horse—Bot
fly, Forest fly; Cattle—Warbles, Gad fly, and anything else
that might occur.
Nostril fly and Horse Bot fly shape (as I think you also
would consider) nicely, brought up to date; and in G. equi
(Horse Bot fly, fig. 10) I have really handled the only bit of
the subject that was not pleasant, so that I do not think
anybody could object. The two above-mentioned papers are
about ready for press. But what I wish very much is that you
would kindly let me know your view of it. Would it be better
to print the subjects in my usual way, as leaflets, or make
them into a little pamphlet? G. equi would fit nicely into a
four-page leaflet. œ. ovis, (Sheep Nostril fly), I think would
be shorter; and the short papers which would go nicely along
with their more important brethren in a pamphlet rather
puzzle me how to deal with if in leaflets. I have excellent
figures, and in an idea (possibly erroneous) of bringing the
sequence out for the Agricultural Education Committee, I
wrote a sort of little “fresh” preface on the creatures
collectively. As I am sure you will allow me the pleasure of
thinking myself in some degree a colleague of yours (and if I
drive well at work I should hope to have it ready for your
winter session), I should be exceedingly obliged if you would
tell me whether you think pamphlet or leaflet would be best.
[The pamphlet form was ultimately adopted, and it was
published as “Flies Injurious to Stock,” &c., price sixpence.]

1, Fly, magnified, line showing natural

length; 2, maggot; 3, mouth hooks of
maggot; and 4, tail segment, showing
spiracles, and lobes, acting as organs of
progression—all magnified. (After Brauer.)

FIG. 76.—SHEEP’S NOSTRIL FLY, ŒSTRUS

OVIS, LINN.

August 2, 1900.
 I am very glad that Dr. Fream gave a good notice in the
“Times,” of your intended series of lectures on Colonial and
Indian Agriculture—it will be a noble work, and I am glad
you are enjoying the preparation.
“Reminiscences” are lying in a drawer, for there is such a
quantity of work there is no spare time. When I have got the
first sheet of “Flies Injurious to Stock,” I should like to send
one to you, please; not to trouble you, but just that you may
see how it is getting on.

August 25, 1900.

Mr. Elliott tells me that “the oil painting” is to be quite
ready on (or about) the fourteenth September, and I have
ordered one of their best “rich” gilt frames in which it is to
come down here. I hope much that I may somehow or other,
be able either before completion or here, to secure the
saving of anxiety to my mind by your seeing it. But I have
not as yet written to submit my suggestion of acceptance to
Dr. Taylor, for may be I had better see what I look like first.
Enclosed are two sheets of my progressing little pamphlet.
Please do not trouble yourself by reading them, but, if at any
time you care to glance over them, I hope you will like them.
I had no idea till I set regularly to work what need there was
of bringing the matters up-to-date. I think the brochure
seems likely to run to about three and a half sheets, with
Index. When you come you shall tell me, please, whether
you will let me offer some for your class. I should very much
like to—and you will tell me too, about Manuals.[104]

September 4, 1900.
It was a great pleasure to me to receive both your letters,
but I was afraid of intruding too much on your time, so I put
off thanking you for them till I received the enclosed proof
this morning. It is a real comfort to me that you can approve
of my little pamphlet, for I have been very anxious over it,
and I hope you will think sheet “D” right. I am delighted to
be allowed to send it to you.
At page 33 you will see I have utilised the colouring of the
eyes of the Tabanidæ (Gad flies), specially for identification. I
do not think this point is much brought forward, and I found
it very useful. Many thanks for your two pamphlets and
suggestion re dips. I have been studying your S.S.,[105] and
mean to try to get a little bit into my paper as an addendum.
Also I want to study your “Nature Knowledge” [opening
lecture to a class of teachers.] I don’t seem to understand
this subject yet, and your address, I feel sure, will help me
very much.
Yesterday I had a long letter from Mr. E. P. Stebbing,
Chittagong, Bengal, accompanying a large pamphlet on
“Injurious Insects of Indian Forests,” published by the Indian
Government. He wrote that he was taking up the subject of
Injurious Insects (agricultural as well as forest), and that the
Indian Government having “put him on special duties for two
years to tackle the question,” he wanted me to advise him on
a number of points. I am sure I do not feel competent.
However, I wrote him as well as I could, and had to look up
the shorthand writer we have talked about, and get him to
put it in typewritten form—so I helped myself, at least. When
I get the copies I propose just to put one in an envelope for
you to see what I have been suggesting. But I only send it
because you are so very importantly engaged in Indian, &c.,
work. I should like you to be able to look at it, if you like, but
only if you like. Pray put it in the rubbish basket if it is the
least trouble.

September 25, 1900.

 Here is “Prevention and Remedies,” and the other odds
and ends for “Stock Flies.”
“The picture” has come, and I think that as Mr. Elliott said,
it is really a “great success.” I hardly know how to comment
on my own appearance, but if you should be writing to Dr.
MacDougall he would tell you about it. I almost think I shall
be glad when it goes on, it is such a curious feeling to have
my own eyes looking at me so steadily. I suppose when we
get into the next month I may write in form to Dr. Taylor, to
inquire if I may be permitted to ask acceptance.
I very much enjoyed Dr. MacDougall’s visit. We talked
Entomology most pleasantly, and I think arranged very
satisfactorily all necessary preliminaries for our proposed
Forest Insect book. The little visits which have been given
me this summer have helped me very much, as well as being
a great enjoyment—though none so much as yours—and it is
a fact, as you mention, that if the ladies come too, it
perplexes the talk very much! I want to learn all I can in the
time.

September 27, 1900.

I was very much surprised yesterday to receive about six
dozen large Plant bugs,[106] with a communication from the
Chinese Minister Plenipotentiary (in London), over his own
signature, begging for information as to how to prevent their
ravages in the lee-chee orchards in China. It seems very odd
(in the present state of affairs especially) that the Chinese
Government should consult me.[107] However, the treatment
wanted was plain, so I hope I did not do wrong in replying
as he wished.

October 16, 1900.

 Lord Grimthorpe is very much interested about your Indian
Famine lecture, and he would very much like to have a copy.
[108]
I think he will do what he can to study it, likewise expect
me to give him so much as I can; not much this, I am afraid.
I assure you your little visit was a great pleasure to me.
These excellent talks freshen me up delightfully for dry work.
I shall look forward to some more in due time.

October 21, 1900.

I do not know how to thank you for this kind gift.[109] I
know how to value such a literary treasure, and to me it is of
exceeding interest also; but as your gift to me I treasure it
much, and gratefully thank you for your kind thought. The
twelve copies of “Indian Famine” preceded it an hour or two
yesterday afternoon, and I am reading it carefully and slowly
(that I may thoroughly appreciate it), and with great
admiration; indeed, I think such a clear condensation of the
mass of information to be dealt with is splendid. I have sent
copies to Lord Grimthorpe, the Bishop of St. Albans, &c.
With my very kind regards and grateful thanks for all the
help you give me, which is a great deal more than probably
you have any idea of.

October 26, 1900.

I am delighted to read both the letters you send, but what
an especial pleasure it must be to you to have the nice
courteous message of acceptance sent by our good Queen.
[In acknowledgment of a copy of the address on “Famine in
India.”] I congratulate you exceedingly. How much you must
treasure it! Thank you very much for letting me see it, and
also that from the Chancellor [of the University, the Right
Hon. A. J. Balfour].
 My people have been much pleased to receive the copies
you kindly let me give them, and Dr. Lipscomb has asked me
to thank you for him. But I do not know that any one has
been more interested than Mr. T. P. Newman. He, as one of
the “Friends,” has been working in their society to help, and I
find they collected £27,000. [The Friends’ Foreign Mission
Association collected this sum to use in relief of the famine of
1900].

October 29, 1900.

I have, with much pleasure, written to Messrs. West,
Newman & Co., to send you (to University, Edinburgh) one
hundred copies of each of the two pamphlets. Please write
when some more (or Manuals) would be at all acceptable.
I am placing your Famine pamphlet carefully, so I have
some still on hand, but I will not fail to ask you if more could
go out well, viâ my presentation. I have been studying it to
the best of my power. I am not able to condense such a
mass of information fully, but this is what I think I have
learnt. These famines originate meteorologically, the crops
consequently failing for want of moisture. The only places
(three districts if I remember rightly) exempt from them, are
so, consequent on climatic circumstances or irrigation. The
chief preventive measure, being irrigation, is not always easy
of application, as, for instance, the possibility of a canal
raising the height of the water-table too much. I follow to
some degree the difficulty of bringing relief arrangements to
bear on special bodies of men, as the weavers, for instance.
It is also very interesting to read of the method of dealing
with the “Wild Tribes,” their power of finding wild food, and
of bringing in wild forest products adapted for sale. Some
information as to details of kinds of food and preparation,
also of the sums of money represented by Indian names,
must surely remain adherent to one’s mind, but one special
thing is the splendidly arranged work of our Government,
which is a comfort to think of. I inflict the above on you, that
you may see I have really been trying to benefit by your
grand work, and I do congratulate you on the result of your
heavy labour.

November 8, 1900.
I should be very thankful if you would tell me where
Professor Jablonowski might safely apply for sulphate of
copper at “an acceptable price”! I could, I suppose, look him
up some sort of an address, but I should not feel sure it was
trustworthy, and he is such a centre of work, also an old
correspondent, I should much like to help. I should be very
much obliged if you could conveniently tell me, or him—he is
director of the Government Entomological Station, Budapest
—where he could get a price list and a supply.
I have been ailing with some sort of slight feverish and
gout attack, but nothing serious, and I am up again.
To-day Mr. Newstead is come to see what the experimental
black currants are doing [in the garden]. I gather that even
soaking the cut-down plants, roots and all, in methylated
spirit has not proved a wholly certain means of prevention of
Gall mite (fig. 65). If so, I incline to think that I had best
make an end of my black currant hospital, there is no use in
simply bringing in infestation.

November 9, 1900.
I shall be delighted to see you at next week’s end,
Saturday to Monday, 17th to 19th, as you mention. Many
thanks to you for helping me to an answer to the Budapest
professor about the sulphate of copper. I fancy “the picture”
would arrive this morning at the University. I hope it will give
satisfaction, and I make no doubt that it will have great
 honour done to it in the hanging. Perhaps some day I may
see it!
“Reminiscences” had not been getting on, on paper, but
when your letter arrived I took up a pen and wrote like a
very whirlwind some points that were in my mind regarding
the beginning of my insect studies. I wonder what you will
think of them. I hope to have some progress to show you. I
am having twenty feet accommodation for books put up in
my dining-room. I think this will look well and be very
convenient.
Yours very sincerely,
Eleanor A. Ormerod.

The Rev. Professor Taylor, Secretary of the

University Court, wrote:—

November 10, 1900.

Dear Miss Ormerod,—The portrait has arrived uninjured. It
is an excellent likeness, and with gown, hood and cap, vividly
recalls what is in reality an event of historical importance as
well as a most interesting graduation ceremonial. I propose
to have it placed so that it may be on view, so to speak, to
the members of the University Court on Monday at their
meeting of that day, and to the members of the Senatus
Academicus when they next meet. Thereafter it will no doubt
find a permanent place on our walls.
I would venture to tender anew the thanks and best
wishes of the University Court, and with the assurance of my
profound esteem, beg to remain, dear Miss Ormerod,
Sincerely yours,
M. C. Taylor.
 November 14, 1900.
Dear Professor Wallace,—This is very kind of you; it is a
great pleasure to me to know that I am allowed to hold such
an honourable place, and I thank you very much for all the
trouble that you have been taking. I really do not know how
to express what I feel about all the kindness shown me, but
you, knowing how I have been situated till the University of
Edinburgh showed me such honour and kindness, will believe
the heartfelt comfort and encouragement it is to me to have
their authoritative approval and support. But this is private to
you. “The Chancellor” and Secretary might think I was tête
montée if I wrote in such a fashion. I have had some nice
letters, two from Dr. Taylor and a charming little letter last
evening, delightfully worded, from Sir Wm. Muir. I am going
to look at the picture of Lord Inglis again in your beautiful
book (“Quasi Cursores”), that I may see whom I am allowed
to sit next to in this very distinguished company, but I am
writing to catch the post now, so I only thank you also for
the papers which I have not yet had time to give my head to.
With most kind regards and hearty thanks.

November 15, 1900.

I feel I gave a very insufficient acknowledgment (writing in
a hurry last night) for all the kind care and, I feel sure, no
small trouble you have been taking about putting my
“representation” nicely on view. I have refreshed my memory
of Lord Inglis, and indeed I feel I have a right to be proud
that my portrait is allowed to be placed by such a grand
representation of such a distinguished man. I am glad the
“Court” liked the picture in itself (I urged all concerned to
good execution), and indeed it is a pleasure to me to think
that the memory of endeavours at least to work of E. A. O.
will be so markedly protected by the University.
Yours very sincerely,
 Eleanor A. Ormerod.
P.S.—My new arrangement of books is so convenient, it
helps me almost as much as an assistant! (E. A. O.)
 PLATE XXIX.
Eleanor Anne Ormerod, LL.D., F.R. Met. Soc.
First Woman Hon. Graduate of the University of Edinburgh,
1900.
From the oil painting (Academic costume) in the
University Courtroom,
(p. 306.)
 CHAPTER XXVI

LETTERS TO PROFESSOR WALLACE (concluded)

The “Reminiscences” and the last Annual Report—Warnings of

serious illness—Proposed pension—Gradual loss of strength—
Death.

This closing chapter records the peaceful close of

the wonderful career of a remarkable gentlewoman
who devoted her life to work in the successful effort
to benefit her fellow men. The pages are replete with
human nature and human sympathy, and full of
unselfish interest in the interests of others whom she
numbered among her sympathetic friends and
trusted confidants. The “Reminiscences” on which
she did but desultory, yet interested, work, during
the intervals of temporary respite from the burden of
disease and increasing physical exhaustion, were as
she feelingly expressed it “a perfect blessing.” Her
letters belonging to this period are a noble record of
fortitude and resignation during a trying struggle for
health and life, and the close is touchingly pathetic.
To Professor Robert Wallace, University, Edinburgh.

November 19, 1900, Monday evening.

Dear Professor Wallace,—I return Sir W. Macgregor’s
letter[110] with many thanks for letting me see it, for it is very
gratifying. It is a great pleasure to me to see how those who
understand appreciate your work. I am very glad you are
able to tell me that you enjoy your visits to me, but next
time I hope that our going to church may be of a less airy
sort. I hope that you did not get serious harm?[111]
I feel much pleasure (not to say relief) at results of our
“Reminiscence” work, and at all those papers being safely
lodged in your hands.
P.S.—I am working steadily on the twenty-fourth Report,
but if a bit [of “Reminiscences”] comes into my head (the
“awen,” as the Welsh say), I mean to put down the ideas.

December 5, 1900.
Here comes such a long story [here cut short] about the
“Reminiscences.” I hope it will not be quite too tedious, but
really I think we are thriving.
A messenger has just been down from London, and
carried off material for ten illustrations.
The materials for letterpress are appearing fairly out of
holes and corners also, the chief prize a book of Memoranda
for 1891, by my sister Georgiana, giving numbers of dates of
my letters, &c.
I was glad to see the “Creameries”[112] in the “Times,” and
glad to see also that it was properly placed at the top of the
column. I thought you wrote very firmly and well.
 P.S.—I have not sent [copies of the Manual] (though you
kindly said I might) to the Clubs. I have not the courage; so
many of the members might not care for Economic
Entomology.

December 15, 1900.

I think I am being very good! in seldom letting the
“Reminiscences” meddle really with work, but rest time (wet
afternoons) helps. One thing more, I remembered I had a
part given me by my mother of my father’s “queue” (Anglice,
“pigtail”) cut off in the year of their marriage, 1808, and I
think this might come in nicely.

December 21, 1900.

I quite forgot to thank you for your Indian Examination
questions,[113] which was wrong of me, for I like very much
to have all the information they point to, though I am afraid
there are scarcely two I could answer.

January 18, 1901.

My account of myself is—I am fairly well all but
rheumatism; only, last Saturday the disaster happened of a
blood-vessel breaking in my left eye. These affairs seem
seldom of consequence, but this time my doctor told me
(after two or three days) that he did not remember excepting
from external circumstances that he ever knew such a great
breakage. So I was an absolute spectacle for some time, but
the sight is not at all injured, and the organ recovering well,
and I may write as much as I like. I now enclose six more
illustrations—I think in their way they are all nice.

January 27, 1901.

 As you kindly say that even more than a good report of
“Reminiscences” you would like to hear I am better, I am
truly thankful to say that I am quite as usual again, and my
eye recovered. There has been some sort of illness about but
I had it very lightly. I hope the very bad day for His Majesty’s
Proclamation brought no serious harm to yourself. An
Edinburgh “inquirer” informed me that he thought numbers
of the spectators would catch their deaths of cold. I was
truly pleased to see that the King duly promised to support
“The Church of Scotland,” a matter I have more at heart than
on my tongue here! You will value Her Majesty’s approval of
your “Indian Famine” lecture more than ever now. I certainly
should have liked myself to have a tiny bit even of approval.
“Reminiscences.”—This is just for your best leisure (and
pleasure) to advise me on, but I very much need a good
“paper talk” with you to start me on a reasonable plan. I
quite believe that in a fortnight or sooner I may begin
regularly.
But now—publisher! Messrs. A— B— wrote me that the
book would be so sound it would be sure to command public
approval and they would like to publish. Mr. Newman wrote
he thought I had best go to the top of the tree, and
suggested John Murray. I answered that in real truth the
very idea of applying to such a leading man made me quite
uneasy—and yesterday he replied that as he understood you
were aiding me in the work, that my best course would be to
ask you whether when the time comes you would act on my
part with a publisher. I am sure he is right—I am as ignorant
as a reasonable person can be of how to “approach” a
publisher, but, if I am not asking too much, it would indeed
be a relief to my mind if you think fit to give me this help.
If it is possible I certainly should much like to print with
Messrs. West, Newman & Co. Is it possible to have a part of
the book printed before beginning negotiations just to show
what it is like?

February 4, 1901.
I feel sure you will be pleased to hear that this morning I
sent Messrs. West, Newman & Co. all that I believe is needed
for my present Annual Report, excepting for completion of
Index; and I have really begun “Reminiscences.” Will not my
best way be to take any subjects that I think I have enough
material for, and work them up just as I think they might go
to press? Thus you would see how you like the writing and
suggest improvements, and there would be something, if you
please, to show a publisher. Turning to your letter—I think
that if at your very best leisure you would kindly let me have
the parcel of MS. which you were good enough to take for
safe custody it would help me now.
How dreary the past week has been with our national
sorrow and all the anxieties. I hope we may be more
cheerful now.

February 8, 1901.
Your beautifully secured parcel has arrived safely, and I
have locked it up carefully in my safe, with a very legible
inscription that the contents are the property of Prof.
Wallace, University of Edinburgh. There is nothing like
making sure, in case of as people say “anything happening”!
I should like to think that this mass of documents which I
have been accumulating should pass to your hands.
I hope the work for your lecture[114] on the twelfth prox. is
getting on quite to your liking. It is always a great pleasure
to me to hear your plans are prospering.
 February 14, 1901.
It has been very much on my conscience that I did not say
a word in my hasty letter about your beautiful and valuable
present.[115] How very pretty it must be, and a very great
pleasure to yourself as a kindly acknowledgment.
About the “Reminiscences”—what you suggest about
typewriting is just what I should like, but I did not care to
trust MS. here. Before parleying with the typewriters, I
should like very much indeed to read to you all the papers
that I can get ready before the ninth. I feel a little anxious
about the new style of writing.

February 21, 1901.

I have made up a good bit on “birth, childhood, and
parentage” (chap. I.) not forgetting with “an action of
humility”! Edward I., and Eleanor of Castille. At present I
have “Series of Annual Reports” (chap. IX.) on hand,—very
pleasant work.
But now I want you, please (and very much indeed), to be
kindly thinking of some advice about my entomological work
that I am sure you could help me greatly with when we
meet. The burthen has become so very great that it seriously
affects my health. I am in bed now with another of these
attacks; the constant pressure of work to suit other people’s
time and convenience, and maybe a tremendous worry,
brings on painful and exhausting illness. I hope to be up
again to-day, but the doctor is very anxious I should—may I
call it?—“Take in sail.” My wish is that the present Annual
Report should be the last of the series with an addendum
slip of explanation inserted. There is not the important
information needed or forwarded that there was twenty
years ago, and working hard for months over so much
repetition is dreadful drudgery. I heard lately from Dr. Fream,
and he very strongly advises me to drop it. If your opinion—
which I thoroughly trust—is the same, I should have no
doubt. The difficult thing is to moderate the applications, but
I think I see my way to that very nicely by having plenty of
the addendum slip printed and sending a copy to an
unreasonable applicant. I do not want to give up Entomology
entirely.
How nice it must have been to have a good turn at curling!

February 24, 1901.

In answer to your very kind letter I must tell you I am
much better. It was quite my fault that I got so out of sorts;
I ought to have asked my doctor weeks ago what was amiss,
and then the difficulty of how I, “all of my own head,” was to
get that “old man of the sea”—the Annual Reports—off my
shoulders, came on me like a brain shock. However, now I
hope things are getting quite nicely into order again.
Meanwhile I am trying to arrange what can hardly fail to be a
rather explosive announcement. When I came to set to work
it did not seem to me that an addendum slip would do. It
would have been on such different lines to the statements in
the Preface that folks would have wondered what could have
happened! So I mean to have a Cancel, and hope all will be
nice.
One word which I forgot—I quite hope to pass on quietly
as much Economic Entomology as I possibly can to Dr.
MacDougall.

March 1, 1901.
This is very kind of you, and if you are very much shocked
at my explicitness please consider yourself an extra nephew,
M.D. for the occasion, and put this in the fire.
 I have had a kidney attack. I believe something “gouty” (?)
has been wrong for weeks, but I had not asked the doctor
until such pain set in that there were no two ways about it, I
had to go to bed; and he put me on a “course” (of alkalis, I
believe) to get out the enemy. Of course this was very
weakening, but I was soon up—and really absolutely, I
believe that if it were not for a nasty barking cough—very
tiresome by day, and more so by night—I should be much as
usual. I should be grievously disappointed if you did not
come for any reason connected with me. Speaking very
selfishly, and besides all the good the pleasure of one of your
visits does me, I do not feel as if I could settle comfortably
until I have the benefit of your sound and skilled advice
about how to rearrange my entomological work.
“Reminiscences” are in enough trim to show you
something of even now.[116]

March 2, 1901.
I am so sorry regarding what I am writing that I hardly
know how to put it, but I find to-day I am so much pulled
down that I am obliged to tell you. It would be a sad
disappointment to me if I did not see you, but my nights are
so bad from this cough that I cannot depend on not having
to ring to call Miss Hartwell to attend to me, and this makes
a great commotion. I believe, as I wrote you yesterday, that
the illness (as well as the pain) has gone, but it is the cough
which has been keeping me pulled down, more than I knew.

March 4, 1901.
Indeed, you are quite too kind and good to me, and now I
want to say that my doctor says he does not see any reason
why I should not be able to enjoy your visit on Sunday next
without any difficulty or risk whatsoever. If it was convenient
to you, would the train suit that would bring you to St.
Albans about a quarter before 11 from St. Pancras, and could
you stop till the (I think) 8.30 train? I am truly sorry not to
be looking forward this week to a whole week-end, but I am
still obliged to get up and go to bed at unusual hours; but,
indeed, I am very much better—the pain went, but one of
the bad sort of cold or cough attacks followed and I could
not sleep properly for three nights nor rest lying down. Now
I can rest and sleep again.

March 7, 1901.
Please do not think that a good talk tires me or is any
strain. It is the want of conversation that I find so wearing,
and there is so very much that it will be quite a delight and a
rest for me to be allowed to go over with you.
I am writing this to-day so that you may know that (so far
as anything in this world is certain) there is no possible
reason why I should not look forward to the pleasure of our
meeting next Sunday. I am not able to give you my doctor’s
verdict for the good reason that he did not think I needed
looking up yesterday.

March 12, 1901.

You do not know how good and kind I think it of you to let
me rest on you for advice in this way, and it brings a great
brightness when you come and I can hope you are making
yourself at home. I am glad you like Mr. Newman. I always
feel that he is a quite true and well-judging friend, very
kindly, but at the same time so grave that I do not at all
times feel free to express all I am thinking about! I fancy
that you “not being a lady” he would feel freer to express
what was uppermost.
 Thank you for all you say about Mr. John Murray, and very
especially indeed for your good advice. I do really mean, and
am trying to act on it, but cannot you imagine the difficulty
in not working as hard as body and mind will allow?
However, I have made a thorough beginning; amongst
various points, returning to Mr. Newman a great bundle of
proofs sent to be looked through, just think, unlooked at. I
also disposed of a regular onslaught with special letters from
Lady Warwick and Miss Edith Bradley, &c. I am minding what
you said [about curtailing work] very nicely.
I am thankful to say I am feeling better every day, and I
am looking forward very much to being a better kind of
hostess if you will kindly spare me a week-end by and by.
7 p.m.—You are, I conjecture, just beginning your lecture
[on “Agriculture in South Africa”]. I hope it will be thoroughly
pleasant and satisfactory and that you will have a
comfortable journey home. Please accept the enclosed [the
twenty-fourth and last Report]. I have only received a parcel
late to-day, but I want to send you a copy “from the writer.”

March 18, 1901.

I am very glad your colonial lecture was successful. It is no
good my not telling you, for some way or other you would
have an idea, but I have not been thriving. Of course there
was a flood of letters about discontinuing the Annual
Reports, and, however kind (and some were very kind
indeed) yet not being in full working order, they were rather
too much, and I got feverish “rigors” (though not bad) with
temperature 100°, and the doctor on Saturday ordered me
straight off to bed. Here I am still, but as far as I know, now
only as a matter of precaution. I would not have said
anything about it, but I was sure you would have an idea.
 Now about something much nicer. I wrote to Miss
Ashworth (28, Victoria Street, London) and had a most
pleasant and businesslike reply. She told me that publishers
preferred quarto size and typed a few lines to show the size
of type and style they like best; and I sent up the “Chartist
Outbreak” (chap. VII.) and asked her to type it for me
accordingly, and to let me have one copy and two carbon
copies. Thus there would be one for you, one for me, and
the third would be useful for the publisher. I should be very
much obliged if you would kindly tell me how to offer a copy
of my twenty-fourth Report to the University Library. Would it
be sufficient just to send a copy c/o The Librarian. I do not
want to give more trouble than I can help about such a little
thing.
P.S.—I assure you I mean to attend to your kind advice of
not making what might be a great pleasure into a toil.

March 20, 1901.

Here comes the first instalment of “Reminiscences” and I
hope to forward more to you in due course. The history of
“Rise and Progress of Annual Reports” is in Miss Ashworth’s
hands. Indeed, I am very thankful to you for helping me
about the typewriting. I had no idea of the helpful difference
it makes even to me. Please, I earnestly beg of you, do not
think that your delightful and helpful visit, only too short, had
anything to do with my having to call in the doctor again. I
am sure he does not. But I am sure, too, you will understand
how very trying indeed, though mostly very kind, the
outbreak of newspaper and private comment on what they
call “my retirement” was. So to get my cough really cured,
and drive constitutional coincidences out of the field I went
to bed with the best possible effects (really). I think the
doctor will let me get up to-morrow, but he wants me to
keep safe from snow chills.
 March 24, 1901.
Here is another bit [of autobiography] begging your
reading when you are inclined, and now “Birth, Parentage,
&c.,” is gone up to London. I should so very much like (if not
too much trouble) if you would make some sort of mark on
the margin of your copy, wherever you think some alteration
is needed, and then when I have the pleasure of seeing you
here we could go comfortably into it.
Now (as the fates permit) I am working on “The Severn
and the Wye” (chap. V.), and I think it will be interesting,
there is such a variety of fresh observation, “Fish, fishers,
and fisheries,” some specialities in zoology and semi-marine
botany, and something of a good many sorts of things.
I am much mended and doctor says I may tell you I am
getting on all right, but the long illness has pulled me down
very much so that I am only allowed at present to be up in
my own room—such a little thing brings the cough back and
we have snow showers still—but as soon as ever I can get
about again I have no reason to doubt I should be much as
usual.

March 29, 1901.

I seem very unlucky this winter, but on Tuesday, when I
hoped I was pretty well again, a chill so bad and so strangely
sudden seized me, that breathing got hurried, I could not
speak with comfort, and an acute pain set in in my right side.
Doctor set to work and did not mention that congestion of
the lungs was present, but taking affairs at once did great
good, and the enemy was routed; still, I am a good deal
pulled down, and do not mean risking another chill at
present. I had greatly hoped this time not to tell you any
long stories about my health, but it is no good pretending, so
please you must let your friendly sympathy in my troubles be
my excuse.
I wonder what you will think of the enclosed [“copy”]. I
incline to think the subjects are rather nice, but that as we
get on bits of this may fit into future papers, or of future
papers here? It seems to me best to write whatever I can as
well as I can manage, and sift by and by. “Am not I ’umble”
(as Uriah Heap says) about Edward I.? (page 13).

April 1, 1901.
I know I shall always have your kind sympathy in these
unpleasant visitations, and I wish they did not come to
intrude so often. But this time I really and truly do hope,
unless some luckless draught gets hold of me, that I shall
pick up quickly, and not have such dreary stories to tell you.
Dr. Lipscomb says that it is just having let my health run
down that is the reason, and I mean to be very careful. I am
up in my room part of the day comfortably, and hope to get
downstairs to-morrow.
I greatly look forward to a good talk by and by over many
matters, and I was very sorry that Dr. MacDougall could not
come this week, but further on I hope we shall have a chat.
You will doubtless (or very likely) have seen flourishes in the
papers about a testimonial! to my unworthy self—but to my
horror yesterday I had a letter from Mr. —— stating that he
was trying to procure a pension for me; and the Member for
H—— and (I understood Lord ——) would most likely use
their influence.
Just think what could possess him—what a to-do there
would have been. But I wrote earnestly representing how
misappropriate such a grant would be to a person so well off
as myself, and it being such a troublesome matter, I got Dr.
L. to read my letter. I hope I may have quite stopped his
operations (and politely), but assuredly I should feel
inexpressibly lowered if I accepted a “pension.”
I have been collecting for “Reminiscences” very fairly well,
but I have been afraid to prepare whole papers lest

April 2, 1901.
I must write a line to give, I believe, a soundly good report
of myself in reply to your letter, which arrived 4.50; it is very
good of you to write so kindly. I have been down to-day for
about six hours, and I do hope now to steadily regain my
strength.
You will let me have your address, will you not? And I shall
hope to write something more worth reading.
Mr. —— has on my urgent representation stopped his
applications as to a pension.
P.S.—The typewriting seems to me beautiful, and I hope
soon to have more work ready.

April 8, 1901.
You will know from your own experience the deluges of
publications which come—what can I do with them? They
might be measured by feet, if not by yards. Some valuable,
some ——!
Would not it be my best way to keep them all until you
will, as I hope, come some day—and you could see if there
are any that you would like. Besides what are of no very
obvious use, there are quantities of amazingly learned
entomological treatises which, in case they do not float in
the way of our good friend Dr. MacDougall, he might at least
like to place on his shelves. You will tell me, will you not,
some time what you advise? Meanwhile, with all possible
good wishes and kind regards, &c.

April 19, 1901.

I should like to give you a better account of myself, but for
weeks back I could not think why I got on so slowly, with
“relapses,” and it is only just lately that I have extracted out
of my good doctor that the illness I had was that horrid
influenza, and I am going through the weeks and weeks of
“after effects”! I am not allowed to go down, but sit up a few
hours in my room, and am certainly better, but I am told I
must not expect to be well for a long time. One of my doctor
nephews looked in yesterday, and he told me that a
characteristic of some of the influenzas which have been
about is that they do not seem much at the time, but they
leave those detestable effects on the system.
You will believe how very pleasant (as I get stronger) I
find looking up bits for “Reminiscences.” Miss Hartwell brings
me books, and I can “rummage” and copy. Now I enclose
you some pages, of which I think some part is right, but I
did not feel as if I could put the whole paper right until I had
it typewritten.
I should very much like too if you would give a thought to
my “Scriptural Commentary” (page 21). I do not see how the
description I object to can be right. I hope you will think the
paper is hopeful. I am not up yet, therefore please excuse
this stupid scrawl, and with my very kind regards and best
wishes, &c.

May 2, 1901.
How I long for the day to come when I may tell you that I
am well, and am going on as usual. But this disgusting,
tenacious remains of influenza seems to be always coming
back. I had got on to coming down on Friday last a little
after 9 a.m., and was full of hope and absolutely striving to
recover, but yesterday something went wrong, so I am on a
treatment of milk and seltzer-water and bed, but I felt I must
write you, and hope soon to send you a much better letter.
“Reminiscences” are a perfect blessing, and I enclose two
portraits of my father received yesterday to show the
illustrations are getting on. Is not the one of him as a little
laddie of about five years old, charming? (plate xxx.)

May 15, 1901.

Many thanks for the additional copy of your lecture,
“Agriculture in South Africa.” It is so interesting, I am sure I
can find a home where it will be welcome. I was glad to find
you were out in the country, and I hope the bracing air will
enable you to work on this load of papers without killing
yourself.
For myself, I really am afraid that, excepting hope, I have
a very indifferent account to give you. I was always getting
better off and on! But the result was, that I got weaker and
weaker, until on Saturday Dr. Lipscomb wired for Sir Dyce
Duckworth. He was away, but my nephew, Dr. J. Arderne
Ormerod, who is taking Sir D. D.’s practice at present, came
down, and I think the change of treatment that they
arranged is really doing good. The trouble was that, though
there did not seem any reason why, what they call the “after
effects” of influenza should not move off (the sort of gastric
catarrh and its detestable allies), yet they didn’t, and my
medical tormentors made up their minds that it might be
from “Liver.” The plan has been altered as to treatment, and
at my urgent request I am allowed to take one glass of port
a day, and I do think it is doing me a great deal of good. But
excuse more now, for sitting up at my writing-table tires me.
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