Q1) Discuss the Purpose and Principles of the UNO (United Nations Organization)

Introduction
The United Nations Organization (UNO), established on 24th October 1945, is the most
prominent intergovernmental organization in the world. Born from the aftermath of the
Second World War, its creation reflected the global desire to prevent future conflicts,
promote peace, and ensure international cooperation. With 193 member states, the
UNO serves as a platform for dialogue, cooperation, and collective action in addressing
global challenges such as poverty, climate change, human rights violations, and armed
conflicts.

Purpose of the UNO

The Charter of the United Nations, particularly Article 1, lays down the fundamental
purposes of the organization. These are:
1. Maintaining International Peace and Security
The primary and most important purpose of the UNO is to prevent war and conflict. It
aims to take collective measures to address threats to peace and suppress acts of
aggression through diplomatic means, sanctions, peacekeeping forces, or military
intervention if necessary.
• Example: UNO peacekeeping missions in countries like South Sudan, Congo,
and Cyprus help to maintain peace and protect civilians.
2. Promoting Friendly Relations Among Nations
The UNO seeks to foster friendly relations among nations based on respect for the
principle of equal rights and self-determination. It encourages mutual understanding
and cooperation regardless of race, religion, culture, or political system.
• Example: The UN supports decolonization processes and peaceful settlement
of territorial disputes, like in Western Sahara or Israel-Palestine.
3. Achieving International Cooperation
The UN works to solve international problems—economic, social, cultural, or
humanitarian—in nature. It also promotes respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
• Example: Through its specialized agencies like WHO, UNICEF, and UNESCO, the
UNO works on global health, education, and welfare.
4. Being a Centre for Harmonizing the Actions of Nations
The UN provides a platform where nations can discuss and coordinate their actions to
achieve common goals. It acts as a neutral ground for diplomacy, negotiations, and
conflict resolution.
• Example: The UN General Assembly, Security Council, and Climate Summits
provide forums where countries debate policies and work toward consensus on
global matters.

Principles of the UNO

The United Nations functions based on several core principles, outlined in Article 2 of
the UN Charter, which guide its operations and member behavior. These principles are
the foundation of international law and global diplomacy.
1. Sovereign Equality of All Members
All member states, regardless of size, wealth, or power, are considered equal under
international law. Every country has one vote in the General Assembly, ensuring equal
participation in decision-making.
• This promotes fairness and inclusion in global affairs.
2. Fulfillment of Obligations
All members must fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed under the Charter. This
includes respecting international treaties, agreements, and decisions made by UN
bodies.
• Example: Member states are expected to implement Security Council
resolutions and support peacekeeping operations.
3. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
Member states are encouraged to settle their international disputes through peaceful
means such as negotiation, mediation, arbitration, or judicial settlement, avoiding
force or threats.
• Example: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) settles disputes between
countries on issues like territorial claims.
4. Refraining from Use of Force
No member state shall use force or threat of force against the territorial integrity or
political independence of any other state, except in self-defense or under the UN's
collective action.
 • This principle aims to prevent unilateral military interventions and aggressive
wars.
5. Support for UN Actions
Members must support the UN in its actions and not aid states against whom the UN
is taking preventive or enforcement actions. This ensures collective responsibility.
• Example: Countries are expected to comply with sanctions or embargoes
imposed by the Security Council.
6. Non-Intervention in Domestic Matters
The UN cannot intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic
jurisdiction of a state. However, this principle has been challenged in cases of gross
human rights violations.
• Example: In situations like the Syrian Civil War, the balance between sovereignty
and humanitarian intervention becomes critical.
7. Promotion of International Cooperation
The UN encourages regional arrangements and international partnerships to work
alongside its initiatives for peace and development.
• Example: Collaboration with African Union, ASEAN, or EU on regional
peacekeeping and development projects.

Conclusion
The UNO stands as a symbol of global unity, founded on the noble goals of peace,
cooperation, and human rights. Its purposes drive its mission to create a better and
safer world, while its principles ensure fairness, respect for sovereignty, and
adherence to international law. While challenges like geopolitical tensions, non-
compliance by powerful states, and funding issues remain, the UNO continues to play
a vital role in addressing global crises, preventing wars, and promoting sustainable
development. Strengthening multilateralism and reforming its structure could make the
UNO more effective and relevant in the 21st century.
Principal Organs of the United Nations Organization (UNO)
The United Nations Organization (UNO) consists of six principal organs, as
established under the UN Charter. These organs perform various essential functions to
ensure international peace, security, cooperation, and justice.
1. General Assembly
It is the main deliberative body of the UNO where all 193 member states have equal
representation. Each country has one vote. The Assembly discusses and makes
recommendations on international issues such as peace, security, and development.
Though its resolutions are not legally binding, they reflect global opinion.

2. Security Council
The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security.
It has 15 members: 5 permanent (China, France, Russia, the UK, and the USA) with
veto power, and 10 non-permanent members elected for 2-year terms. It can authorize
military action, sanctions, or peacekeeping missions.

3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

This organ coordinates the economic, social, and environmental activities of the UN.
It works with specialized agencies like WHO, UNESCO, and ILO. ECOSOC has 54
members, elected by the General Assembly for 3-year terms.

4. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

The ICJ, located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the UN’s judicial organ. It settles legal
disputes between states and gives advisory opinions. It consists of 15 judges elected
for 9-year terms.

5. Secretariat
Headed by the Secretary-General, the Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of
the UN. It provides administrative and operational support to other UN bodies.

6. Trusteeship Council
Initially created to manage trust territories, this organ has now become inactive since
all trust territories have attained independence.
Q2) Composition and Functions of the General Assembly

Introduction
The General Assembly (GA) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations
(UN) and is considered the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative
body. It provides a unique forum for multilateral discussion of the full spectrum of
international issues covered by the Charter of the United Nations. All 193 member
states of the UN are represented in the General Assembly, making it the only UN body
with universal membership.

Composition of the General Assembly

1. Universal Membership
• The General Assembly consists of all 193 member states of the United Nations.
• Each member state has one vote, regardless of its size, economic power, or
population.
2. Representation
• Every member state may send up to five representatives, but they only exercise
one vote.
• These representatives include diplomats, ambassadors, or ministers of foreign
affairs.
3. Voting Procedure
• Important questions such as those related to peace and security, the admission
of new members, and budgetary matters require a two-thirds majority.
• Other questions are decided by a simple majority.
4. Sessions
• The General Assembly holds its regular sessions annually, beginning every
September at the UN Headquarters in New York.
• Special sessions may be called by the Secretary-General at the request of the
Security Council or the majority of UN members.
• Emergency special sessions can also be called under the "Uniting for Peace"
resolution.
5. President and Committees
• The General Assembly elects a President each year from one of five regional
groups: African, Asian, Eastern European, Latin American and Caribbean, and
Western European and other states.
 • It has six main committees to deal with different areas:
1. First Committee – Disarmament and International Security
2. Second Committee – Economic and Financial matters
3. Third Committee – Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural issues
4. Fourth Committee – Special Political and Decolonization
5. Fifth Committee – Administrative and Budgetary matters
6. Sixth Committee – Legal issues

Functions of the General Assembly

The General Assembly has a wide range of powers and responsibilities under the UN
Charter, particularly under Chapter IV. It functions as a global parliament where
member states discuss, debate, and make recommendations on global issues.

1. Deliberative Function
• The GA serves as a platform where member states deliberate and discuss
global issues such as peace and security, development, environment, human
rights, and international law.
• Though its resolutions are not legally binding, they carry moral and political
weight and reflect the will of the international community.

2. Supervisory Function
• The General Assembly supervises the activities of the other organs of the UN,
especially specialized agencies like WHO, UNESCO, and UNICEF.
• It receives and considers annual reports from the Security Council, the
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), and the International Court of Justice
(ICJ).

3. Financial Functions
• The GA is responsible for approving the UN budget and determining the
financial contributions of each member state.
• It also oversees the administrative and financial affairs of the UN.
4. Electoral Functions
The General Assembly has important electoral powers:
• Elects non-permanent members of the Security Council (10 out of 15 seats).
• Elects members of the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship
Council.
• Appoints the Secretary-General of the UN, based on the recommendation of
the Security Council.
• Elects the judges of the International Court of Justice, along with the Security
Council.

5. Law-Making Function
• While the GA cannot enact laws in the way national legislatures do, it plays a vital
role in the development of international law.
• Through conventions, declarations, and treaties, it contributes to the
codification and progressive development of international law.
• Example: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) was adopted by
the General Assembly.

6. Peace and Security Function

• Though the Security Council is the main organ responsible for international
peace and security, the GA plays a supporting role.
• Under the "Uniting for Peace" Resolution (1950), the GA can act if the Security
Council fails to maintain peace due to a veto by a permanent member.
• In such cases, the GA can recommend collective measures, including the use of
armed force.

7. Admission, Suspension, and Expulsion of Members

• The General Assembly has the power to admit new members on the
recommendation of the Security Council.
 • It can also suspend or expel a member state for violating the principles of the
UN Charter.

8. Promotion of Human Rights

• The GA plays a key role in promoting human rights and fundamental freedoms.
• It works closely with the Human Rights Council and has established various
bodies to monitor and report on human rights conditions globally.

9. Decolonization
• One of the most notable roles of the GA was its involvement in ending
colonialism after World War II.
• Through the Fourth Committee, it supervised the decolonization process and
helped many countries achieve independence.

10. Global Development Goals

• The GA has endorsed and monitored the progress of major development
programs like:
o Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000–2015)
o Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015–2030)
It plays a central role in setting international development agendas and coordinating
responses to global challenges like climate change and poverty.

Limitations of the General Assembly

Despite its wide-ranging functions, the General Assembly has certain limitations:
• Its resolutions are not legally binding (except on internal UN matters).
• It cannot enforce its decisions without the cooperation of member states.
• Power politics and bloc voting can reduce its effectiveness.
• Major issues of peace and security are often dominated by the Security Council,
especially by the five permanent members (P5).
Conclusion
The General Assembly stands as the heart of the United Nations, representing the
collective voice of all nations—big or small, rich or poor. While it does not have the
power to enforce laws or use force, it plays a vital role in diplomacy, global
cooperation, and the formation of international opinion. Through discussion,
supervision, budget control, election, and lawmaking, the GA remains a symbol of
multilateralism and international democratic values in the modern world.

Q3) Role and Voting Procedure of the Security Council

Introduction
The Security Council is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and
holds the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security. It is the most powerful body within the UN system, with the authority to make
binding decisions that member states are obligated to follow. The Security Council
plays a crucial role in conflict resolution, peacekeeping, and enforcement actions.
This essay explores in detail the composition, role, and voting procedure of the
Security Council, along with its strengths and criticisms.

Composition of the Security Council

The Security Council consists of 15 members:

1. Permanent Members (P5)

• China
• France
• Russia
• United Kingdom
• United States
These five countries hold permanent seats and possess veto power, which plays a
major role in decision-making.

2. Non-Permanent Members
• 10 members are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms.
 • Seats are distributed regionally:
o 5 from Africa and Asia
o 1 from Eastern Europe
o 2 from Latin America and Caribbean
o 2 from Western Europe and other states
These members do not have veto power.

Role of the Security Council

The primary function of the Security Council is outlined in the UN Charter (Chapter V,
Articles 23–32). Below are its key roles:

1. Maintaining International Peace and Security

• The main responsibility of the Security Council is to prevent war, resolve
conflicts, and maintain global peace.
• It investigates any situation that might lead to international conflict.
• It may take action to mediate, impose sanctions, or authorize the use of force.

Example:
• The Council authorized the Gulf War in 1991 against Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait.
• It has imposed sanctions on countries like North Korea and Iran for nuclear
proliferation.

2. Peacekeeping Operations
• The Council authorizes and oversees UN Peacekeeping Missions in conflict
zones.
• Peacekeepers are deployed to monitor ceasefires, protect civilians, and
support elections.

Example:
• UN Peacekeeping in South Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Cyprus.
3. Imposing Sanctions
• If diplomacy fails, the Council may impose economic sanctions, arms
embargoes, or travel bans.
• Sanctions are aimed at pressuring states or groups to change behavior without
military intervention.

4. Authorizing Use of Force

• Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the Council can authorize military
intervention if a threat to peace is identified.
• It may be carried out by UN forces or coalitions of willing member states.

5. Recommending Admission of New Members

• The Council recommends the admission of new UN member states, subject to
approval by the General Assembly.

6. Appointing UN Secretary-General and Judges

• The Council recommends the appointment of the Secretary-General, which is
later approved by the General Assembly.
• It also participates in the election of judges to the International Court of Justice
(ICJ).

7. Settling Disputes
• The Council can take up any dispute brought by states and attempt mediation
or arbitration.
• In some cases, it refers matters to the ICJ or orders ceasefire agreements.

Voting Procedure of the Security Council

The voting procedure of the Security Council is unique and central to its operation. It is
designed to reflect both democratic principles and the power dynamics of post-
World War II.
 1. Decision on Procedural Matters
• Decisions on procedural matters (such as setting the agenda or meeting rules)
require:
o Affirmative votes of at least 9 out of 15 members.
o No veto applies here, even from permanent members.

2. Decision on Substantive Matters

• These include resolutions related to peace and security, sanctions, military
action, etc.
• Requires:
o 9 affirmative votes out of 15, including the concurring votes of all 5
permanent members.
o This means any one permanent member can veto the decision.

Veto Power: A Critical Element

The veto power of the five permanent members is often considered the most
controversial aspect of the Security Council.

What is Veto Power?

• If any one of the five permanent members votes 'No' on a substantive issue,
the resolution fails, even if the remaining 14 members support it.

Use of Veto Power

• The United States has used the veto in defense of Israel.
• Russia and China have vetoed resolutions on Syria, Ukraine, and other areas.
• Russia vetoed resolutions against its own actions in the Ukraine conflict (2022).

Criticism of Veto Power

• Often used for national interest rather than international peace.
• Prevents the UN from acting in situations of grave humanitarian crisis.
• Seen as undemocratic, as it overrides the will of the majority.
Strengths of the Security Council
• Rapid decision-making in emergencies.
• Has the power to enforce decisions unlike other UN bodies.
• Global legitimacy – Actions authorized by the Council have international legal
standing.
• Flexible powers under Chapter VI and VII of the UN Charter.

Weaknesses and Challenges

1. Veto Power Abuse
• Used to block action on serious issues, reducing Council’s credibility.
2. Outdated Composition
• The current P5 structure reflects 1945 power politics, not the modern world.
• Countries like India, Brazil, Germany, and Japan demand permanent seats.
3. Ineffective in Some Conflicts
• Failure to intervene in Rwanda (1994 genocide) or Syria has drawn criticism.
• Sometimes limited by geopolitical rivalry among major powers.

Suggestions for Reform

• Expanding the Council to include more permanent and non-permanent
members.
• Limiting the use of veto in cases involving mass atrocities or genocide.
• Better regional representation, especially from Africa, Latin America, and
Asia.

Conclusion
The United Nations Security Council remains the most powerful and influential
organ of the UN, tasked with maintaining peace and international security. Its unique
structure and voting system give it the authority to act decisively, but also make it
vulnerable to political deadlock due to the veto system. While its role in promoting
peace, authorizing peacekeeping missions, and responding to global threats is
commendable, the need for structural reform and increased accountability has
become urgent in today’s complex world. A reformed and more democratic Security
Council will ensure that it truly reflects the needs and voices of the 21st century.
Q4) Functions of the International Labour Organization (ILO)
Introduction
The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a specialized agency of the United
Nations that was established in 1919 after World War I. It is the only UN agency that
brings together governments, employers, and workers to set international labor
standards and promote decent work conditions. The ILO works to ensure social
justice, fair employment, and respect for labor rights around the world.

Main Functions of the ILO

The ILO performs various important functions to protect and promote the rights and
interests of workers globally. These functions can be broadly classified as follows:

1. Formulation of International Labour Standards

• One of the primary functions of the ILO is to formulate international labour
standards in the form of Conventions and Recommendations.
• These standards cover important issues such as child labour, forced labour,
working conditions, wages, safety at work, and social security.
• Member states are encouraged to ratify these conventions and implement them
through national laws and policies.

2. Supervision and Monitoring

• The ILO monitors how countries apply the labour standards they have agreed to.
• Countries are required to submit reports on the steps they have taken to
implement the conventions.
• The ILO has a supervisory mechanism that includes committees of experts to
review and evaluate these reports.

3. Technical Assistance and Capacity Building

 • The ILO provides technical assistance to member states, especially developing
countries.
• It helps in drafting labour laws, building labour institutions, and conducting
training programs for employers, workers, and government officials.
• It also supports the development of employment policies and social protection
systems.

4. Promotion of Employment and Decent Work

• The ILO promotes full and productive employment and decent working
conditions.
• It encourages policies that support job creation, fair income, safety, and social
dialogue.
• The Decent Work Agenda of the ILO aims to provide workers with fair
opportunities, rights at work, social protection, and freedom to organize.

5. Research and Publication

• The ILO conducts research and surveys on global labour trends, unemployment,
gender inequality, child labour, and migration.
• It publishes various reports such as the World Employment and Social
Outlook, which help policymakers and researchers understand current labour
issues.

6. Encouraging Tripartism and Social Dialogue

• The ILO is unique in having a tripartite structure, where governments,
employers, and workers participate equally in decision-making.
• It promotes social dialogue to resolve labour disputes, improve working
relationships, and create balanced labour policies.

Conclusion
The ILO plays a crucial role in promoting social justice, fair labour practices, and
human rights at the workplace. Its work has helped improve the lives of millions of
workers around the world by setting global standards and encouraging cooperation
among employers, workers, and governments. In the modern era, the ILO continues to
adapt and respond to new challenges like informal work, gender inequality, and
digital transformation in the workplace, ensuring that no one is left behind in the
world of work.
Reasons for the Success and Failure of the ILO
Introduction
The International Labour Organization (ILO), established in 1919, is a unique tripartite
UN agency that brings together governments, employers, and workers to promote
social justice and decent working conditions worldwide. Over the years, the ILO has
achieved significant success, but it also faces various limitations. This answer
discusses the key reasons behind the successes and failures of the ILO.

Reasons for the Success of the ILO

1. Tripartite Structure
• The ILO is the only UN agency where governments, employers, and workers
jointly participate in policymaking.
• This ensures balanced representation and helps address the interests of all
stakeholders in the labour field.
2. Global Labour Standards
• The ILO has adopted over 190 conventions and numerous recommendations on
important issues like child labour, forced labour, discrimination, and the right
to organize.
• These have influenced labour laws in many countries, promoting better working
conditions.
3. Effective Supervision and Monitoring
• The ILO has a strong system for supervising the implementation of its
conventions.
• It regularly reviews member state reports and provides feedback, encouraging
governments to comply with global labour standards.
4. Technical Assistance
• The ILO provides technical support, training, and capacity building to
developing countries in drafting labour laws, implementing policies, and
improving workplace safety.
5. Focus on Decent Work
• The ILO’s Decent Work Agenda has received global recognition.
• It links employment generation with human rights, poverty reduction, and
economic development.
6. Response to Global Challenges
• The ILO has responded to new labour issues such as digital work, gig economy,
gender equality, and social protection, helping the organization stay relevant in
the modern era.

Reasons for the Failure or Limitations of the ILO

1. Non-Binding Nature of Conventions
• The ILO can only make recommendations and adopt conventions, but it has no
enforcement power.
• Many countries ratify conventions but do not implement them effectively.
2. Lack of Political Will
• Some member states, especially authoritarian regimes or conflict-ridden
nations, lack the political commitment to uphold labour standards.
3. Slow Implementation
• The process of adoption, ratification, and national implementation of ILO
standards is often lengthy and bureaucratic.
• As a result, progress in some areas is very slow.
4. Limited Resources
• The ILO has limited financial and manpower resources, which restrict its ability
to monitor compliance and provide widespread technical assistance.
5. Inequality Between Developed and Developing Nations
• The concerns of developing countries are sometimes overshadowed by the
interests of industrialized nations.
• This can lead to one-sided policies and resistance from poorer economies.

Conclusion
The ILO has played a significant role in shaping global labour standards and
advocating for workers’ rights, particularly through its tripartite system and global
conventions. However, its lack of enforcement powers, dependence on member
states' political will, and resource limitations have affected its effectiveness.
Strengthening international cooperation and increasing accountability among member
states are essential for the ILO to overcome its challenges and continue promoting
decent work and social justice globally.
Procedure of Amendment of the UN Charter
Introduction
The United Nations Charter is the foundational legal document of the United Nations
(UN), signed on 26 June 1945 and in force from 24 October 1945. It defines the
purposes, principles, structure, and powers of the UN and its organs. As a
constitutional document, it also provides a formal process for its amendment,
mentioned under Articles 108 and 109 of the Charter. The amendment process is
carefully designed to ensure that any changes reflect the collective will of the
international community.

1. Amendment under Article 108 (Ordinary Amendment Procedure)

Article 108 lays out the standard procedure to amend the UN Charter. The steps are as
follows:
a. Proposal of Amendment
• An amendment can be proposed by any member state of the United Nations.
• It must be submitted in writing to the Secretary-General.
b. Adoption by General Assembly
• The proposed amendment must be adopted by a two-thirds majority of the
General Assembly.
• This ensures that a large majority of member states agree on the necessity and
content of the amendment.
c. Ratification by Member States
• After adoption by the General Assembly, the amendment must be ratified by
two-thirds of UN member states, including all five permanent members (P5)
of the Security Council (i.e., China, France, Russia, UK, and USA).
 • This clause gives veto-like power to the P5 — if even one of them refuses to
ratify, the amendment cannot come into force.
d. Entry into Force
• Once the required number of ratifications is deposited with the Secretary-
General, the amendment comes into force for all UN members.

2. Amendment under Article 109 (General Conference Review)

Article 109 provides for the possibility of a General Conference to review and revise
the Charter.
a. Proposal of a General Conference
• A two-thirds vote of the General Assembly and a vote of any nine members of
the Security Council (including all P5) can call for a General Conference of UN
members to review the Charter.
b. Convening the Conference
• If approved, such a conference is called to propose changes to the Charter.
• Any changes proposed by the conference must again be ratified by two-thirds of
member states, including the P5.
c. Purpose of Article 109
• This article was included to provide a comprehensive review of the Charter in
the future.
• Although discussed in the past, such a conference has never been held due to
lack of consensus among major powers.

Conclusion
The amendment process of the UN Charter is rigid and conservative, mainly because
it requires the consent of all five permanent members of the Security Council. This
ensures global stability and consensus but also makes reform of the UN system very
difficult, even when widely demanded. While Article 108 allows for regular
amendments, the power politics of the P5 often act as a barrier. As a result, although
some minor amendments have been made (such as expanding the size of the Security
Council), major reforms have yet to be achieved.
Q6) (a) World Health Organization (WHO)
Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations
responsible for international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, the WHO
aims to promote health, keep the world safe, and serve the vulnerable. Its
headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland, and it has offices in over 150
countries.

Structure and Membership

• The WHO has 194 member states, making it nearly universal in its reach.
• Its main decision-making body is the World Health Assembly (WHA), which
meets annually and includes delegates from all member countries.
• The Executive Board, composed of health experts, implements the decisions of
the WHA.
• The Director-General is the top official of the WHO and is appointed by the
WHA.

Major Functions of WHO

1. Disease Control and Prevention
o WHO monitors and fights global health threats like malaria, HIV/AIDS,
tuberculosis, and more recently, COVID-19.
o It provides technical assistance and guidelines for countries to control
epidemics and pandemics.
2. Setting International Health Standards
o WHO develops international standards for vaccines, medicines, and
diagnostics.
o It also prepares the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
3. Health Education and Research
o Promotes research on vaccines, nutrition, sanitation, and mental health.
o It educates the public on hygiene, healthy living, and disease prevention.
4. Emergency Response
 o WHO leads emergency medical responses during outbreaks, natural
disasters, and humanitarian crises.
o Example: Its central role during the Ebola outbreak and the COVID-19
pandemic.
5. Support for Health Systems
o WHO helps countries strengthen their healthcare infrastructure, improve
medical training, and ensure access to essential medicines.
6. Global Health Goals
o It works with countries to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), particularly Goal 3 – Good Health and Well-Being.

Achievements
• Eradication of smallpox in 1980 is considered one of WHO’s biggest successes.
• Major progress in polio eradication, maternal health, and immunization
programs.
• Creation of global health days like World Health Day (7 April) to raise awareness.

Criticisms and Challenges

• Accused of delayed response during some health emergencies.
• Political pressures from powerful countries sometimes affect its decisions.
• Limited budget and dependence on voluntary contributions from member
states.

Conclusion
The WHO plays a critical role in improving global health by coordinating international
efforts, setting standards, and supporting health systems. Despite challenges, it
remains the most influential public health organization in the world, guiding nations
in times of both crisis and development.

(b) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Introduction
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United
Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger, improve food security, and
promote sustainable agriculture. It was established on 16 October 1945, and its
headquarters is in Rome, Italy. The FAO’s motto is “Fiat Panis” (Let there be bread).

Structure and Membership

• The FAO has 195 members (194 countries + the European Union).
• The FAO Conference, held every two years, is the highest governing body.
• The Council and Director-General handle day-to-day functions.

Major Functions of FAO

1. Fighting Hunger and Malnutrition
o FAO works to achieve food security by ensuring that people have regular
access to enough nutritious food.
o It supports projects that aim to reduce hunger and improve nutrition,
especially in poor and rural areas.
2. Promoting Sustainable Agriculture
o Encourages the use of modern and eco-friendly farming methods.
o Works on issues like soil conservation, irrigation, forestry, and fisheries.
3. Data Collection and Research
o FAO collects and publishes global data on agriculture, food prices,
production, and hunger levels.
o Its publications like the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World
guide policymakers.
4. Technical Assistance
o FAO provides technical support and training to farmers, agricultural
workers, and government agencies.
o Helps in drafting agricultural policies, building infrastructure, and adopting
new technologies.
5. Emergency Aid
 o Provides food and agricultural support during natural disasters,
droughts, and conflicts.
o Example: Supporting farming communities in war-torn or famine-affected
regions.
6. Policy and Legal Support
o Assists governments in making agriculture-friendly policies, land reform
laws, and food safety regulations.

Achievements
• Green Revolution support in countries like India led to increased food
production.
• Played a key role in controlling animal and plant diseases, such as Rinderpest
and Desert Locusts.
• Promotes awareness through World Food Day (16 October) every year.

Challenges and Criticisms

• Despite its efforts, global hunger remains a problem, worsened by climate
change and conflict.
• Limited financial and political power; relies on cooperation from governments.
• Sometimes criticized for bureaucracy and slow project implementation.

Conclusion
The FAO is a vital international organization in the fight against hunger, malnutrition,
and poverty. Through its research, technical aid, and policy guidance, it helps countries
build a future where food is accessible, farming is sustainable, and no one goes
hungry.
Q7) Role of the United Nations Towards Disarmament and Arms Control

Introduction
One of the major goals of the United Nations Organization (UNO) since its
establishment in 1945 has been to promote international peace and security by
reducing the threat of war, particularly through disarmament and arms control.
Disarmament refers to the reduction or elimination of weapons, especially weapons
of mass destruction (WMDs), while arms control involves regulating the production,
distribution, and use of weapons to prevent conflict and enhance stability.
The UN’s commitment to disarmament is reflected in its Charter, various treaties,
special agencies, and ongoing negotiations aimed at reducing arms proliferation and
preventing arms races.

Disarmament in the UN Charter

Article 26 of the UN Charter directs the Security Council to formulate plans for the
establishment of a system to regulate armaments. The goal is to maintain
international peace with the least diversion of the world’s human and economic
resources to armaments.
The UN thus has both a moral and legal obligation to pursue disarmament and arms
control as essential components of global peace.

Major UN Bodies Involved in Disarmament

1. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA)
• The UNGA regularly discusses disarmament issues in its First Committee
(Disarmament and International Security).
• It passes resolutions and calls for global treaties to reduce weapons.
• Although not legally binding, UNGA resolutions carry strong political influence.
2. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA)
• Established in 1998, the UNODA is the main UN body coordinating
disarmament efforts.
• It supports disarmament negotiations, assists member states in implementing
arms treaties, and promotes transparency.
3. Conference on Disarmament (CD)
• An independent multilateral forum supported by the UN.
• It is the only standing body for negotiating disarmament agreements, such as
the Chemical Weapons Convention.
• However, political disagreements often delay its functioning.
4. Security Council
• The UN Security Council (UNSC) plays a key role in enforcing arms control
through sanctions and peacekeeping mandates.
• It can impose arms embargoes on countries that threaten international peace.

Key Achievements of the UN in Disarmament

1. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), 1968
• The NPT is the cornerstone of global nuclear disarmament efforts.
• It aims to:
o Prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.
o Promote peaceful use of nuclear energy.
o Encourage nuclear disarmament.
• Nearly 191 countries are parties to the NPT, making it one of the most widely
accepted treaties.
2. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), 1996
• Prohibits all nuclear explosions, both for civilian and military purposes.
• Though not yet in force due to non-ratification by key states like the USA, India,
and China, the treaty reflects the global consensus against nuclear testing.
3. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), 1993
• Bans the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons.
• The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) monitors
compliance.
• The CWC has achieved destruction of over 99% of declared chemical
weapons stockpiles globally.
4. Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), 1972
• Bans the development and use of biological and toxin weapons.
• Although lacking strong verification measures, it establishes a global norm
against bioweapons.
5. Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), 2013
• Regulates the international trade of conventional weapons.
 • Aims to prevent weapons from being used in human rights abuses, terrorism, or
war crimes.

UN Peacekeeping and Disarmament

UN peacekeeping missions often include components of Disarmament,
Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR). These help former combatants to:
• Surrender weapons,
• Leave armed groups, and
• Reintegrate into civilian life.
Examples include:
• Sierra Leone (1999) – Over 45,000 weapons were collected.
• Liberia (2003) – Disarmed around 100,000 former fighters.

Special Initiatives and Campaigns

1. United Nations Disarmament Week
• Observed every October, this aims to raise awareness about the dangers of
weapons and promote global action.
2. UN Register of Conventional Arms
• A voluntary mechanism where countries report their arms transfers to promote
transparency and trust.
3. Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) Program
• Focuses on controlling illegal trade and misuse of small arms, which cause
thousands of deaths annually in civil conflicts.

Challenges to UN Disarmament Efforts

1. Veto Power Politics
• The five permanent members (P5) of the Security Council are also the biggest
arms producers and possessors of nuclear weapons.
• Their national interests often conflict with disarmament goals.
2. Lack of Enforcement Power
 • Most disarmament agreements are voluntary and lack strict enforcement
mechanisms.
• Countries can withdraw from treaties (e.g., North Korea from NPT in 2003).
3. Non-Participation of Key Countries
• Some major powers like India, Pakistan, and Israel have not signed the NPT.
• This limits the universality and effectiveness of nuclear control regimes.
4. Emerging Technologies
• New weapons like cyber weapons, drones, and autonomous systems are not
adequately covered by existing treaties.
• The UN struggles to keep pace with rapid military innovations.

Reform and Future Directions

To improve its role in disarmament, the UN must:
• Strengthen treaty enforcement mechanisms and introduce verification
systems.
• Encourage universal participation in major treaties.
• Promote regional disarmament agreements and confidence-building
measures.
• Ensure peaceful use of outer space, AI, and cyberspace.
Moreover, public pressure, civil society movements, and youth engagement can
help build a global culture of peace and disarmament.

Conclusion
The United Nations has played a pioneering role in the field of disarmament and
arms control, striving to eliminate the threat posed by conventional and weapons of
mass destruction. Through its bodies, treaties, and peacekeeping initiatives, the UN
has created a framework for international cooperation, transparency, and
responsible arms use. However, geopolitical rivalries, lack of consensus, and
emerging threats continue to hinder its effectiveness.
For the UN to fulfill its mission of promoting global peace and security, it must be
empowered with greater authority, universal support, and the collective will of
nations to build a safer and disarmed world.
Q8) Role of the United Nations in Peacekeeping Operations

Introduction
The United Nations (UNO) was established in 1945 with the core purpose of
maintaining international peace and security. One of the most important tools used
by the UN to fulfill this mission is peacekeeping operations. Over the years, UN
peacekeeping missions have become a symbol of international cooperation and
conflict resolution. These operations are not mentioned explicitly in the UN Charter but
have evolved as a practical mechanism for the UN to help countries transition from
conflict to peace.
This essay discusses the origin, objectives, principles, structure, examples,
challenges, and the overall significance of UN peacekeeping operations in
maintaining global peace.

Meaning of Peacekeeping
UN peacekeeping refers to the deployment of international military and civilian
personnel to conflict zones to help prevent the recurrence of violence, assist in
implementing peace agreements, and support the rebuilding of political and civil
institutions.
Peacekeeping bridges the gap between conflict and peace, offering a neutral third-
party presence to help fragile states rebuild trust and stability.

Origin and Evolution

• The first UN peacekeeping mission was launched in 1948 with the establishment
of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) in the Middle
East.
• Over time, peacekeeping has evolved from monitoring ceasefires to complex
multidimensional missions that support elections, disarmament, and human
rights protection.
• To date, the UN has deployed over 70 peacekeeping operations, involving more
than 1 million peacekeepers from around the world.

Objectives of UN Peacekeeping
The key objectives of UN peacekeeping are:
1. Preventing conflict escalation
2. Monitoring ceasefires and peace agreements
3. Protecting civilians in conflict zones
4. Supporting democratic transitions (e.g., elections)
5. Facilitating disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR)
6. Supporting the rule of law and justice institutions
7. Helping displaced persons return safely to their homes

Principles of UN Peacekeeping
UN peacekeeping operates based on three foundational principles:
1. Consent of the Parties
• UN peacekeeping missions are deployed with the consent of the host country
and the conflicting parties.
• This ensures cooperation and prevents the mission from being seen as an
occupying force.
2. Impartiality
• Peacekeepers must remain neutral and unbiased, treating all parties fairly to
maintain trust and credibility.
3. Non-use of Force (except in self-defense or defense of the mandate)
• Peacekeepers are generally not allowed to use force, except to protect civilians,
themselves, or carry out their mandate.

Structure of Peacekeeping Operations

1. Mandate
• Each peacekeeping operation is established by a resolution of the UN Security
Council.
• The resolution defines the mandate, scope, and duration of the mission.
2. Troop-Contributing Countries (TCCs)
• Member states voluntarily contribute troops and police personnel.
 • Countries like India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Rwanda are among the top
contributors.
3. Funding
• Peacekeeping operations are funded by assessed contributions from member
states.
• The UN Department of Peace Operations (DPO) manages the missions.

Types of Peacekeeping Missions

UN peacekeeping operations can be categorized into:
a) Traditional Peacekeeping
• Focused on monitoring ceasefires and separating opposing forces.
• Example: UNTSO in the Middle East.
b) Multidimensional Peacekeeping
• Involves support for political processes, rebuilding institutions, human rights,
and rule of law.
• Example: MONUSCO in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
c) Robust Peacekeeping
• Allows the use of force to protect civilians or enforce peace.
• Requires stronger mandates and equipment.
• Example: MINUSMA in Mali.

Successful Peacekeeping Missions

1. Namibia (UNTAG, 1989–1990)
• Supervised the withdrawal of South African troops and helped Namibia gain
independence.
2. Cambodia (UNTAC, 1992–1993)
• Oversaw democratic elections and helped in national reconciliation.
3. Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL, 1999–2005)
• Disarmed rebel groups and facilitated democratic governance after civil war.
4. East Timor (UNTAET, 1999–2002)
• Helped the country transition to independence from Indonesia.

Challenges Faced by UN Peacekeeping

1. Political Constraints
• Peacekeeping missions depend on Security Council decisions, often delayed
due to veto power politics.
2. Lack of Resources
• Many missions suffer from insufficient funding, equipment, and manpower,
making them less effective.
3. Security Risks
• Peacekeepers operate in dangerous environments, facing threats from armed
groups and terrorists.
4. Abuse and Misconduct Allegations
• There have been instances of misconduct by peacekeepers, such as sexual
exploitation, which harm the UN’s reputation.
5. Host Country Resistance
• Some governments may limit cooperation, making it hard for missions to
function effectively.
6. Delayed Mandate Implementation
• Bureaucratic delays in deploying missions often weaken their impact and allow
violence to escalate.

India’s Contribution to UN Peacekeeping

India is one of the largest troop-contributing countries to UN peacekeeping.
• Over 250,000 Indian personnel have served in 50+ missions.
• Indian peacekeepers have served in Sudan, Congo, Lebanon, South Sudan, and
Haiti.
• India has also sent women peacekeepers, highlighting gender equality in peace
missions.
Significance of UN Peacekeeping

Global Cooperation
• Peacekeeping brings together countries with different cultures and interests to
promote peace.

Conflict Prevention
• Prevents minor disputes from turning into full-scale wars by building confidence
and dialogue.

Humanitarian Protection
• Peacekeepers help protect civilians, refugees, and vulnerable populations
during crises.

Rebuilding Nations
• After war, peacekeeping missions support institution building, elections, and
social development.

Recommendations for Improvement

• Speedy deployment of missions during emerging crises.
• Greater investment in training, technology, and logistics.
• Accountability mechanisms for misconduct and abuse.
• Stronger mandates to allow action during humanitarian crises.
• Enhanced cooperation with regional organizations like the African Union (AU) or
European Union (EU).

Conclusion
The United Nations peacekeeping operations play a vital role in maintaining
international peace, supporting fragile states, and preventing conflict. Though not
without challenges, peacekeeping remains one of the most visible and practical tools
of the UN in fulfilling its mission. With better funding, coordination, and political will,
the UNO can make peacekeeping more effective, ethical, and responsive to the
needs of war-torn societies across the world.
Q9) Assess the Success and Failure of the UNO
Introduction
The United Nations Organization (UNO) was established on 24 October 1945, after
the end of World War II, with the primary aim of maintaining international peace and
security, promoting human rights, and encouraging social and economic
development. Over the past decades, the UN has played a crucial role in shaping the
international order. However, it has faced both remarkable achievements and
significant criticisms. This essay provides a balanced assessment of the successes
and failures of the UNO across various domains.

Successes of the UNO

1. Maintenance of International Peace and Security

One of the main goals of the UN is to prevent war and conflict. While it has not entirely
eliminated war, it has played an essential role in:
• Preventing direct wars between superpowers during the Cold War.
• Deploying peacekeeping missions in conflict zones such as Sierra Leone, East
Timor, Lebanon, and Congo.
• Mediating peace agreements between warring countries or groups.
Example: UN peacekeeping operations helped restore peace and democracy in
countries like Namibia and Cambodia.

2. Decolonization
The UN significantly contributed to the decolonization process after World War II. The
Trusteeship Council and General Assembly supported former colonies in Asia, Africa,
and the Caribbean in gaining independence.
Over 80 countries achieved independence with UN assistance between 1945 and
1980.

3. Human Rights Protection

The UN has played a major role in promoting and protecting human rights globally. It
adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and later established
several treaties like:
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child
• The Convention Against Torture
• The Human Rights Council (2006) was formed to monitor violations.
The UN regularly investigates human rights abuses and supports the rights of
minorities, women, and refugees.

4. Humanitarian Assistance
Through agencies like:
• UNICEF (Children)
• WFP (Food)
• UNHCR (Refugees)
• WHO (Health)
…the UN has saved millions of lives during natural disasters, famines, conflicts, and
pandemics.
Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, WHO coordinated global efforts for vaccine
distribution and health management.

5. Promotion of Development
The UN promotes global development through initiatives like:
• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000–2015)
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015–2030)
It assists developing countries in areas like education, poverty reduction, and
environmental sustainability.

6. International Law and Justice

The UN has developed international law through:
• International Court of Justice (ICJ)
 • International Criminal Court (ICC) (though not under UN but supported)
• Promotion of treaties on climate change, disarmament, and the sea
It resolves disputes between nations and prosecutes war criminals and genocide
offenders.

7. Global Cooperation Platform

The UN serves as a global forum where countries meet to discuss and solve global
issues like climate change, terrorism, cyber security, and disarmament. It promotes
dialogue over conflict.

Failures of the UNO

1. Ineffectiveness in Preventing Wars and Conflicts

Despite its purpose, the UN has failed to prevent several major wars and genocides:
• Korean War (1950–53)
• Vietnam War
• Rwanda Genocide (1994) – Over 8 lakh people killed
• Bosnia (Srebrenica massacre, 1995) – UN peacekeepers failed to protect
civilians
The UN often reacts slowly, and its decisions are limited by the veto power in the
Security Council.

2. Dominance of Powerful Nations (Veto System)

The five permanent members (P5) — the USA, UK, Russia, China, and France — have
the veto power. This means:
• Any one of them can block any resolution.
• This creates deadlock, especially in conflicts involving powerful nations.
Example: Russia vetoed resolutions on its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, and the USA
has vetoed several resolutions concerning Israel-Palestine issues.
This has made the UN seem biased and ineffective in ensuring justice.
3. Lack of Reforms
The structure of the UN, especially the Security Council, reflects the world order of
1945, not the present.
• Nations like India, Brazil, Germany, and Japan (G4 countries) have demanded
permanent seats, but no major reforms have occurred.
• The representation of Africa and Latin America remains weak.

4. Inefficient Bureaucracy and Corruption

The UN has been criticized for:
• Wastage of resources
• Slow decision-making
• Incidents of misconduct by peacekeepers, including sexual abuse
This has led to loss of credibility in several operations.

5. Inability to Enforce Decisions

The UN has no standing army of its own. It relies on voluntary troop contributions
and member cooperation, which limits its capacity to enforce decisions.
Example: Despite sanctions, North Korea continues its nuclear program.

6. Failure in Addressing Modern Threats

The UN has been slow to respond to emerging global challenges such as:
• Cybersecurity
• Climate change
• Artificial intelligence and robotics in warfare
• Global terrorism
Its mechanisms have not kept pace with the changing nature of threats.

Balanced Assessment
While the UN has made enormous contributions to peace, health, development,
and human rights, it has also suffered from political deadlock, lack of enforcement
power, and outdated structures. Its greatest strength — being a universal platform —
is also its biggest weakness, as diverse national interests often prevent unified
action.
However, without the UN, the world would lack a global dialogue platform, and many
small nations would have no voice. The UN remains an imperfect but essential
organization in international affairs.

Conclusion
The UNO has seen both great achievements and serious setbacks in its journey of
over seven decades. It has prevented major world wars, helped millions survive
conflicts and disasters, and established a framework for cooperation and law.
However, its effectiveness is undermined by geopolitical rivalry, lack of reforms, and
institutional weaknesses. In the 21st century, the world needs a reformed,
democratic, and responsive United Nations to meet global challenges and serve all
of humanity equally.
Q10) Powers and Functions of the UN Secretary-General

Introduction
The Secretary-General (SG) of the United Nations (UN) is one of the most important
figures in international diplomacy and global governance. Often referred to as the
"chief administrative officer" of the UN, the Secretary-General acts as a
spokesperson for the global community, a mediator in international conflicts, and
a guardian of the UN Charter. The position holds moral authority and political
influence, though it is not one of absolute power.
The role and functions of the Secretary-General are defined in the UN Charter (Article
97 to 100), and have evolved through practice and the personalities of the individuals
who have held the office.

Appointment and Term

• The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council.
 • The recommendation must be approved by all five permanent members (P5) of
the Security Council (USA, UK, Russia, China, and France), as any one can veto a
candidate.
• The term is typically five years, renewable for a second term.
As of 2024, the current Secretary-General is António Guterres from Portugal (since
January 2017).

Legal Basis – Article 97 to 100 of the UN Charter

• Article 97: The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon
recommendation of the Security Council.
• Article 98: The Secretary-General acts as the chief administrative officer and
performs functions entrusted by other organs.
• Article 99: Empowers the SG to bring to the attention of the Security Council
any matter that may threaten international peace and security.
• Article 100: Assures the independence of the SG and other UN staff from
influence by any member state.

Main Functions of the UN Secretary-General

The Secretary-General performs a variety of duties, broadly classified as
administrative, diplomatic, political, and representational.

1. Chief Administrative Officer of the UN

• Heads the UN Secretariat, which is one of the six principal organs of the United
Nations.
• Responsible for supervising and coordinating the daily work of the UN’s
international civil service.
• Manages a wide range of departments, such as peacekeeping, human rights,
economic and social affairs, legal affairs, and more.
• Ensures implementation of decisions taken by the General Assembly, Security
Council, ECOSOC, and other UN bodies.

2. Diplomatic and Political Functions

 • Acts as a global diplomat and neutral mediator in international disputes.
• Engages in quiet diplomacy, good offices, and preventive diplomacy to resolve
conflicts.
• Sends special envoys to conflict areas, and often negotiates peace
agreements or ceasefires.
Example: Kofi Annan (SG from 1997–2006) played an important role in mediating peace
during the Kenya crisis (2008).

3. Agenda Setter and Convener

• The Secretary-General plays a major role in setting the global agenda on issues
such as climate change, sustainable development, poverty reduction, gender
equality, and global health.
• Organizes and presides over major international conferences and summits.
• Provides annual reports to the General Assembly and other organs on the
activities of the UN.

4. Spokesperson of the United Nations

• Serves as the symbol of the UN’s values and objectives.
• Represents the UN before the media, civil society, governments, and
international institutions.
• Issues public statements on global crises, human rights violations, and other
major international developments.
For example, António Guterres has frequently spoken on issues like climate change,
refugee rights, and Ukraine conflict.

5. Bringing Threats to Peace Before the Security Council (Article 99)

• Under Article 99, the Secretary-General can bring any issue to the attention of
the Security Council that may threaten international peace and security.
• This provision gives the SG a proactive role in conflict prevention.
Example: Dag Hammarskjöld invoked this power during the Suez Crisis (1956).
6. Oversight of Peacekeeping Operations
• The Secretary-General is responsible for overseeing UN peacekeeping missions
across the world.
• Appoints Special Representatives to lead missions and ensure implementation
of mandates.
Example: The SG supervises missions in countries like South Sudan, Congo, and Mali.

7. Coordination of UN Agencies
• Coordinates the work of specialized agencies such as:
o WHO (World Health Organization)
o UNICEF (Children’s Fund)
o WFP (World Food Programme)
o UNHCR (Refugee Agency)
• Ensures synergy between their programs and the broader goals of the UN.

8. Crisis Response and Humanitarian Efforts

• Plays a central role in coordinating international response to humanitarian
crises, natural disasters, and refugee emergencies.
• Works with UN agencies, NGOs, and governments to mobilize resources and
coordinate relief.
For example, the SG coordinated international efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic,
and crises in Syria, Afghanistan, and Haiti.

Limitations and Challenges of the Secretary-General

Despite the wide range of responsibilities, the Secretary-General's powers are limited
by design, to maintain neutrality and impartiality.

1. Lack of Executive Power

• The SG does not have powers like a president or prime minister.
• Cannot enforce decisions or pass binding resolutions.
2. Dependence on Member States
• The effectiveness of the Secretary-General depends on the cooperation of
member states, especially the Security Council.
• Lack of political will or support from major powers can restrict the SG’s actions.

3. Veto Power in Appointment

• The Secretary-General is often a compromise candidate, selected through
backroom diplomacy, and must avoid angering powerful nations.

4. Balancing Neutrality and Advocacy

• The SG must remain politically neutral, but is also expected to advocate for
justice and human rights.
• This balancing act makes the job highly sensitive and complex.

Notable Secretaries-General and Their Contributions

Name Country Term Contribution

Trygve Lie Norway 1946–1952 First SG, managed post-WWII crises

Assertive diplomacy, died in Congo

Dag Hammarskjöld Sweden 1953–1961
mission

U Thant Myanmar 1961–1971 Mediated Cuban Missile Crisis

Javier Pérez de
Peru 1982–1991 Iran-Iraq peace negotiations
Cuéllar

Introduced Millennium Development

Kofi Annan Ghana 1997–2006
Goals (MDGs)

South
Ban Ki-moon 2007–2016 Climate change and SDG focus
Korea

2017– Focus on refugees, climate change, and

António Guterres Portugal
Present COVID-19 response
Conclusion
The UN Secretary-General is often described as the "world’s top diplomat" and the
moral voice of humanity. Though the role is not one of legal or military power, it is
immensely powerful in terms of influence, visibility, and diplomacy. By coordinating
peace efforts, addressing global issues, and representing the interests of all nations,
the Secretary-General plays a vital part in maintaining peace, justice, and
cooperation in the world.
In a time of global challenges such as climate change, pandemics, terrorism, and
regional conflicts, the Secretary-General continues to be a symbol of hope and a
driver of collective international action.