WorldCollegeofTechnology&Management(WCTM)

Name of the Faculty Ms. Sarika Madavi

Department Management
Subject IT FOR MANAGER
Class Master of Business Administration
Semester 2ndsem
Session Even(JAN 2025-MAY 2025)

Contents:-
• Syllabus
• Lesson Plan
• Notes(unit1–4)
• PreviousYearQuestionPapers
Syllabus
 Lessonplan

Name of the faculty Sarika Madavi

Discipline MBA Ist Year

Semester II Sem

Subject IT Infrastructure Management

Lesson Plan Duration Week/Month/year(Feb2023toMay2024)
Workload(lecture
Lecture- 3
/practical)
Theory
Week
DATE Lecture Topic(IncludingassignmentsandTests)

IntroductionItInfrastructure,Datanetwork and
9/1/25 1st
application programming interface
1st APIfundamental,coperatenetworkfunction, business
10/1/25 2nd
uses
Wirelessandmobileinfrastructure,message
13/1/25 3rd
andcollaborationtechnology
Databeachesandcybersecuritychallenges,
16/1/25 4th ITrisk management
2nd Mobileappandcloudsecuritychallenges,
20/1/25 5th financialcrimesandfrauddefense
Triplebottomlineapproach,internet
30/1/25 6th technology,searchtechnology
30/1/25 Organicsearchandsearchengine
7th optimization paid search
strategies,metrics,semanticweb
3rd Informationtechnologyinbusiness, digital
8th technologytransformingbusinessprocess
9th CompetitiveadvantageandSWOTanalysis
SWOT Analysis,buildingbusiness
1oth
capabilitieswithdatagovernance

Informationanddecisionsupportsystem, data center

11th
and cloud computing
4th
datacenterandcloudcomputing,cloud
12th
servicedeliverymodel
Unit-III--Datamanagementtechnologiesand
5th 13th techniques
Transactionprocessingandanalytics
14th processingsystems
15th Dirtydata costsandconsequences
 Dataownershipandorganizationalpolitics, data
16th life cycle

6th 17th Bigdataanalytics,dataandtext mining

Datavisualization
18th Enterprisedatamashup,digitaldashboards,

19th BusinessIntelligence
20th RevisionUnit 1
7th
21th ClassTest

Unit-IV—Impactofcomputernetworkon
22th
business,
23th UsingISfunctiontodealwithbusinessrisk
Privacy,healthandethicalissuesin networked
Economy
24th
8th
25th RevisionUnit2
th ClassTest
9 26th
27th Futureofthenetworked economy
28th NetworkEconomyusedinlife
10th 29th IntroductionofHTML
30th AdvantagesnDisadvantagesHTML
31th HTMLdocument,tables,frames
11th 32th Links,addingmultimediadocuments
33th HTMLTags used
34th Home page
12th 35th How touse HTMLandCreate
36th TravelAgent HinduBharmanHomepage
37th RevisionofUnitIV
13 th 38th UnitTest asperuniversitypaper
39th Queryofstudent solving
40th Imporatant questionpaperdiscussing
14th 41th Overall80Marks test
 UNIT 1

IT Infrastructure

IT infrastructure, or information technology infrastructure, is the foundation of a company's technology operations.

It's a collection of hardware, software, networks, and other resources that support a company's applications and
services.

What does IT infrastructure include?

Hardware: Servers, storage systems, networking devices, and other physical components

Software: Operating systems, databases, and other applications

Networks: Switches, routers, hubs, and other devices that connect devices and move data between networks

Facilities: Data centers and other physical spaces where IT resources are housed

Why is IT infrastructure important?

A strong IT infrastructure can improve employee productivity and efficiency

It can help businesses deliver quality solutions to customers

It can help businesses lower the risk of security issues

Types of IT infrastructure

Traditional infrastructure

Primarily hardware-based, with servers and data centers that are manually configured and maintained

Cloud infrastructure

A more cost-effective option that uses a mix of cloud environments, on-premise data centers, and edge computing
devices

Data Network

Network data refers to data that is transmitted between network access points using data networks. Data networks
are systems that allow computers and other devices to communicate with each other. They are used for many
modern communication methods, such as the internet and telecommunications.
Types of data networks

There are two main types of data networks: Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs). LANs
connect devices in a small area, like a home or office, while WANs connect devices in a larger area, like a city or
country.

Connection types

Data networks can be wired or wireless. Wired networks use cables to connect devices, while wireles networks use
radio waves.

Protocols

Data networks use protocols to send and receive data. The most popular protocol is the Internet
Protocol/Transmission Control Protocol (IP/TCP), which is also used on the internet.

Data transmission

Data is transmitted in small units called packets. Each packet has a payload, which is the data being transmitted, and
a header, which contains information about the packet, like the source and destination addresses.

Data analysis

Data networks can also refer to collections of interconnected data sets that are used for data analysis and research.
For example, data networks can be used in urban planning and public transportation system evaluation.

API
API stands for Application Programming Interface. It's a set of rules and protocols that enable software applications
to communicate with each other. APIs are used to exchange data, features, and functionality.

Here are some things to know about APIs:

How APIs work

APIs expose a limited number of data points and actions that external software can interact with. When a software
system wants to access a resource from another system, it sends a request.

How APIs are used

APIs are used in many applications, such as rideshare apps, mobile payments, and thermostat control.

How APIs are secure

APIs are considered safe because they include authorization credentials and an API gateway to limit access.

How APIs are documented

API documentation provides information on how developers can work with an API and its services.

Language bindings

Language bindings are also APIs that map the features of one language to an interface in another language.

Database APIs

Database APIs allow communication between an application and a database management system.

API may also refer to the American Petroleum Institute, which is a standards-setting organization for the oil and
natural gas industry.

CoporateNeywork Function
A corporate network's functions include enabling communication, protecting data, and providing access to cloud
services.

Communication

Network devices: Routers and switches forward and filter network traffic

Wireless access points: Provide wireless connectivity to devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops

Cloud integration: Allows access to cloud services like SaaS, IaaS, and PaaS

Data protection

Firewalls: Control incoming and outgoing network traffic

Intrusion detection systems: Monitor for suspicious activity and can block or prevent it

Encryption: Protects the integrity and privacy of documents during storage and communication

Access to cloud services

Virtual private networks (VPNs): Allow remote users to securely connect to the corporate network
Network as a service (NaaS): A cloud model that allows organizations to operate their networks without building or
maintaining infrastructure

Other functions

Network segmentation: Divides a network into smaller, isolated segments

Load balancers: Distribute incoming network traffic across multiple servers

An optimized corporate network can help improve productivity, customer service, and security.

Business uses in IT infrastructure

IT infrastructure, or technology infrastructure, is the hardware and software that allows businesses to run their
operations. It's the foundation that enables businesses to communicate, store data, and run applications.

How IT infrastructure helps businesses

Communication
IT infrastructure provides reliable internet access for communication, research, and collaboration.

Data storage
IT infrastructure stores and backs up data securely, protecting it from loss or unauthorized access.
Application deployment
IT infrastructure supports the deployment of business applications and software tools.

Process automation
IT infrastructure can automate repetitive tasks to boost productivity.

Real-time data
IT infrastructure provides real-time data to help businesses make informed decisions.

Scalability
IT infrastructure allows businesses to scale operations to meet changing demands.

Adaptability
IT infrastructure helps businesses adapt to market changes and maintain a competitive edge.

What IT infrastructure includes

Hardware:

Physical components like servers, computers, network devices, and storage systems.
Software:
Applications, management systems, and operating systems
Networks:
Data transmission tools like routers and switches
Data storage:

Storage devices and data systems

Security systems
Systems to protect data from unauthorized access

Wireless and mobile infrastructure

Wireless and mobile infrastructure is the hardware and software that enables wireless communication and mobile
access. It includes devices like routers, access points, and controllers.

Wireless network infrastructure

Devices: Routers, access points, and controllers

Standards: Wi-Fi 5, Wi-Fi 6, and potentially Wi-Fi 7

Benefits: Reliable and fast connectivity, reduced physical clutter, and the ability to connect multiple devices

Examples: Wireless LAN (WLAN) controllers in an enterprise

Mobile access networks

Types: Cellular networks, WiFi networks, and WiMAX networks

Benefits: Seamless information exchange for mobile users while on the move

Examples: 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G cellular networks

Wireless and mobile infrastructure applications

Voice and SMS: Cellular networks enable voice and SMS communication

Internet access: Cellular networks enable high-speed internet access

Streaming services: Cellular networks enable streaming services

GPS: Satellite communication enables GPS, which helps businesses track vehicles and employees

Messaging and collaboration technology

Messaging and collaboration technology allows people to communicate and work together in real time or
asynchronously. It can include instant messaging, video conferencing, and document collaboration.

Types of messaging and collaboration technology

Instant messaging

Allows for quick, real-time communication between team members. Examples include Slack, WhatsApp, Microsoft
Teams, and Yammer.

Video conferencing

Allows people to meet face-to-face virtually. Examples include Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, and
GoToMeeting.

Document collaboration

Allows people to work on documents together in real time or separately. Examples include Google Docs, Microsoft
Word Online, Confluence, and Dropbox Paper.

Project management tools

Allows people to organize tasks, track progress, and meet deadlines. Examples include Asana, Trello, Jira, and
Monday.

Benefits of messaging and collaboration technology

Real-time interaction: Allows for immediate responses, which is useful for brainstorming and urgent discussions.

Eliminates geographical barriers: Allows colleagues from different locations to participate equally in virtual
meetings.

Improves decision-making efficiency: Allows for rapid and fluid exchange of ideas.

Data breaches

A data breach is a cyber attack that results in the unauthorized access or disclosure of sensitive
data. This could include personal information like names, addresses, and financial details, or
corporate information like customer lists and source code.

How do data breaches happen?

Phishing

Fraudulent emails that appear to be from a legitimate company trick the recipient into clicking on
a malicious link or downloading malware

Malware

Malicious software like viruses and ransomware can be installed through phishing emails,
deceptive websites, or compromised downloads

Vulnerability exploits

Cyber criminals may search for vulnerabilities in an organization's hardware or software before
the company knows about them

Denial-of-service (DoS) attack

An intentional attack that aims to overload an organization's network or website with fake
requests

What are the consequences of a data breach?

* Identity theft
* Violations of government or industry compliance mandates
* Fines
* Litigation
* Reputation loss
* Loss of the right to operate the business

Cybersecurity challenges

Cybersecurity challenges include attacks, threats, and vulnerabilities that can impact the security
of data and systems.

Attacks

Phishing attacks: Cyber criminals use social engineering to target employees and steal data
Ransomware: Cyber criminals prevent users from accessing data until a ransom is paid

Malware: Cybercriminals offer malware as a service, allowing less tech-savvy people to deploy
sophisticated malware

Advanced persistent threats (APTs): Complex, stealthy attacks that can go undetected for long
periods

Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks: Attacks that overload systems with internet
traffic to disrupt services

Identity-based attacks: Hackers hijack legitimate user accounts and abuse their privileges

Threats

* Insider attacks: Attacks from within an organization

* IoT attacks: Attackers exploit weaknesses in Internet of Things (IoT) devices to access
systems

Vulnerabilities

Lack of cybersecurity skills: A lack of cybersecurity skills can make it easier for cybercriminals
to gain access to systems

Rapid technological advancement: New technologies can introduce new challenges

Here are some key trends and predictions for the future of cybersecurity:

1. Increased Use of AI and Machine Learning in Cybersecurity. ...

2. Expansion of Zero Trust Architecture. ...
3. Rise of Quantum Computing Threats. ...
4. Growth of Ransomware-as-a-Service (RaaS) ...
5. Adoption of Cybersecurity as a Business Priority.

IT Risk management
IT risk management is the process of using risk management methods to identify, assess, and address IT-
related risks to a business. The goal is to improve cybersecurity, IT operations, and the organization's
overall risk posture.

Here are some key aspects of IT risk management:

Identify risks

IT risk management involves identifying potential threats and vulnerabilities in IT infrastructure. These
threats could include human error, equipment failure, cyberattacks, or natural disasters.

Assess risks

Once risks are identified, they are assessed to determine their potential impact.

Mitigate risks

Risks are then addressed and mitigated to reduce the potential impact.

Monitor risks

Risks are monitored regularly to ensure they are being managed effectively.

Communicate with stakeholders

It's important to communicate openly with customers and stakeholders about the organization's approach
to managing IT risks.

Define risk tolerance

Organizations should define their risk tolerance, or the level of risk they are willing to take.

Involve stakeholders

It's important to involve stakeholders early in the risk management process. This includes project
stakeholders, department heads, and larger stakeholders like the board of directors.

Use a risk register

A risk register is a document that summarizes each identified risk, including a description, risk score,
remediation plan, and owner.

Mobile app and cloud security challenges

Mobile app and cloud security challenges include data breaches, insider threats, and communication
vulnerabilities.

Mobile app security challenges

Data breaches: Sensitive information is stolen or accessed without authorization

Malicious files and links: Malicious code or links can be used to access private data
Weak encryption: Weak encryption can make it easier for attackers to access data

Insecure data transmission: Data can be transmitted without proper security measures

Communication vulnerabilities: Hackers can exploit weaknesses in communication to access data

Cloud security challenges

Insider threats

Unauthorized users, such as employees or contractors, can access sensitive data or systems

DDoS attacks

Distributed Denial of Service attacks can prevent users from accessing cloud-based data and applications

Unsecured APIs

Unsecured APIs can provide entry points for attackers

Misconfiguration

Insecure default configurations or incomplete configurations can create vulnerabilities

Finacial crimes

Financial crimes are illegal activities that involve taking money or property from another person or organization.
These crimes can involve fraud, theft, bribery, and more.

Examples of financial crimes

Money laundering

The process of making money from illegal activities seem legitimate by passing it through banks and businesses

Bribery

Offering or accepting money or other benefits in exchange for favors or preferential treatment
Fraud

Intentionally deceiving someone for personal or financial gain

Tax evasion

Intentionally avoiding paying taxes by underreporting income, inflating deductions, or hiding assets

Embezzlement

Illegally taking funds that are entrusted to your care, such as by an employer or client

Identity theft

Stealing someone's personal information, such as their social security number or bank account details

Insider trading

Using non-public information to gain an unfair advantage in financial markets

Cybercrime

Using computers or the internet to commit fraudulent activities, such as hacking into computer systems or phishing
scams

Finacial fraud
Financial fraud is when someone illegally takes money or assets from another person through
deception. It can include identity theft, investment fraud, and other types of scams.

What to do if you're a victim of financial fraud?

1. Report the crime to the appropriate authorities and law enforcement as soon as possible
2. Dispute or cancel any fraudulent charges
3. Gather documentation related to the crime, such as bank statements, credit reports, and
tax forms
4. File important information throughout the reporting process

Types of financial fraud

* ATM scams
* Credit card fraud
* HELOC fraud
* IRS scams
* Ponzi schemes
* Identity theft
* Payment fraud
* ACH fraud
* Account takeover fraud
* Advance fee fraud

Sustainability
Sustainability in IT is a set of initiatives that IT departments take to help an organization achieve its environmental,
social, and governance (ESG) goals. Sustainability managers are responsible for implementing these initiatives.

What does a sustainability manager do?

Evaluate impact: Assess the impact of the company's operations on the environment

Reduce waste: Find ways to cut costs and reduce waste

Ensure compliance: Make sure the organization is following rules and regulations

Promote sustainability: Come up with new ideas to promote sustainability

Communicate: Articulate strategies, benefits, findings, risks, and other important information to management

What skills do sustainability managers need?

Communication, Strategic thinking, Self-motivation, Numeracy, Interpersonal skills, and Holistic thinking.

Why is sustainability important?

Sustainable management can help businesses stay afloat and increase profitability

Technology can help monitor and assess ecosystems, which can lead to data-driven decision-making and informed
conservation strategies
The triple bottom line (TBL)

The triple bottom line (TBL) is an accounting framework that measures an organization's sustainability in three
areas: people, planet, and profit. The TBL is also known as the 3Ps or 3BL.

The TBL is used by businesses, nonprofits, and governments to evaluate their performance and create greater
business value. It's based on the idea that companies should consider the impact they have on society and the
environment, in addition to making a profit.

The TBL can help organizations:

Improve financial performance: While still making money, organizations can have a positive impact on the world.

Be more accountable: Organizations are accountable to all stakeholders, not just shareholders.

Increase transparency: Organizations can increase transparency in their work.

Shift focus: Organizations can shift their focus to areas with higher development needs, such as small businesses
and women-led businesses.

The TBL was developed by business writer John Elkington, who claims to have coined the phrase in 1994. The
TBL's flexibility allows organizations to apply the concept in a way that's suitable to their needs.

Some examples of how organizations can implement the TBL include:

 * Ensuring fair hiring practices
* Making sure their work doesn't hurt communities
* Paying their fair share of local, state, or federal income taxes
* Fostering economic wealth within their community
* Investing financially in the community
* Looking for green solutions
* Giving back, such as reforestation work

Internet technologies

Internet technologies can help managers improve business performance, decision-making, and efficiency. They can
also help streamline operations, reduce costs, and enhance customer experience.

Internet technologies for managers

Cloud-based solutions: Allow businesses to store and access data remotely

Data analysis: Help businesses analyze data to make informed decisions

Real-time access to information: Allow businesses to access information in real time to improve efficiency

Communication: Allow businesses to communicate more efficiently within the organization

Cyber security: Help businesses protect their data and systems from cyber threats

Other IT tools and technologies for managers

* Customer-focused e-business
* Knowledge management systems
* Enterprise resource planning
* Online analytical processing
* Intelligent agents
* Expert systems

Search strategies

Search strategies for IT managers can include using Boolean operators, combining keywords, and establishing
inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Boolean operators
AND: Narrows a search by finding articles that contain all the search terms

OR: Broadens a search

NOT: Excludes studies, so use with caution

Combining keywords

Use the AND operator to combine keywords that target different concepts

The more keywords you combine with AND, the fewer results you'll get

Establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria

Determine the key concepts of your topic to identify your main search terms

Establish what you want to include and exclude in your search results

Other search strategies

* Citation searching: Search forward or backward in time through literature based on a relevant article
* Documenting your search: Keep a record of your search process so you can monitor its effectiveness
* Planning and practicing: Plan out your search strategy and practice it before using it

Search strategy

Search strategy - Systematic Reviews - QMULibGuides at Queen Margaret University,

Search technology is a process that uses indexes to help users find relevant data quickly. It is a part of IT
infrastructure, which is the collection of hardware, software, networks, and other components that support an
organization's IT services.

How does search technology work?

* Search technology uses indexes to map search terms to information items.

* This allows users to quickly find relevant data based on their search queries.

What are some components of IT infrastructure?

* Hardware: Includes servers, computers, storage systems, and network devices

* Software: Includes operating systems, applications, and problem management tools
* Networks: Includes routers, switches, and cables
* Data centers: Facilities that house critical IT equipment and support infrastructure
* Cloud services: Remote computing services that offer scalable IT resources over the internet
* Security systems: Devices that monitor and control access to IT systems

Organic search and search engine optimization

Organic search engine optimization (SEO) is a marketing strategy that improves a website's ranking in unpaid search
results. It involves creating high-quality content, using relevant keywords, and building backlinks to increase
visibility and attract organic traffic.

Here are some tips for improving organic search rankings:

* Create quality content: Use simple words, vary sentence length, and use an active voice.
* Use keywords: Research keywords and use them in your content.
* Build backlinks: Create backlinks to your website.
* Optimize page load time: Make sure your website loads quickly.
* Use media: Enhance your content with videos and images.
* Optimize for mobile: Make sure your website is optimized for mobile.
* Use SEO metrics: Use Google Analytics and an SEO platform to measure your website's performance.

Organic search can take time to develop and implement, and it can be months before you see results. However, it
can be more effective than paid search in the long run.

PAID SEARCH SRATEGIES AND METRICS

Paid search strategies and metrics help you understand how well your paid search ads are performing.

Metrics
Click-through rate (CTR)

The percentage of people who click on your ad compared to the total number of people who saw it. A
high CTR means your ad is relevant to your target audience.

Conversion rate

The percentage of people who complete the desired action, like making a purchase or filling out a form. A
higher conversion rate means your ad copy, landing page, and targeting strategy are effective.

Cost per click (CPC)

The average amount you pay for each click on your ad. Tracking CPC helps you ensure you're bidding
efficiently.

Return on ad spend (ROAS)

The amount of revenue you generate for each dollar you spend on ads. ROAS helps you understand how
effective your ads are at driving sales.

Cost per acquisition (CPA)

The amount you pay for each customer acquired through your ads. CPA is a key metric for budgeting and
tracking campaign effectiveness.

Other metrics

* Impressions: The number of people who see your ads

* Clicks: The number of people who click on your ads
* Cost: The total cost of your campaign

SEMANTIC WEB AND SEARCH

The Semantic Web is a vision for the World Wide Web that aims to make data machine-readable by
linking data across webpages, applications, and files. It's also known as Web 3.0. The Semantic Web
allows computers and people to work together more effectively by giving information a well-defined
meaning.

Here are some key features of the Semantic Web:

Data integration: The Semantic Web allows for the efficient integration of different types of data
sources.

Data reuse: The Semantic Web allows for the reuse of existing information.

New information inference: The Semantic Web allows for the inference of new information.

Common data formats: The Semantic Web promotes common data formats and exchange protocols on
the web.

Machine-readable data: The Semantic Web makes internet data machine-readable.

The Semantic Web uses technologies like Resource Description Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology
Language (OWL) to encode semantics with data. These technologies allow for the formal representation
of metadata, such as concepts, relationships between entities, and categories of things.

The Semantic Web is used in many domains, including government, media, science, and financial
services.

UNIT II
Information Technology in Business Management
Information technology (IT) is the backbone of technological innovation. This innovation has played a massive role
in developing business management. Today, there is not a single business in this world that does not use various IT
tools and technologies to conduct day-to-day operations, design marketing strategies, and even recruit employees.
Many top information technology colleges in Nashik train students to become exceptional IT professionals in
various industries.

Let’s take a look at how information technology drives business management today.

1. Streamlining Operations

Information technology is now used in daily operations of any business. IT has enabled an ease of doing business by
managing overheads, regulating recruitment, dealing with market uncertainty, managing inventory, monitoring
employee performance, dealing with employee grievances and so much more.

Today, IT has also automated various manual and time consuming tasks to speed up regular operations. For
example, there are multiple softwares available today to record the daily attendance of employees, process leaves,
and compute monthly salaries of employees with minimal human interference.

2. Implementing Cloud-based Solutions

Cloud technology is another useful tool that helps businesses store their data on third party servers through the
internet. It is a revolutionary tech that has helped small and large businesses massively cut down costs and opt for
subscription packages to suit their business needs.

Businesses do not have to worry about hiring a substantial IT team to maintain and manage large servers within their
workspace. They can pay third party companies to store relevant data. Things like servers crashing, downtime and
data being lost are now a thing of the past with cloud technologies coming into the picture.

3. Facilitating Cyber Security

As more and more businesses store data online, the risk of cyber attacks arises. Even third party companies that offer
cloud solutions to businesses need to safeguard the data of their clients from cyber attacks. Businesses in the
banking and finance sector need to be more concerned about cyber security.

There are many top management colleges in Nashik that offer a comprehensive undergraduate program in cyber
security to help create skilled IT professionals for the future. Businesses that develop a proper cyber security
network can assure their clients that their data will always remain safe and grow their client base in this manner.

4. Conducting Data Analysis

Companies depend on IT professionals to gather, assimilate, segregate and study relevant data to understand current
market trends and customer behaviour. They then use the data to make various organisational-level decisions to
develop their business.

Data analysis is another important tool used by businesses to develop business strategy, analyse market forecasts,
stay ahead of the competition, understand customer behaviour and develop product development strategies
accordingly. It can also help businesses stay ahead of the competition in a cut-throat market.

5. Enabling Efficient Communication

Easy and efficient communication is one of the main advantages of information technology. Communication does
not only refer to communication done on an organisational level, it also means communication done with clients and
customers.

IT software like emails, Whatsapp, personalised chatbots, feedback forms etc. can be categorised as a form of
communication. Living in the information technology era means that businesses can receive instantaneous
communication. This communication includes sales figures, consumer feedback, customer enquiries, market trends
and so much more.

6. Enhancing Customer Experience

Most businesses today use IT to enhance their customer’s experience and maintain a great relationship with
customers. Businesses use tools like CRM (Customer Relationship Management) to keep a track of customer
behaviour, any issues faced by the customer, and ensure quick resolution of issues.

Suppose a customer has an issue with a product purchased or a service used, they can call up the company which
will be captured by the CRM. A customer relationship executive will then review the customer’s shopping history
through the CRM program and efficiently solve the issue without a glitch or a delay.

7. Reducing Operational Cost

Overall, implementing the above mentioned IT softwares and programs can help businesses reduce their operational
costs by a large margin. They do not need to recruit more staff members to do tasks that can be done by softwares
and programs. Instead, they can instead recruit top notch professionals from the industry to drive their business
ahead.

This helps businesses invest more money on other avenues such as marketing, enhanced cyber security, employee
rejuvenation programs and better financial investments for a sound financial portfolio. Better returns and finances

means the company is more stable and reliable for customers and employees.

Digital technology transforming business process

digital technologies has undoubtedly led organizations on a pathway to success, with enhanced customer service and
increased productivity being areas where these technologies have had the biggest impact. The four “megatrends” –
cloud, big data, mobile and social technologies are clearly having a positive impact, industry watchers who believe
that only a few early adopters have been able to transform their organizations with these technologies are mistaken.

Digital transformation is occurring rapidly at a majority of public and private sector organizations.

Mobility Enables New Business Scenarios:

Mobility is not just about mobilizing existing business – it is an opportunity for organizations to reinvent their
product, process, and business model. According to the Harvard Business Review survey, mobile initiatives are the
most frequently adopted of the four megatrends. They have already transformed business operations and changed
the ways employees work. Majority of survey respondents indicate that putting mobile functionality in the hands of
employees is now a key requirement, and leading companies are also leveraging the growing ubiquity of
smartphones to innovate and drive top-line revenue growth.

Mobile connects employees to their work and each other

1. Better Customer Experience: The rise of mobility has seen a significant impact on customer experience. 73 per
cent of consumers feel retailers which offer in store mobile technology provide superior customer service, with a
further 64 percent more likely to shop at a retailer which provided instore mobile technology. Mobile apps connect
the business with consumers and provide them with instant information regarding their problem. They can also help
predict more precise ETAs, which provides a more accurate wait time for the customer and exact expense report for
companies. Apps are now more than ever personalising user experience, increasing immediate access to information
for users. When considering shopper expectations it is clear that mobility has made a strong impact on customer
experience and will be at its heart going forward.

2. Greater Operational Efficiency: The use of mobile technology as a means to improve operational efficiency has
become increasingly prevalent in the manufacturing industry. More and more companies have realized the benefits
that can be gained from investments in various mobile devices and complementary business software. The email-
based smartphone devices allow you to essentially respond to email wherever you are, but now these tablet devices
extend to a totally new level. You are able to look more and dive deep into the information you’re getting and then
make more informed decisions. Inventory management, warehouse management, quality, and production decision-
making are other areas of interest.

3. Enhanced Customer Loyalty: Incorporating enterprise mobility into a retailer’s business strategy can help keep a
customer engaged and loyal to your company brand. As a retailer, you know quick responses to customer inquiries
is one of the many goals you have for your store. To achieve a high level of satisfaction and support, employees
must have real-time access to information. Mobility is a key to the future success of loyalty programs. Those
companies that do not become early adopters of this technology will be left to ponder why they have been left
behind.

4. Augmented Revenue Generation: In today’s digital world, Enterprise Mobility is creating new revenue channels,
improving field staff efficiency, and leveraging new modes of user engagement to increase market penetration and
customer loyalty. Shorter sales cycles and reduced cost of customer acquisition are significantly boosting cost
savings and revenue generation while enhancing productivity and efficiency, resource utilization, and streamlining
business processes with lower operational costs.

Thus, there are 4 major identifiable types of digital transformation:

* Business Model Transformation

* Business Domain Transformation
 * Business Process Transformation
* Cloud Transformation

Business Model Transformation

A business model transformation is a scenario where a company seeks to overhaul a segment of its business by
digitizing a product or service that was traditionally delivered through alternative means. This process places a
spotlight on innovation and encourages thinking beyond conventional boundaries to enhance overall business
outcomes.

Companies typically embark on a business model transformation when leaders identify an opportunity to reshape
how consumers acquire or utilize a product or service. It may also be triggered by the strategic moves of market
competitors, prompting the company to align itself with similar trends.

Crucial factors to consider during a business model transformation include avoiding excessive reactivity, as well as
the potential need to hire employees with new skill sets or provide retraining for the existing workforce.

Business Domain Transformation

Domain transformation involves surpassing the conventional limitations that currently define a brand’s markets and
potentials – essentially when its leaders decide to venture into a new market

A company might undergo a domain transformation if it has developed software to automate processes and decides
to market this software to other companies, thereby establishing a new revenue stream. Alternatively, motivations
such as challenges from competitors or technologies that make it challenging to sustain the current business plan are
also quite common.

Business Process Transformation

Business process transformation aims to simplify and enhance internal operations – streamlining throughput time, to
reduce costs, and minimizing errors. This typically involves the automation of manual procedures through
investment in new software and R&D.

And while introducing a new system might be appealing, leaders should also consider various factors before
implementing new applications. For instance, they need to assess implementation timelines, change management
strategies, and the urgency of the change.

On top of that, this transformation can have implications for external vendors and customers. Revisions to processes
like accounts payable may alter the way invoices are submitted, necessitating effective change management for both
internal employees and external stakeholders.

Cloud Transformation
What is cloud transformation? It essentially aids organizations in transitioning their information systems to cloud
computing environments. This process can manifest in diverse ways – for instance, a company may opt for a
complete transfer of its infrastructure to the cloud or choose to migrate only specific applications, data, or services.

Cloud yields numerous advantages, such as more streamlined data sharing and storage, accelerated time-to-market,
and better organizational scalability and flexibility.

Cloud transformation strategy may vary – some organizations opt for the public cloud, utilizing a third-party data
center managed by a cloud provider; others establish their cloud computing infrastructure internally, known as a
private cloud. And there is also a third approach – many adopt a combination of both models, resulting in a hybrid
cloud for their infrastructure.

Digital Transformation Examples by Types

From theory to practice – now let’s look into the specific digital transformation examples according to each type.
This way, we’ll be able to understand the reasoning companies had for choosing this or that method and see what
results they have achieved thanks to that.

Business Model Transformation Example – Netflix

In the early 2000s, the entertainment industry was firmly anchored in traditional cable television and DVDs. At the
time, Netflix was part of that industry as a DVD-by-mail rental service, however, as streaming technology was
gaining traction, the company saw an opportunity to redefine how audiences consume content.

In 2007, Netflix introduced its streaming service, allowing subscribers to watch content on-demand, which provided
them with unprecedented flexibility. They also expanded their service globally, transcending borders and reaching
audiences in over 190 countries, turning Netflix into a global entertainment powerhouse.

On top of that, they leveraged data analytics to analyze user preferences, providing personalized content
recommendations, and embraced the binge-watching phenomenon by releasing entire seasons at once, allowing
users to consume content at their convenience.

Business Domain Transformation Example – Amazon

A compelling illustration of domain transformation is evident in the journey of the online retail giant, Amazon.
Before 2002, Amazon had gained its revenue through selling music and videos, but then they entered a new market
domain with Amazon Web Services (AWS).

What facilitated Amazon’s foray into this domain was the digital capabilities it had developed in storage,
computing, and databases to support its core retail business. This, coupled with an established network of
relationships with numerous growing companies in need of computing services, paved the way for eventual success.
Now, AWS is the leading cloud computing and infrastructure service and contributes nearly 60% of Amazon’s
annual profit.

Business Process Transformation Example – McDonald’s

Traditionally known for its quick-service model at physical locations, McDonald’s recognized the need to embrace
digitalization to enhance their customer experience and went for a massive process transformation in the 2010s.

After a couple of years of conceptualization and development, McDonald’s launched its mobile app in 2015,
allowing customers to browse the menu, customize orders, and make payments from their phone. This not only
streamlined the ordering process but also introduced a new level of personalization. McDonald’s also introduced
self-service kiosks in physical locations, mirroring the mobile app’s functionality. Customers could now place
orders with greater customization, further reducing wait times and increasing order accuracy.

At the same time, McDonald’s upgraded its drive-thru experience by implementing digital menu boards. These
boards dynamically adjusted based on factors like time of day and popular menu items, promoting upselling.

Cloud Transformation – University of Bristol

With a vision to extend educational accessibility beyond traditional boundaries, University of Bristol officials also
sought to leverage digital tools. The goal was to cater to a broader audience, reaching well beyond the 28,000
students attending in-person classes annually.

For that purpose, university executives chose a cloud technology solution, laying the foundation for expanded online
education. This decision aimed to enhance commercial appeal and offer learners the freedom to attend courses
regardless of their location.

Online courses were introduced, not only making education accessible worldwide but also facilitating collaborations
with international bodies. This enhanced the university’s research capabilities and strengthened partnerships with
various organizations.

SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis)

What is a SWOT analysis?

SWOT analysis is a framework for identifying and analyzing an organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats. These words make up the SWOT acronym

The primary goal of SWOT analysis is to increase awareness of the factors that go into making a business decision
or establishing a business strategy. To do this, SWOT analyzes the internal and external environment and the factors
that can impact the viability of a decision.

Businesses commonly use SWOT analysis, but it is also used by nonprofit organizations and, to a lesser degree,
individuals for personal assessment. SWOT is also used to assess initiatives, products or projects. As an example,
CIOs could use SWOT to help create a strategic business planning template or perform a competitive analysis.

The SWOT framework is credited to Albert Humphrey, who tested the approach in the 1960s and 1970s at the
Stanford Research Institute. SWOT analysis was originally developed for business and based on data from Fortune
500 companies. It has been adopted by organizations of all types as a brainstorming aid to making business
decisions.

Elements of a SWOT analysis

As its name states, a SWOT analysis examines four elements:

* Internal attributes and resources that support a successful outcome, such as a diverse product line, loyal
customers or strong customer service.
* Internal factors and resources that make success more difficult to attain, such as a weak brand, excessive
debt or inadequate staffing or training.
* External factors that the organization can capitalize on or take advantage of, such as favorable export
tariffs, tax incentives or new enabling technologies.
* External factors that could jeopardize the entity's success, such as increasing competition, weakening
demand or an uncertain supply chain.

A SWOT matrix is often used to organize the items identified under each of these four elements. The matrix is
usually a square divided into four quadrants, with each quadrant representing one of the specific elements. Decision-
makers identify and list specific strengths in the first quadrant, weaknesses in the next, then opportunities and, lastly,
threats.

Organizations or individuals doing a SWOT analysis can opt to use various SWOT analysis templates. These
templates are generally variations of the standard four-quadrant SWOT matrix.

How to do a SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis generally requires decision-makers to first specify the objective they hope to achieve for the
business, organization, initiative or individual. From there, the decision-makers list the strengths and weaknesses as
well as opportunities and threats.

Various tools exist to guide the decision-making process. They frequently provide questions that fall under each of
the four SWOT elements.

For example, participants might be asked the following to identify their company's strengths: "What do you do
better than anyone else?" and "what advantages do you have?" To identify weaknesses, they may be asked "where
do you need improvement?" Similarly, they'd run through questions such as "what market trends could increase
sales?" and "where do your competitors have market share advantages?" to identify opportunities and threats.
Example of a SWOT analysis

The end result of a SWOT analysis should be a chart or list of a subject's characteristics. The following is an
example of a SWOT analysis of an imaginary retail employee:

* Strengths: good communication skills, on time for shifts, handles customers well, gets along well with all
departments, physical strength, good availability.
* Weaknesses: takes long smoke breaks, has low technical skill, very prone to spending time chatting.
* Opportunities: storefront worker, greeting customers and assisting them to find products, helping keep
customers satisfied, assisting customers post-purchase and ensuring buying confidence, stocking shelves.
* Threats: occasionally missing time during peak business due to breaks, sometimes too much time spent per
customer post-sale, too much time in interdepartmental chat.

How to use a SWOT analysis

* A SWOT analysis should be used to help an entity gain insight into its current and future position in the
marketplace or against a stated goal.
* Organizations or individuals using this analysis can see competitive advantages, positive prospects as well
as existing and potential problems. With that information, they can develop business plans or personal or
organizational goals to capitalize on positives and address deficiencies.
* Once SWOT factors are identified, decision-makers can assess if an initiative, project or product is worth
pursuing and what is needed to make it successful. As such, the analysis aims to help an organization match
its resources to the competitive environment.

A SWOT analysis can be used to assess and consider a range of goals and action plans, such as the following:

* the creation and development of business products or services;

* making hiring, promotion or other human resources decisions;
* evaluating and improving customer service opportunities and performance;
* setting business strategies to improve competitiveness or improve business performance; and
* making investments in technologies, geographical locations or markets.

Building business capabilities with data governance and cloud computing:-

Building business capabilities with data governance and cloud computing involves establishing a framework
of policies, processes, and tools to manage data effectively within a cloud environment, ensuring data quality,
security, compliance, and accessibility, thereby enabling data-driven decision making and improved business
operations across various departments within an organization.

Key aspects of building business capabilities with data governance and cloud computing:

Data Quality Management:

Implementing processes to ensure data accuracy, completeness, and consistency across the cloud
platform, improving the reliability of insights derived from data analysis.
Data Access Control:
Defining clear user permissions and roles to manage who can access and modify data within the cloud,
protecting sensitive information and maintaining data integrity.
Metadata Management:
Capturing and managing metadata (data about data) to provide context and understanding about data sets,
enhancing data discoverability and usability.
Compliance and Regulatory Adherence:
Implementing policies and procedures to comply with relevant data privacy regulations like GDPR or
HIPAA, depending on the industry and region.
Data Integration:
Integrating data from different sources within the cloud to create a unified view for analysis, enabling
better decision-making based on holistic data.
Data Stewardship:
Assigning clear ownership and responsibility for data quality and governance to designated data stewards
within the organization.
Cloud Security Practices:
Utilizing robust cloud security features like encryption, access controls, and monitoring to protect data
 from unauthorized access and breaches.

Benefits of leveraging data governance with cloud computing:

Faster Time to Insights:

Cloud-based data storage and processing capabilities allow for quicker analysis and access to data,
enabling faster decision-making.
Cost Optimization:
Scalability of cloud infrastructure allows organizations to pay only for the data storage and processing
power they need.
Improved Collaboration:
Cloud-based data platforms facilitate easier data sharing and collaboration among different teams within
an organization.
Enhanced Agility:
The ability to rapidly provision and scale cloud resources allows businesses to adapt quickly to changing
market conditions.

Key considerations when building a data governance framework in the cloud:

Data Governance Strategy:

Define clear data governance policies, standards, and processes aligned with business objectives.
Data Governance Tools:
Select appropriate cloud-based data governance tools to manage data quality, access control, and
compliance.
Stakeholder Engagement:
Involve relevant stakeholders from across the organization in the data governance process to ensure buy-
in and effective implementation.
Continuous Monitoring and Improvement:
Regularly review and update data governance practices to adapt to changing business needs and
technology advancements.

What is data governance in cloud computing?

Data governance means setting internal standards—data policies—that apply to how data is gathered,
stored, processed, and disposed of. It governs who can access what kinds of data and what kinds of data are
under governance.
Cloud governance is the process of defining, implementing, and monitoring a framework of
policies that guides an organization's cloud operations. This process regulates how users work in
 cloud environments to facilitate consistent performance of cloud services and systems.

Data governance strategy:

A data governance strategy is a plan that outlines how an organization manages its data. It includes how data
is protected, secured, and used to ensure compliance and quality.

Why is data governance important?

Data privacy
Data governance is important as organizations face increasing data privacy
regulations.
Data analytics
Data governance is important as organizations use data analytics to make decisions and optimize
operations.

Data quality
Data governance is important to ensure data is accurate, complete, and up-to-date.

What does a data governance strategy include?

● Data quality: How accurate, complete, and up-to-date the data is

● Data security: How data is protected from unauthorized access and loss
 ● Data compliance: How data meets regulatory requirements
● Data accessibility: How accessible the data is

● Data integrity: How intact the data is

● Data usability: How usable the data is

How do you create a data governance strategy?

● Use a data governance framework

● Create standards and policies for data governance

● Develop procedures for implementing and enforcing data governance policies

● Assign roles and responsibilities to people who manage the data

A data governance strategy is a high-level plan that defines and outlines the goals and direction for data governance
within an organization — guiding decision-making and resource allocation. There are three key elements to building
a strong data governance strategy: Utilize a data governance framework.

Enterprise IT architecture:-
Enterprise IT architecture is a framework that defines and documents an organization's IT systems,
applications, and processes. It's a strategic approach to aligning IT with business goals.

Purpose

● Business objectives: Enterprise IT architecture helps an organization achieve its business goals
● Standardization: It promotes standardization across teams and organizations

● Efficiency: It helps eliminate redundant and inefficient operations

● Adaptability: It helps an organization adapt to changing market conditions

● Security: It helps prevent shadow IT and reduce the risk of security vulnerabilities

Process

● Analysis: Enterprise architects analyze the organization's current IT assets and business processes

● Planning: They plan how to transition to a desired "future state"

● Design: They design a blueprint for the organization's technology infrastructure

● Implementation: They implement the design and ensure it's reliable and relevant

Benefits Improved decision-making, Reduced operational costs, Better interoperability of systems, and Reduced risk
of security vulnerabilities.

The EA framework divides the organization into four domains by enterprise architecture: business, data, technology,
and application.
INFORMATION AND DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM:-

An "information and decision support system" refers to a computer-based system designed to assist users, typically
managers within an organization, in making informed decisions by providing them with access to relevant data,
analytical tools, and models to analyze information and explore different scenarios, allowing for more effective
decision-making processes; essentially, it's a system that helps users gather, interpret, and utilize information to
make better choices, often dealing with complex or semi-structured problems.
Key points about information and decision support systems:

Function:
To provide a platform for users to access and analyze data from various sources, allowing them to
evaluate different potential outcomes and make informed decisions.
User level:
Primarily used by mid-level and upper management within an organization.
Data types:
Can handle both structured and unstructured data, including internal business data and external market
information.
Key features:
● Data visualization tools: Present complex data in easy-to-understand formats like graphs and
charts.

● "What-if" analysis: Allows users to simulate different scenarios by changing variables and see
the potential impact on outcomes.
● Modeling capabilities: Utilize mathematical models to predict future trends and outcomes based
on input data.
● Interactive interface: Enables users to manipulate data and explore different analysis options
readily.

Example applications of a decision support system:

● Sales forecasting: Predicting future sales based on historical data, market trends, and promotional
strategies.
● Inventory management: Optimizing stock levels by analyzing demand patterns and lead times.
● Financial planning: Creating financial projections based on different investment scenarios.
● Risk assessment: Identifying potential risks and evaluating mitigation strategies.

Decision support system (DSS) is a computer program used to improve a company's decision-making
capabilities. It analyzes large amounts of data and presents an organization with the best possible options
available.

DSSes bring together data and knowledge from different areas and sources to provide users with information
beyond the usual reports and summaries. This is intended to help organizations make informed decisions.
A decision support application might gather and present the following typical information:

● Comparative sales figures between one week and the next.

● Projected revenue figures based on new product sales assumptions.
● The consequences of different decisions.

A DSS is an informational application as opposed to an operational application. Informational applications

provide users with relevant information based on a variety of data sources to support better-informed
decision-making. Operational applications, by contrast, record the details of business transactions, including
the data required for the decision-support needs of a business.

A DSS is an information system commonly used by middle and upper management levels of an organization,
typically in operations or planning teams.

What is the purpose of a DSS?

The purpose of a DSS is to gather, analyze and synthesize data to produce comprehensive information
reports that an organization can use to assist in its decision-making process. Unlike tools that are limited to
just data collection, DSSes also process that data to create detailed reports and projections. DSSes are an
adaptable tool meant to meet the specific needs of the organization using it. Finance, healthcare and supply
chain management industries, for example, all use DSSes to help in their decision-making processes. A DSS
report can provide insights on topics like sales trends, revenue, budgeting, project management, inventory
management, supply chain optimization and healthcare management. All of this is meant to provide decision-
makers with comprehensive information that can be used to make quicker and more accurate decisions.

Data centers and cloud computing:

Data centers are the physical infrastructure that support cloud computing, which is the delivery of computing
resources and services over the internet.

Data centers

Enterprise data centers

 Large facilities that house servers, storage, and networking equipment for a single organization
Colocation data centers
Large facilities where businesses can rent space to store their computing hardware

Cloud computing

Cloud data centers

Large facilities that store, manage, and process data, and provide cloud-based services
Cloud storage
Virtual servers that can be quickly spun up or down to scale storage capacity

Relationship between data centers and cloud computing

● Cloud computing is dependent on data centers to provide the necessary infrastructure and support

●
● Cloud data centers are built using existing hardware and storage resources

Benefits of cloud data centers Cost-effective, Reliable, Highly scalable, and Allow businesses to avoid the capital
expenditures of building and maintaining their own data center facilities.

The cloud computing backbone is Data centers in the cloud computing ecosystem that support range diverse of
services such as applications, platforms as well as infrastructure thereby serving as a critical enabler for digital
transformation and innovation.

A data center is a centralized facility equipped with computing resources such as servers, storage systems,
networking equipment, and cooling infrastructure that is used for the delivery of cloud services over the
Internet. Data centers in cloud computing require high levels of reliability, availability, and scalability. To
achieve continuous operation and reduce the possibility of service disruptions, they are built with redundancy
and failover mechanisms, when need be. These mechanisms include security measures such as access controls,
encryption, and monitoring which protect from unauthorized access and cyber threats only

Data centers are important in cloud computing for many reasons:

● Infrastructure Hosting: Data centers are buildings or spaces where there is equipment needed in
order for it to function and maintain virtualized computer resources supporting cloud computing. These
 hardware units have servers (computers), disks or tapes with information on them (storage),
connections between different parts within businesses (networking), and air conditioners among other
things that cool them down.

● Scalability: Based on demand, cloud providers have the capacity to increase or reduce computing
resources due to Datacentercost-effectiveness. This way, it enables cloud services to cater to, changing
workloads while at the same time maintaining their performance at an optimal level in terms of cost-
effectiveness.

● Reliability and High Availability: Data centers have been made redundant and failover mechanisms
have been used to lessto and data centers and hardware components.

● Security: Things, like access controls, encryption or intrusion detection systems, and, physical security
protocols among other measures, are done by data centers as part of robust security measures to protect
against cyber threats as well as prevent unauthorized access.

● Efficiency and Sustainability: In order to cut down on running expenses and environmental
footprints, data centers try to optimize their resource use and be more energy-effective. Technologies,
like virtualization, automation,, and cooling systems that save energy, are employed in order to get the
most out of available resources while using the least amount of electricity possible.

Role of Data Centers in Cloud Computing

Data centers serve as the foundation of cloud computing, enabling the delivery of a vast array of services to users
worldwide. They host the infrastructure that powers popular applications and platforms, including social media
networks, e-commerce websites, and enterprise software solutions. Without the underlying infrastructure provided
by data centers, the seamless experience of accessing data and applications from any device, anywhere, would not
be possible.

How does a data center work in cloud computing?

Infrastructure and resources are made available through data centers to offer computing services over the internet in
cloud computing. The following is a simplified explanation of how data centers function with respect to cloud
computing:

● Resource Provisioning: Cloud providers own and operate massive data center facilities equipped with
thousands of servers, storage systems, networking equipment, and other hardware. These resources are
pooled together and virtualized to create virtual instances that can be allocated to customers on-
demand.

● Virtualization: The abstraction of physical hardware, allowing multiple virtual instances (virtual
machines or VMs) to run on a single physical server, is made possible by virtualization technology.
 This in return causes maximization of resource utilization by enabling efficient allocation of
computing resources in meeting different workload demands.

● Service Management: The services are provided, managed, maintained by these providers so that
customers have no longer to worry about handling the underlying infrastructure in addition to
concentrating on developing and running applications.

● Data Storage: data centers have colossal storage systems that can store petabytes worth of
information, quite a significant amount of information can be stored in Data centers. The durability and
availability of data is usually maintained through using multiple servers as well as disks which ensure
back-up copies are created every time some changes are made to this information. This minimizes risk
associated with data loss particularly due power failures because there will always be power backups at
least. Storage schemes vary in terms of performance; some employ advanced techniques like solid-
state storage or distributed file system while others still use traditional storage ideas based on HDDs.

● Networking: Data centers contain the very advanced infrastructure of networking so as to make
communication among servers, storage systems and external networks easier enabling smooth
connectivity of cloud services with low latency and high throughput of transferring data.

● Security: Data centers are especially characterized by elevated levels of security that help protect
sensitive information and also stop any unauthorized persons from accessing it. A range of measures
such as encryption, access controls, firewalls, intrusion detection systems and physical security
protocols are in place to protect both the infrastructure and the information contained therein
 :

Unit-III
DEFINITION
What is data management and why is it important

Data management is the process of ingesting, storing, organizing and maintaining the data created and
collected by an organization. Effective data management is a crucial piece of deploying the IT systems that
run business applications and provide analytical information to help drive operational decision-making and
strategic planning by corporate executives, business managers and other end users.

The data management process includes a combination of different functions that collectively aim to make
sure the data in corporate systems is accurate, available and accessible. Most of the required work is done
by IT and data management teams, but business users typically also participate in some parts of the process
to ensure that the data meets their needs and to get them on board with policies governing its use.

This comprehensive guide to data management further explains what it is and provides insight on the
individual disciplines it includes, best practices for managing data, challenges that organizations face and
the business benefits of a successful data management strategy. You'll also find an overview of data
management tools and techniques. Click through the hyperlinks on the page to read more articles about
data management trends and get expert advice on managing corporate data.

Importance of data management

Data increasingly is seen as a corporate asset that can be used to make better-informed business decisions,
improve marketing campaigns, optimize business operations and reduce costs, all with the goal of
increasing revenue and profits. But a lack of proper data management can saddle organizations with
incompatible data silos, inconsistent data sets and data quality problems that limit their ability to run
business intelligence (BI) and analytics applications -- or, worse, lead to faulty findings.

Data management has also grown in importance as businesses are subjected to an increasing number of
regulatory compliance requirements, including data privacy and protection laws such as GDPR and the
California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). In addition, companies are capturing ever-larger volumes of
data and a wider variety of data types -- both hallmarks of the big data systems many have deployed.
Without good data management, such environments can become unwieldy and hard to navigate.
 :

Types of data management functions

The separate disciplines that are part of the overall data management process cover a series of steps, from
data processing and storage to governance of how data is formatted and used in operational and analytical
systems. Developing a data architecture is often the first step, particularly in large organizations with lots of
data to manage. A data architecture provides a blueprint for managing data and deploying databases and
other data platforms, including specific technologies to fit individual applications.

Databases are the most common platform used to hold corporate data. They contain a collection of data
that's organized so it can be accessed, updated and managed. They're used in both transaction processing
systems that create operational data, such as customer records and sales orders, and data warehouses, which
store consolidated data sets from business systems for BI and analytics.

That makes database administration a core data management function. Once databases have been set up,
performance monitoring and tuning must be done to maintain acceptable response times on database
queries that users run to get information from the data stored in them. Other administrative tasks include
database design, configuration, installation and updates; data security; database backup and recovery; and
application of software upgrades and security patches.

The primary technology used to deploy and administer databases is a database management system
(DBMS), which is software that acts as an interface between the databases it controls and the database
administrators (DBAs), end users and applications that access them. Alternative data platforms to databases
include file systems and cloud object storage services, which store data in less structured ways than
mainstream databases do, offering more flexibility on the types of data that can be stored and how the data
is formatted. As a result, though, they aren't a good fit for transactional applications.

Other fundamental data management disciplines include the following:

 data modeling, which diagrams the relationships between data elements and how data flows through
systems;

 data integration, which combines data from different data sources for operational and analytical uses;
 :

 data governance, which sets policies and procedures to ensure data is consistent throughout an
organization;

 data quality management, which aims to fix data errors and inconsistencies; and

 master data management (MDM), which creates a common set of reference data on things like
customers and products.

Data management tools and techniques

A wide range of technologies, tools and techniques can be employed as part of the data management
process. The following options are available for different aspects of managing data.

Database management systems. The most prevalent type of DBMS is the relational database management
system. Relational databases organize data into tables with rows and columns that contain database records.
Related records in different tables can be connected through the use of primary and foreign keys, avoiding
the need to create duplicate data entries. Relational databases are built around the SQL programming
language and a rigid data model best suited to structured transaction data. That and their support for the
ACID transaction properties -- atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability -- have made them the top
database choice for transaction processing applications.

However, other types of DBMS technologies have emerged as viable options for different kinds of data
workloads. Most are categorized as NoSQL databases, which don't impose rigid requirements on data
models and database schemas. As a result, they can store unstructured and semistructured data, such as
sensor data, internet clickstream records and network, server and application logs.

There are four main types of NoSQL systems:

 document databases that store data elements in document-like structures;

 key-value databases that pair unique keys and associated values;

 wide-column stores with tables that have a large number of columns; and

 graph databases that connect related data elements in a graph format.

The NoSQL name has become something of a misnomer, though -- while NoSQL databases don't rely on
 :

SQL, many now support elements of it and offer some level of ACID compliance.

Additional database and DBMS options include in-memory databases that store data in a server's memory
instead of on disk to accelerate I/O performance and columnar databases that are geared to analytics
applications. Hierarchical databases that run on mainframes and predate the development of relational and
NoSQL systems are also still available for use. Users can deploy databases in on-premises or cloud-based
systems. In addition, various database vendors offer managed cloud database services, in which they handle
database deployment, configuration and administration for users.

Big data management. NoSQL databases are often used in big data deployments because of their ability to
store and manage various data types. Big data environments are also commonly built around open source
technologies such as Hadoop, a distributed processing framework with a file system that runs across
clusters of commodity servers; its associated HBase database; the Spark processing engine; and the Kafka,
Flink and Storm stream processing platforms. Increasingly, big data systems are being deployed in the
cloud, using object storage such as Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3).

Data warehouses and data lakes. The two most widely used repositories for managing analytics data
are data warehouses and data lakes. A data warehouse -- the more traditional method -- typically is based
on a relational or columnar database, and it stores structured data that has been pulled together from
different operational systems and prepared for analysis. The primary data warehouse use cases are BI
querying and enterprise reporting, which enable business analysts and executives to analyze sales,
inventory management and other KPIs.

An enterprise data warehouse includes data from business systems across an organization. In large
companies, individual subsidiaries and business units with management autonomy may build their own
data warehouses. Data marts are another warehousing option -- they're smaller versions of data
warehouses that contain subsets of an organization's data for specific departments or groups of users. In one
deployment approach, an existing data warehouse is used to create different data marts; in another, the data
marts are built first and then used to populate a data warehouse.

Data lakes, on the other hand, store pools of big data for use in predictive modeling, machine learning and
other advanced analytics applications. Initially, they were most commonly built on Hadoop clusters, but S3
and other cloud object storage services are increasingly being used for data lake deployments. They're
sometimes also deployed on NoSQL databases, and different platforms can be combined in a distributed
data lake environment. The data may be processed for analysis when it's ingested, but a data lake often
 :

contains raw data stored as is. In that case, data scientists and other analysts typically do their own data
preparation work for specific analytical uses.

A third platform option for storing and processing analytical data has also emerged: the data lakehouse. As
its name indicates, it combines elements of data lakes and data warehouses, merging the flexible data
storage, scalability and lower cost of a data lake with the querying capabilities and more rigorous data
management structure of a data warehouse.

Data integration. The most widely used data integration technique is extract, transform and load (ETL),
which pulls data from source systems, converts it into a consistent format and then loads the integrated data
into a data warehouse or other target system. However, data integration platforms now also support a
variety of other integration methods. That includes extract, load and transform (ELT), a variation on ETL
that leaves data in its original form when it's loaded into the target platform. ELT is a common choice
for data integration in data lakes and other big data systems.

ETL and ELT are batch integration processes that run at scheduled intervals. Data management teams can
also do real-time data integration, using methods such as change data capture, which applies changes to the
data in databases to a data warehouse or other repository, and streaming data integration, which integrates
streams of real-time data on a continuous basis. Data virtualization is another integration option that uses
an abstraction layer to create a virtual view of data from different systems for end users instead of
physically loading the data into a data warehouse.

Data modeling. Data modelers create a series of conceptual, logical and physical data models that
document data sets and workflows in a visual form and map them to business requirements for transaction
processing and analytics. Common techniques for modeling data include the development of entity
relationship diagrams, data mappings and schemas in a variety of model types. Data models often must be
updated when new data sources are added or when an organization's information needs change.

Data governance, data quality and MDM. Data governance is primarily an organizational process;
software products that can help manage data governance programs are available, but they're an optional
element. While governance programs may be managed by data management professionals, they usually
include a data governance council made up of business executives who collectively make decisions on
common data definitions and corporate standards for creating, formatting and using data.
 :

Another key aspect of governance initiatives is data stewardship, which involves overseeing data sets and
ensuring that end users comply with the approved data policies. Data steward can be either a full- or part-
time position, depending on the size of an organization and the scope of its governance program. Data
stewards can also come from both business operations and the IT department; either way, a close
knowledge of the data they oversee is normally a prerequisite.

Data governance is closely associated with data quality improvement efforts. Ensuring that data quality
levels are high is a key part of effective data governance, and metrics that document improvements in the
quality of an organization's data are central to demonstrating the business value of governance programs.
Key data quality techniques supported by various software tools include the following:

 data profiling, which scans data sets to identify outlier values that might be errors;

 data cleansing, also known as data scrubbing, which fixes data errors by modifying or deleting bad
data; and

 data validation, which checks data against preset quality rules.

Master data management is also affiliated with data governance and data quality management, although
MDM hasn't been adopted as widely as they have. That's partly due to the complexity of MDM programs,
which mostly limits them to large organizations. MDM creates a central registry of master data for selected
data domains -- what's often called a golden record. The master data is stored in an MDM hub, which feeds
the data to analytical systems for consistent enterprise reporting and analysis. If desired, the hub can also
push updated master data back to source systems.

Data observability is an emerging process that can augment data quality and data governance initiatives by
providing a more complete picture of data health in an organization. Adapted from observability practices
in IT systems, data observability monitors data pipelines and data sets, identifying issues that need to be
addressed. Data observability tools can be used to automate monitoring, alerting and root cause analysis
procedures and to plan and prioritize problem-resolution work.

Data management best practices

These are some best practices to help keep the data management process on the right track in an
organization.
 :

Make data governance and data quality top priorities. A strong data governance program is a critical
component of effective data management strategies, especially in organizations with distributed data
environments that include a diverse set of systems. A strong focus on data quality is also a must. In both
cases, though, IT and data management teams can't go it alone. Business executives and users must be
involved to make sure their data needs are met and data quality problems aren't perpetuated. The same
applies to data modeling projects.

Be smart about deploying data management platforms. The multitude of databases and other data
platforms that are available to use requires a careful approach when designing an architecture and
evaluating and selecting technologies. IT and data managers must be sure the data management systems
they implement are fit for the intended purpose and will deliver the data processing capabilities and
analytics information required by an organization's business operations.

Be sure you can meet business and user needs, now and in the future. Data environments aren't static --
new data sources are added, existing data sets change and business needs for data evolve. To keep up, data
management must be able to adapt to changing requirements. For example, data teams need to work closely
with end users in building and updating data pipelines to ensure that they include all of the required data on
an ongoing basis. A DataOps process might help -- it's a collaborative approach to developing data systems
and pipelines that's derived from a combination of DevOps, Agile software development and lean
manufacturing methodologies. DataOps brings together data managers and users to automate workflows,
improve communication and accelerate data delivery.

DAMA International, the Data Governance Professionals Organization and other industry groups also offer
best-practices guidance and educational resources on data management disciplines. For example, DAMA
has published DAMA-DMBOK: Data Management Body of Knowledge, a reference book that attempts to
define a standard view of data management functions and methods. Commonly referred to as the DMBOK,
it was first published in 2009, and a second edition, the DMBOK2, was released in 2017.

Data management risks and challenges

Ever-increasing data volumes complicate the data management process, especially when a mix of
structured, semistructured and unstructured data is involved. Also, if an organization doesn't have a well-
designed data architecture, it can end up with siloed systems that are difficult to integrate and manage in a
 :

coordinated way. That makes it harder to ensure that data sets are accurate and consistent across all data
platforms.

Even in better-planned environments, enabling data scientists and other analysts to find and access relevant
data can be a challenge, especially when the data is spread across various databases and big data systems.
To help make data more accessible, many data management teams are creating data catalogs that document
what's available in systems and typically include business glossaries, metadata-driven data dictionaries and
data lineage records.

The accelerating shift to the cloud can ease some aspects of data management work, but it also creates new
challenges. For example, migrating to cloud databases can be complicated for organizations that need to
move data and processing workloads from existing on-premises systems. Costs are another big issue in the
cloud: The use of cloud systems and managed services must be monitored closely to make sure data
processing bills don't exceed the budgeted amounts.

Many data management teams are now among the employees who are accountable for protecting corporate
data security and limiting potential legal liabilities for data breaches or misuse of data. Data managers need
to help ensure compliance with both government and industry regulations on data security, privacy and
usage.

That has become a more pressing concern with the passage of GDPR, the European Union's data privacy
law that took effect in May 2018, and the CCPA, which was signed into law in 2018 and became effective
at the start of 2020. The provisions of CCPA were later expanded by the California Privacy Rights Act,
a ballot measure that was approved by the state's voters in November 2020 and took effect on Jan. 1, 2023.

Data management tasks and roles

The data management process involves a wide range of tasks, duties and skills. In smaller organizations
with limited resources, individual workers may handle multiple roles. But in larger ones, data management
teams commonly include data architects, data modelers, DBAs, database developers, data administrators,
data quality analysts and engineers, and ETL developers. Another role that's being seen more often is
the data warehouse analyst, who helps manage the data in a data warehouse and builds analytical data
models for business users.
 :

DEFINITION

What is data management and why is it important?

By

 Craig Stedman, Industry Editor

 Jack Vaughan

Data management is the process of ingesting, storing, organizing and maintaining the data created and
collected by an organization. Effective data management is a crucial piece of deploying the IT systems that
run business applications and provide analytical information to help drive operational decision-making and
strategic planning by corporate executives, business managers and other end users.

The data management process includes a combination of different functions that collectively aim to make
sure the data in corporate systems is accurate, available and accessible. Most of the required work is done
by IT and data management teams, but business users typically also participate in some parts of the process
to ensure that the data meets their needs and to get them on board with policies governing its use.

This comprehensive guide to data management further explains what it is and provides insight on the
individual disciplines it includes, best practices for managing data, challenges that organizations face and
the business benefits of a successful data management strategy. You'll also find an overview of data
management tools and techniques. Click through the hyperlinks on the page to read more articles about
data management trends and get expert advice on managing corporate data.

Importance of data management

Data increasingly is seen as a corporate asset that can be used to make better-informed business decisions,
improve marketing campaigns, optimize business operations and reduce costs, all with the goal of
increasing revenue and profits. But a lack of proper data management can saddle organizations with
incompatible data silos, inconsistent data sets and data quality problems that limit their ability to run
business intelligence (BI) and analytics applications -- or, worse, lead to faulty findings.

Data management has also grown in importance as businesses are subjected to an increasing number of
regulatory compliance requirements, including data privacy and protection laws such as GDPR and the
 :

California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). In addition, companies are capturing ever-larger volumes of
data and a wider variety of data types -- both hallmarks of the big data systems many have deployed.
Without good data management, such environments can become unwieldy and hard to navigate.

Types of data management functions

The separate disciplines that are part of the overall data management process cover a series of steps, from
data processing and storage to governance of how data is formatted and used in operational and analytical
systems. Developing a data architecture is often the first step, particularly in large organizations with lots of
data to manage. A data architecture provides a blueprint for managing data and deploying databases and
other data platforms, including specific technologies to fit individual applications.

Databases are the most common platform used to hold corporate data. They contain a collection of data
that's organized so it can be accessed, updated and managed. They're used in both transaction processing
systems that create operational data, such as customer records and sales orders, and data warehouses, which
store consolidated data sets from business systems for BI and analytics.

That makes database administration a core data management function. Once databases have been set up,
performance monitoring and tuning must be done to maintain acceptable response times on database
queries that users run to get information from the data stored in them. Other administrative tasks include
database design, configuration, installation and updates; data security; database backup and recovery; and
application of software upgrades and security patches.

Data management involves a variety of interrelated functions.

The primary technology used to deploy and administer databases is a database management system
(DBMS), which is software that acts as an interface between the databases it controls and the database
administrators (DBAs), end users and applications that access them. Alternative data platforms to databases
include file systems and cloud object storage services, which store data in less structured ways than
mainstream databases do, offering more flexibility on the types of data that can be stored and how the data
is formatted. As a result, though, they aren't a good fit for transactional applications.

Other fundamental data management disciplines include the following:

 :

 data modeling, which diagrams the relationships between data elements and how data flows through
systems;

 data integration, which combines data from different data sources for operational and analytical uses;

 data governance, which sets policies and procedures to ensure data is consistent throughout an
organization;

 data quality management, which aims to fix data errors and inconsistencies; and

 master data management (MDM), which creates a common set of reference data on things like
customers and products.

Data management tools and techniques

A wide range of technologies, tools and techniques can be employed as part of the data management
process. The following options are available for different aspects of managing data.

Database management systems. The most prevalent type of DBMS is the relational database management
system. Relational databases organize data into tables with rows and columns that contain database records.
Related records in different tables can be connected through the use of primary and foreign keys, avoiding
the need to create duplicate data entries. Relational databases are built around the SQL programming
language and a rigid data model best suited to structured transaction data. That and their support for the
ACID transaction properties -- atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability -- have made them the top
database choice for transaction processing applications.

However, other types of DBMS technologies have emerged as viable options for different kinds of data
workloads. Most are categorized as NoSQL databases, which don't impose rigid requirements on data
models and database schemas. As a result, they can store unstructured and semistructured data, such as
sensor data, internet clickstream records and network, server and application logs.

There are four main types of NoSQL systems:

 document databases that store data elements in document-like structures;

 key-value databases that pair unique keys and associated values;

 :

 wide-column stores with tables that have a large number of columns; and

 graph databases that connect related data elements in a graph format.

The NoSQL name has become something of a misnomer, though -- while NoSQL databases don't rely on
SQL, many now support elements of it and offer some level of ACID compliance.

Additional database and DBMS options include in-memory databases that store data in a server's memory
instead of on disk to accelerate I/O performance and columnar databases that are geared to analytics
applications. Hierarchical databases that run on mainframes and predate the development of relational and
NoSQL systems are also still available for use. Users can deploy databases in on-premises or cloud-based
systems. In addition, various database vendors offer managed cloud database services, in which they handle
database deployment, configuration and administration for users.

Big data management. NoSQL databases are often used in big data deployments because of their ability to
store and manage various data types. Big data environments are also commonly built around open source
technologies such as Hadoop, a distributed processing framework with a file system that runs across
clusters of commodity servers; its associated HBase database; the Spark processing engine; and the Kafka,
Flink and Storm stream processing platforms. Increasingly, big data systems are being deployed in the
cloud, using object storage such as Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3).

Data warehouses and data lakes. The two most widely used repositories for managing analytics data
are data warehouses and data lakes. A data warehouse -- the more traditional method -- typically is based
on a relational or columnar database, and it stores structured data that has been pulled together from
different operational systems and prepared for analysis. The primary data warehouse use cases are BI
querying and enterprise reporting, which enable business analysts and executives to analyze sales,
inventory management and other KPIs.

An enterprise data warehouse includes data from business systems across an organization. In large
companies, individual subsidiaries and business units with management autonomy may build their own
data warehouses. Data marts are another warehousing option -- they're smaller versions of data
warehouses that contain subsets of an organization's data for specific departments or groups of users. In one
deployment approach, an existing data warehouse is used to create different data marts; in another, the data
marts are built first and then used to populate a data warehouse.

Data lakes, on the other hand, store pools of big data for use in predictive modeling, machine learning and
 :

other advanced analytics applications. Initially, they were most commonly built on Hadoop clusters, but S3
and other cloud object storage services are increasingly being used for data lake deployments. They're
sometimes also deployed on NoSQL databases, and different platforms can be combined in a distributed
data lake environment. The data may be processed for analysis when it's ingested, but a data lake often
contains raw data stored as is. In that case, data scientists and other analysts typically do their own data
preparation work for specific analytical uses.

A third platform option for storing and processing analytical data has also emerged: the data lakehouse. As
its name indicates, it combines elements of data lakes and data warehouses, merging the flexible data
storage, scalability and lower cost of a data lake with the querying capabilities and more rigorous data
management structure of a data warehouse.

Data integration. The most widely used data integration technique is extract, transform and load (ETL),
which pulls data from source systems, converts it into a consistent format and then loads the integrated data
into a data warehouse or other target system. However, data integration platforms now also support a
variety of other integration methods. That includes extract, load and transform (ELT), a variation on ETL
that leaves data in its original form when it's loaded into the target platform. ELT is a common choice
for data integration in data lakes and other big data systems.

ETL and ELT are batch integration processes that run at scheduled intervals. Data management teams can
also do real-time data integration, using methods such as change data capture, which applies changes to the
data in databases to a data warehouse or other repository, and streaming data integration, which integrates
streams of real-time data on a continuous basis. Data virtualization is another integration option that uses
an abstraction layer to create a virtual view of data from different systems for end users instead of
physically loading the data into a data warehouse.

This shows the different approaches that can be used to integrate data.

Data modeling. Data modelers create a series of conceptual, logical and physical data models that
document data sets and workflows in a visual form and map them to business requirements for transaction
processing and analytics. Common techniques for modeling data include the development of entity
relationship diagrams, data mappings and schemas in a variety of model types. Data models often must be
updated when new data sources are added or when an organization's information needs change.
 :

Data governance, data quality and MDM. Data governance is primarily an organizational process;
software products that can help manage data governance programs are available, but they're an optional
element. While governance programs may be managed by data management professionals, they usually
include a data governance council made up of business executives who collectively make decisions on
common data definitions and corporate standards for creating, formatting and using data.

Another key aspect of governance initiatives is data stewardship, which involves overseeing data sets and
ensuring that end users comply with the approved data policies. Data steward can be either a full- or part-
time position, depending on the size of an organization and the scope of its governance program. Data
stewards can also come from both business operations and the IT department; either way, a close
knowledge of the data they oversee is normally a prerequisite.

Data governance is closely associated with data quality improvement efforts. Ensuring that data quality
levels are high is a key part of effective data governance, and metrics that document improvements in the
quality of an organization's data are central to demonstrating the business value of governance programs.
Key data quality techniques supported by various software tools include the following:

 data profiling, which scans data sets to identify outlier values that might be errors;

 data cleansing, also known as data scrubbing, which fixes data errors by modifying or deleting bad
data; and

 data validation, which checks data against preset quality rules.

Master data management is also affiliated with data governance and data quality management, although
MDM hasn't been adopted as widely as they have. That's partly due to the complexity of MDM programs,
which mostly limits them to large organizations. MDM creates a central registry of master data for selected
data domains -- what's often called a golden record. The master data is stored in an MDM hub, which feeds
the data to analytical systems for consistent enterprise reporting and analysis. If desired, the hub can also
push updated master data back to source systems.

Data observability is an emerging process that can augment data quality and data governance initiatives by
providing a more complete picture of data health in an organization. Adapted from observability practices
in IT systems, data observability monitors data pipelines and data sets, identifying issues that need to be
addressed. Data observability tools can be used to automate monitoring, alerting and root cause analysis
procedures and to plan and prioritize problem-resolution work.
 :

Data management best practices

These are some best practices to help keep the data management process on the right track in an
organization.

Make data governance and data quality top priorities. A strong data governance program is a critical
component of effective data management strategies, especially in organizations with distributed data
environments that include a diverse set of systems. A strong focus on data quality is also a must. In both
cases, though, IT and data management teams can't go it alone. Business executives and users must be
involved to make sure their data needs are met and data quality problems aren't perpetuated. The same
applies to data modeling projects.

Be smart about deploying data management platforms. The multitude of databases and other data
platforms that are available to use requires a careful approach when designing an architecture and
evaluating and selecting technologies. IT and data managers must be sure the data management systems
they implement are fit for the intended purpose and will deliver the data processing capabilities and
analytics information required by an organization's business operations.

Be sure you can meet business and user needs, now and in the future. Data environments aren't static --
new data sources are added, existing data sets change and business needs for data evolve. To keep up, data
management must be able to adapt to changing requirements. For example, data teams need to work closely
with end users in building and updating data pipelines to ensure that they include all of the required data on
an ongoing basis. A DataOps process might help -- it's a collaborative approach to developing data systems
and pipelines that's derived from a combination of DevOps, Agile software development and lean
manufacturing methodologies. DataOps brings together data managers and users to automate workflows,
improve communication and accelerate data delivery.

DAMA International, the Data Governance Professionals Organization and other industry groups also offer
best-practices guidance and educational resources on data management disciplines. For example, DAMA
has published DAMA-DMBOK: Data Management Body of Knowledge, a reference book that attempts to
define a standard view of data management functions and methods. Commonly referred to as the DMBOK,
it was first published in 2009, and a second edition, the DMBOK2, was released in 2017.

Data management risks and challenges

 :

Ever-increasing data volumes complicate the data management process, especially when a mix of
structured, semistructured and unstructured data is involved. Also, if an organization doesn't have a well-
designed data architecture, it can end up with siloed systems that are difficult to integrate and manage in a
coordinated way. That makes it harder to ensure that data sets are accurate and consistent across all data
platforms.

Even in better-planned environments, enabling data scientists and other analysts to find and access relevant
data can be a challenge, especially when the data is spread across various databases and big data systems.
To help make data more accessible, many data management teams are creating data catalogs that document
what's available in systems and typically include business glossaries, metadata-driven data dictionaries and
data lineage records.

The accelerating shift to the cloud can ease some aspects of data management work, but it also creates new
challenges. For example, migrating to cloud databases can be complicated for organizations that need to
move data and processing workloads from existing on-premises systems. Costs are another big issue in the
cloud: The use of cloud systems and managed services must be monitored closely to make sure data
processing bills don't exceed the budgeted amounts.

Many data management teams are now among the employees who are accountable for protecting corporate
data security and limiting potential legal liabilities for data breaches or misuse of data. Data managers need
to help ensure compliance with both government and industry regulations on data security, privacy and
usage.

That has become a more pressing concern with the passage of GDPR, the European Union's data privacy
law that took effect in May 2018, and the CCPA, which was signed into law in 2018 and became effective
at the start of 2020. The provisions of CCPA were later expanded by the California Privacy Rights Act,
a ballot measure that was approved by the state's voters in November 2020 and took effect on Jan. 1, 2023.

Data management tasks and roles

The data management process involves a wide range of tasks, duties and skills. In smaller organizations
with limited resources, individual workers may handle multiple roles. But in larger ones, data management
teams commonly include data architects, data modelers, DBAs, database developers, data administrators,
data quality analysts and engineers, and ETL developers. Another role that's being seen more often is
 :

the data warehouse analyst, who helps manage the data in a data warehouse and builds analytical data
models for business users.

Here are some basic details about the data management profession.

Data scientists, other data analysts and data engineers, who help build data pipelines and prepare data for
analysis, might also be part of a data management team. In other cases, they're on a separate data science or
analytics team. Even then, though, they typically handle some data management tasks themselves,
especially in data lakes with raw data that needs to be filtered and prepared for specific analytics uses.

Likewise, application developers sometimes help deploy and manage big data platforms, which require
new skills overall compared to relational database systems. As a result, organizations might need to hire
new workers or retrain traditional DBAs to meet their big data management needs.

Data governance managers and data stewards qualify as data management professionals, too. But they're
usually part of a separate data governance team.

Benefits of good data management

A well-executed data management strategy can benefit organizations in various ways:

 It can help companies gain potential competitive advantages over their business rivals, both by
improving operational effectiveness and enabling better decision-making.

 Organizations with well-managed data can become more agile, making it possible to spot market
trends and move to take advantage of new business opportunities more quickly.

 Effective data management can also help companies avoid data breaches, data collection missteps and
other data security and privacy issues that could damage their reputation, add unexpected costs and put
them in legal jeopardy.

 Ultimately, a solid approach to data management can provide better business performance by helping
to improve business strategies and processes.
 :

Data management history, evolution and trends

The first flowering of data management was largely driven by IT professionals who focused on solving the
problem of garbage in, garbage out in the earliest computers after recognizing that the machines reached
false conclusions because they were fed inaccurate or inadequate data. Mainframe-based hierarchical
databases became available in the 1960s, bringing more formality to the burgeoning process of managing
data.

The relational database emerged in the 1970s and cemented its place at the center of the data management
ecosystem during the 1980s. The idea of the data warehouse was conceived late in that decade, and early
adopters of the concept began deploying data warehouses in the mid-1990s. By the early 2000s, relational
software was a dominant technology, with a virtual lock on database deployments.

But the initial release of Hadoop became available in 2006 and was followed by the Spark processing
engine and various other big data technologies. A range of NoSQL databases also started to become
available in the same time frame. While relational platforms are still the most widely used data store by far,
the rise of big data and NoSQL alternatives and the data lake environments they enable have given
organizations a broader set of data management choices. The addition of the data lakehouse concept in
2017 further expanded the options.

But all of those choices have made many data environments more complex. That's spurring the
development of new technologies and processes designed to help make them easier to manage. In addition
to data observability, they include data fabric, an architectural framework that aims to better unify data
assets by automating integration processes and making them reusable, and data mesh, a decentralized
architecture that gives data ownership and management responsibilities to individual business domains,
with federated governance to agree on organizational standards and policies.

None of those three approaches is widely used yet, though. In its 2022 Hype Cycle report on new data
management technologies, consulting firm Gartner said each has been adopted by less than 5% of its target
user audience. Gartner predicted that data fabric and data observability are both five to 10 years away from
reaching full maturity and mainstream adoption, but it said they could ultimately be very beneficial to
users. It was less bullish about data mesh, giving that a "Low" potential benefit rating.

The following are some other notable data management trends:

 :

Cloud data management technologies are becoming pervasive. Gartner has forecasted that cloud
databases will account for 50% of overall DBMS revenue in 2022. In the Hype Cycle report, it said
organizations are also "moving rapidly" to deploy emerging data management technologies in the cloud.
For companies that aren't ready to fully migrate, hybrid cloud architectures that combine cloud and on-
premises systems -- for example, hybrid data warehouse environments -- are also an option.

Augmented data management capabilities also aim to help streamline processes. Software vendors
are adding augmented functionality for data quality, database management, data integration and data
cataloging that uses AI and machine learning technologies to automate repetitive tasks, identify issues and
suggest actions.

The growth of edge computing is creating new data management needs. As organizations increasingly
use remote sensors and IoT devices to collect and process data as part of edge computing environments,
some vendors are also developing edge data management capabilities for endpoint devices.

Transaction processing Management:-

Transaction processing systems (TPS) process the company's business transactions and thus support the
operations of an enterprise. A TPS records a non-inquiry transaction itself, as well as all of its effects, in the
database and produces documents relating to the transaction.

Functions of Transaction Processing Systems

A transaction is an elementary activity conducted during business operations. Transaction processing

systems (TPS) process the company's business transactions and thus support the operations of an enterprise.
A TPS records a non-inquiry transaction itself, as well as all of its effects, in the database and produces
documents relating to the transaction.

TPS are necessary to conduct business in almost any organization today. TPSs bring data into the
organizational databases, these systems are also a foundation on which management oriented information
systems rest.

System Charts [Figure 9.1]

Systems charts are well-established tools which are used to describe TPSs. These charts show the sources
of input into the system, major processing steps, data storage, and systems outputs.
 :

Transaction Processing Modes [Figure 9.2 & 9.3]

Transaction processing may be accomplished in one of two modes:

1. On-line mode

2. Batch mode

Characteristics of on-line transaction processing:

1. Each transaction is completely processed immediately upon entry.

2. OLAP is the most common mode of used today

3. More costly than batch processing

4. Database is always up to date

5. Require the use of fast secondary storage such as magnetic disks

Characteristics of batch transaction processing:

1. Relies on accumulating transaction data over a period of time and then processing the entire batch at
once.

2. Batch processing is usually cyclic: daily, weekly, or monthly run cycle is established depending on the
nature of the transactions

3. Cheaper than on-line processing

4. Easier to control than on-line processing

5. Database is constantly out of date

6. Batch processing is now being captured using disk files

9.2 Transaction Processing Subsystems in a Firm [Figure 9.4]

Overall transaction processing, also known as data processing, reflects the principal business activities of a
firm. The principal transaction processing subsystems in a firm are those supporting:
 :

1. Sales

2. Production

3. Inventory

4. Purchasing

5. Shipping

6. Receiving

7. Accounts payable

8. Billing

9. Accounts receivable

10. Payroll

11. General ledger

9.3 Transaction Processing Activities

The processing of individual transactions, of course, depends to a degree on their nature. The general
elements of transaction processing include:

1. Data capture and validation

2. Transaction - dependent processing steps

3. Database maintenance

Date Capture

Direct data entry is commonly employed through source data automation. Increasingly, transaction
processing systems rely on electronic data interchange (EDI). By replacing paper documents with
formatted transaction data sent over telecommunications networks, these systems provide for computer-to-
computer communication without repeated data entry. Although used internally by some firms, EDI
primarily serves the needs of intercompany communication.
 :

Data Validation

Typical validation tests include checking for missing data items, valid codes, and valid values. More
extensive validation may entail authorization of the transaction based on the customer=s record and
available inventory.

Processing Steps Dependent on the Transaction and on Processing Mode

Depending on the nature of the transaction and on whether the system operates in on-line or batch mode,
the following processing steps may be performed:

1. Classification The system classifies incoming transactions to select further processing steps.

2. Sorting Transaction records are arranged in order of the value of the data item(s) that uniquely identifies
each of them.

3. Data Retrieval The purpose of an inquiry transaction is retrieval of data from the database. Other
transactions may involve data retrieval as well.

4. Calculation The calculations required depend on the nature of the transaction.

5. Summarization Usually performed to obtain simple reports offered by TPS, this step computes
summaries across all or some of the transactions.

Database Maintenance

After transactions other than inquiries, system files or databases must be updated. The data accumulated by
TPSs thus serve as a source of detail for management oriented components of information systems.

9.4 Outputs Provided by Transaction Processing Systems

The outputs provided by TPSs may be classified as:

1. Transaction documents

2. Query responses

3. Reports
 :

Updating Data

Update in Batch

Is used when transactions are recorded on paper or magnetic tape and requires sequential access, as it is the
only method of accessing data on magnetic tape. All previous transactions before the desired one must be
examined. There are two stages. The first is collecting and storing transaction data in transaction file which
involves sorting into sequential order. The second stage is the processing of the data by updating the master
file. If an error occurs then the entire batch is rejected.

Update in Realtime

The steps of updating in real-time involve sending the transaction data to an online database in the master
file. Data is accessed using direct access often with the use of an index. Magnetic disk storage provides a
secondary storage medium of large quantities of data with quick access. The software is online and user-
friendly.

Other Information Processes

Data Collection for a Transaction Processing System

In a TPS this step involves generating the transaction data.

 HARDWARE- used to collect data for a TPS includes:

o MICR (MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION)- Characters are printed using magnetic
ink that contains magnetised particles such as account numbers. MICR systems quickly and
accurately read prerecorded data on cheques and deposit slips processing them very fast. They are
batch transaction processing systems.
o BARCODE READERS- are used in retail organisations to collect product information at POS.
Supermarkets use laser barcode readers and many businesses use a handheld variety. The product
information is held on a central computer linked to the POS terminal and displayed here when the
barcode is read and printed on a receipt. Used by libraries also.

Forms

FORMS- a document used to collect data from a person. When the form is collected it is processed in batch
or real-time. Paper forms include sign-on sheets for payroll and once completed and collected are processed
in batch at a convenient time. On-screen forms are created for computerised data entry purposes to populate
fields in a database. A transaction is completed when the user completes the form. A web form is used by
users who wish to purchase an item over the Internet. The data from this form is processed immediately
(real-time) or at a later time as a group of web forms (batch). The responses become fields in a database. A
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well-designed form provides information on the required data and any rules that apply to particular fields.
Forms minimise data entry errors by automatically filling in previously stored data, such as address, once
the user has entered the customer’s name.

Data Analysis for a Transaction Processing System

The results of processing transaction are stored in a database and analysed in many ways to meet the
information needs of users i.e. The output from a TPS is the input to other types of information systems
such as:

Decision Support System

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS-which use data mining to find relationships and patterns in data stored
in a database. This may uncover trends between the sales of certain things for instance such as pies and
sauce. The information obtained from data mining allows organisations to make informed decisions about
topics such as improved marketing campaigns or locations for a new store.

Management Information Systems

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS- provide information for the organisation’s managers.

Present basic facts about the performance of the organisation. MIS output includes ales reports, stock
inventory, payroll, orders and budgets. Generally presented in report form. Types include:

 SCHEDULED REPORTS- are standard reports provided on a regular basis.

 FORECASTING REPORTS- are used to make projections about business trends. Important to decision
making and strategic planning.
 ON-DEMAND REPORTS- are generated on request usually in response to a specific need.
 EXCEPTION REPORTS- are used to help alert management to unexpected or unfavourable situations
that necessitate special handling.

Issues Related to Transaction Processing Systems

The Nature of Work

NATURE OF WORK- TPSs change the nature of work for people.

Automation of Jobs

AUTOMATION OF JOBS- refers to the use of information technology to perform tasks once carried out
by people. Organisations are increasing their use of information technology and TPSs, which allow them to
become more efficient and offer new services yet, requires workers to learn new skills and complete
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ongoing training. Results in fewer people being required to perform the same task yet the loss of jobs in
one industry is replaced by job growth in another such as IT. All that is required is retraining for new roles.

People as Participants

PEOPLE AS PARTICIPANTS- People from the environment have become participants as they directly
enter transactions. This brings a significant change to the nature of work. For example ATMs carry out
tasks once performed by a person resulting in fewer bank jobs. The Internet is also allowing people to
become participants in TPSs as they purchase goods online using web forms thus bypassing people
providing the service in a shop front. This also means more opportunities are created in the IT industry.

Data Handling

IMPORTANCE OF DATA- Organisations rely on TPSs and the data they process.

Bias

BIAS- means the data is unfairly skewed or given too much weight to a particular result. Data must be free
from bias. Rarely an issue in collection of data in a TPS as the information process is carefully designed
and examined in many ways. However data gathered from a TPS can be presented in a biased way using
tables and charts. Some bias may also exist in any explanation however it becomes an ethical issue when
relevant information is knowingly misinterpreted.

Data Security

DATA SECURITY- involves a series of safeguards to protect data as it is under threat of being stolen,
destroyed or maliciously modified. There is greater risk when the data is accessible to multiple users in a
RTTP system. The first line of defence is to only allow access to authorised people using passwords,
personal objects and biometric devices. Some people are capable of evading these. Further safeguards
include firewalls and encryption.

Data Accuracy

DATA ACCURACY- is the extent to which data is free from errors. Data entered into a TPS is not always
accurate as errors can be caused by mistakes in gathering and entering the data, mismatch of data and
person or out-of-date information. Opportunities need to exist to check and change data if it is wrong. Data
validation is used to check the entry of data. A well-designed TPS checks each transaction for easily
detectable errors such as missing data, incorrect values or consistency, or data in the wrong format. Carried
out using range checks, type checks, list checks and check digit.
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retailer also collects customer purchase data, such as the name of the items ordered and total
sales value, in a different system. OLAP combines the datasets to answer questions such as
which color products are more popular or how product placement impacts sales.

Why is OLAP important?

Online analytical processing (OLAP) helps organizations process and benefit from a growing amount of
digital information. Some benefits of OLAP include the following.

Faster decision making

Businesses use OLAP to make quick and accurate decisions to remain competitive in a fast-paced
economy. Performing analytical queries on multiple relational databases is time consuming because the
computer system searches through multiple data tables. On the other hand, OLAP systems precalculate and
integrate data so business analysts can generate reports faster when needed.

Non-technical user support

OLAP systems make complex data analysis easier for non-technical business users. Business users can
create complex analytical calculations and generate reports instead of learning how to operate databases.

Integrated data view

OLAP provides a unified platform for marketing, finance, production, and other business units. Managers
and decision makers can see the bigger picture and effectively solve problems. They can perform what-if
analysis, which shows the impact of decisions taken by one department on other areas of the business.

What is OLAP architecture?

Online analytical processing (OLAP) systems store multidimensional data by representing information in
more than two dimensions, or categories. Two-dimensional data involves columns and rows, but
multidimensional data has multiple characteristics. For example, multidimensional data for product sales
might consist of the following dimensions:

 Product type

 Location

 Time
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Data engineers build a multidimensional OLAP system that consists of the following elements.

Data warehouse

A data warehouse collects information from different sources, including applications, files, and databases.
It processes the information using various tools so that the data is ready for analytical purposes. For
example, the data warehouse might collect information from a relational database that stores data in tables
of rows and columns.

ETL tools

Extract, transform, and load (ETL) tools are database processes that automatically retrieve, change, and
prepare the data to a format fit for analytical purposes. Data warehouses use ETL to convert and
standardize information from various sources before making it available to OLAP tools.

OLAP server

An OLAP server is the underlying machine that powers the OLAP system. It uses ETL tools to transform
information in the relational databases and prepare them for OLAP operations.

OLAP database

An OLAP database is a separate database that connects to the data warehouse. Data engineers sometimes
use an OLAP database to prevent the data warehouse from being burdened by OLAP analysis. They also
use an OLAP database to make it easier to create OLAP data models.

OLAP cubes

A data cube is a model representing a multidimensional array of information. While it’s easier to visualize
it as a three-dimensional data model, most data cubes have more than three dimensions. An OLAP cube, or
hypercube, is the term for data cubes in an OLAP system. OLAP cubes are rigid because you can't change
the dimensions and underlying data once you model it. For example, if you add the warehouse dimension
to a cube with product, location, and time dimensions, you have to remodel the entire cube.

OLAP analytic tools

Business analysts use OLAP tools to interact with the OLAP cube. They perform operations such as
slicing, dicing, and pivoting to gain deeper insights into specific information within the OLAP cube.
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How does OLAP work?

How does OLAP work?

An online analytical processing (OLAP) system works by collecting, organizing, aggregating, and
analyzing data using the following steps:

1. The OLAP server collects data from multiple data sources, including relational databases and data
warehouses.

2. Then, the extract, transform, and load (ETL) tools clean, aggregate, precalculate, and store data in an
OLAP cube according to the number of dimensions specified.

3. Business analysts use OLAP tools to query and generate reports from the multidimensional data in the
OLAP cube.

OLAP uses Multidimensional Expressions (MDX) to query the OLAP cube. MDX is a query, like SQL,
that provides a set of instructions for manipulating databases.

What are the types of OLAP?

Online analytical processing (OLAP) systems operate in three main ways.

MOLAP

Multidimensional online analytical processing (MOLAP) involves creating a data cube that represents
multidimensional data from a data warehouse. The MOLAP system stores precalculated data in the
hypercube. Data engineers use MOLAP because this type of OLAP technology provides fast analysis.

ROLAP

Instead of using a data cube, relational online analytical processing (ROLAP) allows data engineers to
perform multidimensional data analysis on a relational database. In other words, data engineers use SQL
queries to search for and retrieve specific information based on the required dimensions. ROLAP is suitable
for analyzing extensive and detailed data. However, ROLAP has slow query performance compared to
MOLAP.
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 Y-axis—location

 Z-axis—time

Upon a pivot, the OLAP cube has the following configuration:

 X-axis—location

 Y-axis—time

 Z-axis—product

How does OLAP compare with other data analytics methods?

Data mining

Data mining is analytics technology that processes large volumes of historical data to find patterns and
insights. Business analysts use data-mining tools to discover relationships within the data and make
accurate predictions of future trends.

OLAP and data mining

Online analytical processing (OLAP) is a database analysis technology that involves querying, extracting,
and studying summarized data. On the other hand, data mining involves looking deeply into unprocessed
information. For example, marketers could use data-mining tools to analyze user behaviors from records of
every website visit. They might then use OLAP software to inspect those behaviors from various angles,
such as duration, device, country, language, and browser type.

OLTP

Online transaction processing (OLTP) is a data technology that stores information quickly and reliably in a
database. Data engineers use OLTP tools to store transactional data, such as financial records, service
subscriptions, and customer feedback, in a relational database. OLTP systems involve creating, updating,
and deleting records in relational tables.

OLAP and OLTP

OLTP is great for handling and storing multiple streams of transactions in databases. However, it cannot
perform complex queries from the database. Therefore, business analysts use an OLAP system to analyze
 :

multidimensional data. For example, data scientists connect an OLTP database to a cloud-based OLAP
cube to perform compute-intensive queries on historical data.

How does AWS help with OLAP?

AWS databases provide various managed cloud databases to help organizations store and perform online
analytical processing (OLAP) operations. Data analysts use AWS databases to build secure databases that
align with their organization's requirements. Organizations migrate their business data to AWS databases
because of the affordability and scalability.

 Amazon Redshift is a cloud data warehouse designed specifically for online analytical processing.

 Amazon Relational Database Service (Amazon RDS) is a relational database with OLAP functionality.
Data engineers use Amazon RDS with Oracle OLAP to perform complex queries on dimensional cubes.

 Amazon Aurora is a MySQL- and PostgreSQL-compatible cloud relational database. It is optimized for
running complex OLAP workloads.

 Dirty Data Cost

Data-driven marketing has become a fundamental part of running businesses. This is why businesses
are increasingly collecting data from consumer interactions and engagements.

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many cases of business getting into trouble because of not having that set -up correctly. So make sure
that you hire some professional GDPR consultants like Teamwork IMS as they will make sure you
are 100% correct.

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This data is, in turn, analyzed in order to help businesses predict future or emerging consumer
behavior. This process involves understanding the data collected and knowing how to organize it,
analyze it, and apply it to improve marketing efforts.
 :

Most marketers also use the same data to improve and personalize their overall customer
experience. Seventy-eight percent of organizations say that the data they collect helps them increase
customer acquisitions and lead conversions.

Data-driven marketing has, therefore, become a crucial strategy for marketers who want to
succeed in the current hypercompetitive global economy. Ninety-five percent of organizations are
using data to power their business opportunities.

Image Source: Experian

However, this can only occur if your data is clean. Dirty data can negatively affect your bottom
line. Eighty-nine percent of business executives say that inaccurate data affects their ability to
provide great customer experiences.

When your company is swimming in dirty data, the sales and marketing teams cannot make well-
informed and accurate, data-driven decisions. On average, organizations believe that 25 percent of
their data is inaccurate, a factor that impacts on the bottom line.

Dirty data can be costly in the long run. It can eventually lead to lower productivity, unnecessary
spending, and unreliable decision-making.

In this article, we shall look at:

 What Is Dirty Data

 How Much Can Dirty Data Cost Your Business

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 How to Deal with Dirty Data

 Benefits of Having Quality Data

 Getting Rid of Dirty Data and Saving on Cost

What Is Dirty Data

Image Source: Experian

Dirty data is simply data that contains errors. This kind of data can be erroneous due to factors like:

Human error: It is one of the major data health problems. Many of the processes require manual
input of data, and this can cause errors. The errors get worse if those inputting data have no technical
knowledge. Lack of knowledge on what value to input in what field will lead to useless information.
Such information is then passed on to the rest of the organization.

Incomplete data: This is data that’s been left blank. Without it, some of the functions in the
marketing and sales department will not work efficiently.

Duplicate data: Duplicating customer records or products leads to high costs to the company. An
excess in inventory, for example, can hamper procurement decisions.
 :

Incorrect data: This kind of data occurs when, during input, the creation of values outside of a valid
range happens. It could also be due to variations in spelling, typos, formatting problems, and
transpositions. Incorrect data results in the wrong interpretation of data.

Inaccurate data: Data can be correct but inaccurate. This can, in turn, cause unwanted interruptions
in your business. For example, this can happen when customers fail to input some data when filling
online forms. Some of the customers key in inaccurate data either on purpose o r by mistake and this
will put your business at a disadvantage.

Inconsistent data: This happens when the same values of data are stored in different locations,
causing redundancies and inconsistencies. For example, an organization has company information in
different non-synced systems or apps.

Storage failure: Hardware failure can also cause data corruption or loss. The loss and corruption can
lead to disruption and ultimately, loss of revenue. For instance, loss of data leads to failure to deliver
services or products to customers.

Old data: Some data expires after some time. For example, when a customer changes their phone
number or moves to a new location.

Dirty data also occurs when organizations are linking data across sets. If there is no unique ident ifier
for the data, linking them creates problems. These problems include repeated entries combined as a
result of minor errors.

Sometimes the data is combined wrongly whereby data belonging to two different customers with the
same name is mixed. This kind of data problem occurs if the company is using old technology or
when multiple databases are merged as you try to combine data. The same problems occur during the
condensing of data into manageable form.

In a study conducted by Integrate, small and medium businesses were averaging 40 percent poor
quality generated leads. Other issues included duplicate data, missing fields, invalid figures or
ranges, failed address verification, and failed email verification.
 :

When they carried out the same research on enterprise businesses, the results were not too different.

It’s sad to see businesses relying on poor data without giving this valuable resource the serious
attention it requires in order to succeed in data-driven marketing.

If data is inconsistent across departments, then the business cannot leverage it for intelligent insights.
For example, if you fail to store purchase order and product sales information in the same database.
 :

This data needs to be checked regularly for quality. Otherwise, it may be years before it is identified
and corrected.

Sometimes, data problems are not noticed because everyday processes are not affected. As such, it’s
impossible to notice the error until the company requires the data for analytics. These kinds of
problems affect revenue directly.

How Much Can Dirty Data Cost Your Business?

The result of poor-quality data is an increased cost per customer, fewer conversions, reduced
revenue, and reduced profits. If these issues go unnoticed, numerous losses in resources and
productivity will definitely occur.

In a report by Experian Marketing, the effect on revenue comes primarily from:

 Lost productivity

 Wasted communications and marketing spend

 Wasted resources due to wrong decisions

Consider that on average, corporate data grows at a yearly rate of 40 percent. Twenty percent of that
data is outright dirty. According to data scientists, it takes $1 to verify records, $10 to clean it, and
$100 if you do nothing.

It’s the 1-10-100 rule. Fail to clean it, and the company spends $100 per dirty record. The
infographic below calculates the huge cost bad data would cost your company.
 :

Image Source: Ring Lead

With dirty data:

 Your salespeople will waste a lot of time using the wrong data to chase leads

 Your salespeople will have a hard time tracing the lead source

 Data scientist spend lots of valuable time cleaning data

 Your IT department will spend more time lining systems that are not connected

 Your team will make the wrong decisions. If they do not trust the data they will end up doing
a lot of guesswork

 Your financial report will lead to a bad investment leading to reputational consequences and
loss of revenues
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 Duplicated information will lead to reputation damage. For example, by not cleaning data,
two sales reps end up calling the same customer by accident.

 Wrong updates to email preferences will lead to wrong records that do not honor a customer’s
opt-out preference. You could also be emailing the wrong addresses. Such mistakes will strain
your relationships with customers, which will affect retention.

 Your accounts can be adversely affected. This can happen if you fail to update old data. For
example, if you acquired another company and failed to update data, your records will not be
accurate.

 Product/service delivery people will spend more time making corrections to flawed customer
orders

 Wasted media spend as the money used for ads is lost through failed email verification and
wrong addresses

 Your company will incur unnecessary costs on marketing automation and CRM for duplicate
records

 Your company risks losing clients due to poor quality service and customer experience

 You waste a lot of precious space in data storage as the server gets filled up with useless data

 Incorrect segmentation leading to poor personalization

According to studies, knowledge workers waste 50 percent of their valuable time looking for dirty
data, identifying it, and making corrections. They also spend valuable time ensuring that the data can
be trusted. Research by Crowd Flower also found that 60 percent of data scientists’ time is spent
cleaning and organizing data.

It’s important for organizations to work with clean data. Research by Harvard Business
Review found that only 16 percent of executives are confident in the accuracy of most of the data
they use when making decisions.

Only eight percent were confident in the availability of internal and external data needed to make
decisions. If the executives can’t rely on the data collected to make decisions, then changes to
improve accuracy and reliability should happen.
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Image Source: Harvard Business Review

How to Deal with Dirty Data

Before discussing how to clean your data, it’s important to note that small mistakes made during the
process data collection can eventually result in big consequences in the long run.

The idea of cleaning data is not pleasant, but you have to start from somewhere. It will d efinitely
take time to clean it up. In order to avoid such costly inconveniences, you’ll be better off putting in
place a proper data-collection system.

Although the organizational structure of different companies determines how they handle data,
everyone, including those in marketing, finance, operations, and customers, own and need the data.

Data ownership is one of the data-related challenges facing organizations. Who owns the data? In a
2017 study by Experian, the IT department had the greatest influence on data handling
 :

g in 62 percent
of organizations.

Image Source: Experian

Business owners did not take an active role in data handling, which they need for decision making
and initiatives. Ninety-five percent of businesses were making data requests from the IT department,
and over 70 percent of them had to wait a day or even longer to receive the data they had requested.

Today’s fast-paced environment and the shift to cloud-based storage has changed all that, thankfully.
More business owners now own the data. Business owners are even gaining expertise on how to
handle and analyze data.

Although the IT department still owns data in 51 percent of organizations, half of the organizations
no longer believe the IT department should own the data.

Chief executive officers now own data in a third of the organizations. The CEO owns the business
strategy, and the data responsibility is now shifting to them too. This means that they are also
responsible for protecting the data from emerging cyber threats and ensuring they adhere to all
regulations and ethics.
 :

Image Source: Experian

Since most departments in your organization use data, coordination must happen so that it remains
clean. This means that your company must make data quality everyone’s responsibility. Make
everyone responsible for it and align this with the goals your company aims to achieve. This will go
a long way in helping to improve data quality.

All teams should work together to ensure data accuracy is achieved. Integrate databases to increase
conversion rates. Communication and collaboration between the marketing, sales, and all other
departments in the organization will help demolish silos.

It will ensure data accuracy and not infringe on the working styles of emplo yees. Train employees on
the correct processes and enforce a strong law on data quality.

Now that everyone is responsible for data quality as the company tries to achieve its goals, it’s time
to clean existing data.

1. Analyze existing data

The first step towards a clean database is analyzing the data. The process will tell you which data
requires immediate action and which one they can tackle moderately.
 :

To understand the challenges your company is facing, you will need to access missing fields, major
gaps, wrong information, inaccurate (phone) numbers, and wrong formats. The information garnered
will show the dirty data locations.

The anomalies and patterns you detect tell you a lot about how your data was collected. Adopt
systems that can detect these anomalies and fix them once and for all. Some SaaS companies offer
data clean up and pattern recognition services that would really come in handy.

However, learning how to handle these problems internally will go a long way in ensuring that such
situations do not arise in the future. Your organization needs data-related goals and a well-thought-
out roadmap on how to use the data to reach targets.

Audit all your internal systems and platforms starting from where you collect your information. This
includes webinar registration forms, survey forms, and download forms. Consider which field(s) your
team should remove and which ones should remain.

One thing you should note is that, when you ask for personal information too early in the buying
process, potential customers will most likely lie in order to remain anonymous. The same will
happen if the forms require too much input.

People generally don’t like answering too many questions. Now, this is where dirty data thrives.

It is also worth noting that not all anomalies may be bad. Use your human intuition to take note of
patterns that may provide new insights.

For example, if you run a gym and discover a huge number of what appears to be inaccurate
information, don’t rush to discard it as “dirty data”. It could be a gold mine.

So, if you are targeting the working-class population in your location and you notice that your
records show that a huge number of teenagers have been frequenting your establishment on
weekends, this should obviously tell you something.

Such data tells you that there’s a potential demographic that is untapped. It is now entirely up to you
to exploit this new discovery and make it work for your business.

Before you get rid of all the data, ensure that you’ve analyzed it extensively. Try and f ind patterns
that can provide you with useful information or opportunities you may not have considered before.
 :

2. Standardize data collection rules and establish constraints to prevent dirty data
Having standardization rules will ensure the quality of your data. The rules should apply to all
systems. Start by standardizing input fields in the CRM and other systems you use to collect
customer data:

 Consistently represent numbers, nominal values, and monetary values

 Avoid case-sensitive inputs unless necessary

 Normalize salutations, including Mrs. and Ms.

 Normalize spelling to one standard dictionary

 Convert abbreviations to long-form or long-form to abbreviations

 Have all customer records updated after every interaction

Develop constraints that will protect the company from dirty data. Constraints ensure consistency of
data, minimizing dirty data. For example:

 Make some fields mandatory

 Have range constraints that prevent nonsensical values that go below or above a certain
threshold

 Mandate certain data type when inputting values

3. Avoid complacency with your data

Once done with cleaning and data shows some improvement, do not get complacent. Continually
improve your processes to avoid contaminating your data. Keep ensuring that your data collection
and verification processes are always updated.

Find out what data you cannot access and why. Are you looking for certain information but can’t
access the data?

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Upon finding the dirty data, how fast can you act on it, and what damage will it have wrecked on the
organization? Keep your data collection system and the employees on their toes all the time.

Update data regularly. According to research, in a year:

 35 percent of emails change

 43 percent of phone numbers change

 20 percent of postal addresses change

 21 percent of CEOs change

 30 percent of people change jobs

 65 percent of people change job titles or functions

Combine these statistics with the fact that B2B data decays at a rate of 70.3 percent in one year.

It means that if you don’t constantly update your information, your company is most likely using the
wrong information when contacting customers and sending wrong messages.

4. Automate your data cleaning process

According to a report by Crowd Flower, data scientists love their job. However, 60 percent of them
say they do not like work that takes up most of their time (cleaning and organizing).

You can see that the tasks they spend most of their time doing are the ones the y don’t enjoy. Data
scientists would rather be doThe anomaliesing creative and interesting jobs that create value.
 :

Manually cleaning data is uneconomical and labor intense. You need to invest in a system that
automatically cleans, enriches, appends, and analyzes your data.

As we have seen, human error is the leading cause of dirty data. One error can lead to huge losses in
terms of revenue. Using automated systems ensures that you sift through the data collected using
algorithms that detect any anomalies and errors.

Automation also scrubs off duplicate records from your database. For example, your company will
have two records of a customer if they input a work email and personal email.

Such data will prevent you from having a 360 view of the customer. Automated systems will merge
the data and remove duplicate records ensuring data quality.

Automating also helps you keep updated records of customers in real-time. Your sales team will no
longer chase dead-end leads. This will help you maintain the trust of your customers.

Benefits of having quality data

Developing a data strategy will ensure that you have quality data, which is critical to achieving your
business goals. Certain needs drive the strategies to maintain high-quality data, including:
 :

Increased efficiency

 Saving on costs: Having high-quality data ensures that you don’t have to pay the price for
cleaning data. You can make a note of mistakes early on and make accurate data-informed
decisions.

 Protecting the organization’s reputation: Bad data can ruin your reputation.

 Getting data confidence: Data ensures trust and an understanding of the information you
have at your disposal. Your team will, in turn, have confidence in the insights provided by
derived data.

Making informed decisions and effective marketing

 Scaling-up while ensuing reliable and trustworthy data. With quality data, the company
does not have to scale up through increasing human resources.

Improving operational efficiency

 Saving time: Data scientists no longer have to spend time backtracking or double-checking
results. Automated processes will further ensure quality data and save you valuable time.

 Ensuring consistency in data: A strong data infrastructure ensures that data is consistent
throughout the organization. Teams will be working with the same sales figures, congruent
reports, and harmonious data.

 Readiness and the ability to detect inconsistencies. If something goes wrong, you are ready
to tackle it. This readiness minimizes the cost of errors since you can never have a completely
flawless solution.

 Increasing productivity: Time saved means that your team can spend more time being
creative and innovative.

 Complying with data regulations: Your data will be following set guidelines making it easy
to comply with industry regulations.
 :

 Ensuring customer satisfaction: Maintaining control of your data ensures that you handle
customer data properly. You also have the right information and can personalize and improve
experiences.

Conclusion: Getting rid of Dirty Data and saving on cost

The world has increasingly become connected. This means that there’s a lot of data being collected
and stored. Big data comes with huge responsibilities, and companies need to ensure data quality and
protection.

With quality data, your company can generate up to 70 percent more revenue. Sorting out your data
can save you a lot of money. Clean data can also enhance the growth of your business.

Do not slow your organization down with dirty data. Integrate automation and modern techniques to
minimize dirty data collection and storage. With clean data, your organization becomes responsive
and agile. You also cut down on wasted time and improve the productivity of your employees.

Quality data helps you understand insights and stay in touch with customers. It enables you to market
more effectively and grow loyalty from customers.

Ensure your data is always clean through consistent checks to gain customer trust and make
knowledgeable business decision

Data ownership and organizational politics?

Data ownership refers to both the possession of and responsibility for information. Ownership implies
power as well as control. The control of information includes not just the ability to access, create, modify,
package, derive benefit from, sell or remove data, but also the right to assign these access privileges to
others (Loshin, 2002).

Implicit in having control over access to data is the ability to share data with colleagues that promote
advancement in a field of investigation (the notable exception to the unqualified sharing of data would be
research involving human subjects). Scofield (1998) suggest replacing the term ‘ownership’ with
‘stewardship’, “because it implies a broader responsibility where the user must consider the consequences
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of making changes over ‘his’ data”.

According to Garner (1999), individuals having intellectual property have rights to control intangible
objects that are products of human intellect. The range of these products encompasses the fields of art,
industry, and science. Research data is recognized as a form of intellectual property and subject to
protection by U.S. law.

Importance of data ownership:

According to Loshin (2002), data has intrinsic value as well as having added value as a byproduct of
information processing, “at the core, the degree of ownership (and by corollary, the degree of
responsibility) is driven by the value that each interested party derives from the use of that information”.

The general consensus of science emphasizes the principle of openness (Panel Sci. Responsib. Conduct
Res. 1992). Thus, sharing data has a number of benefits to society in general and protecting the integrity of
scientific data in particular. The Committee on National Statistics’ 1985 report on sharing data (Fienberg,
Martin, Straf, 1985) noted that sharing data reinforces open scientific inquiry, encourages a diversity of
analyses and conclusions, and permits:

1. reanalyses to verify or refute reported results

2. alternative analyses to refine results
3. analyses to check if the results are robust to varying assumption

The cost and benefits of data sharing should be viewed in ethical, institutional, legal, and professional
dimensions. Researchers should clarify at the beginning of a project if data can or cannot be shared, under
what circumstances, by and with whom, and for what purposes.

Considerations/issues in data ownership

Researchers should have a full understanding of various issues related to data ownership to be able to make
better decisions regarding data ownership. These issues include paradigm of ownership, data hoarding,
data ownership policies, balance of obligations, and technology. Each of these issues gives rise to a number
of considerations that impact decisions concerning data ownership

Paradigm of Ownership – Loshin (2002) alludes to the complexity of ownership issues by identifying the
range of possible paradigms used to claim data ownership. These claims are based on the type and degree
of contribution involved in the research endeavor. Loshin (2002) identifies a list of parties laying a
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potential claim to data:

 Creator – The party that creates or generate data

 Consumer – The party that uses the data owns the data
 Compiler - This is the entity that selects and compiles information from different information
sources
 Enterprise - All data that enters the enterprise or is created within the enterprise is completely
owned by the enterprise
 Funder - the user that commissions the data creation claims ownership
 Decoder - In environments where information is “locked” inside particular encoded formats, the
party that can unlock the information becomes an owner of that information
 Packager - the party that collects information for a particular use and adds value through
formatting the information for a particular market or set of consumers
 Reader as owner - the value of any data that can be read is subsumed by the reader and, therefore,
the reader gains value through adding that information to an information repository
 Subject as owner - the subject of the data claims ownership of that data, mostly in reaction to
another party claiming ownership of the same data
 Purchaser/Licenser as Owner – the individual or organization that buys or licenses data may stake
a claim to ownership

Data Hoarding

This practice is considered antithetical to the general norms of science emphasizing the principle of
openness. Factors influencing the decision to withhold access to data could include (Sieber, 1989):

 (a) proprietary, economic, or security concerns

 (b) documenting data which can be extremely costly and time consuming
 (c) providing all the materials needed to understand or extend the research
 (d) technical obstacles to sharing computer-readable data
 (e) confidentiality
 (f) concerns about the qualifications of data requesters
 (g) personal motives to withhold data
 (h) costs to the borrowers
 (i) costs to funders

Data Ownership Policies

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Institutional policies lacking specificity, supervision, and formal documentation can increase the risk of
compromising data integrity. Before research is initiated, it is important to delineate the rights, obligations,
expectations, and roles played by all interested parties. Compromises to data integrity can occur when
investigators are not aware of existing data ownership policies and fail to clearly describe rights, and
obligations regarding data ownership. Listed below are some scenarios between interested parties that
warrant the establishment of data ownership policies

 Between academic institution and industry (public/private sector) – This refers to the sharing of
potential benefits resulting from research conducted by academic staff but funded by corporate
sponsors. The failure to clearly delineate data ownership issues early in public/private relationships
has created controversy concerning the rights of academic institutions and those of industry
sponsors (Foote, 2003).
 Between academic institution and researcher staff –According to Steneck (2003) research
funding is awarded to research institutions and not individual investigators. As recipients of funds,
these institutions have responsibilities for overseeing a number of activities including budgets,
regulatory compliance, and the management of data. Steneck (2003) notes “To assure that they are
able to meet these responsibilities, research institutions claim ownership rights over data collected
with funds given to the institution. This means that researchers cannot automatically assume that
they can take their data with them if they move to another institution. The research institution that
received the funds may have rights and obligations to retain control over the data”. Fishbein (1991)
recommended that institutions clearly state their policies regarding ownership of data, and present
guidelines for such a policy.
 Collaboration between research colleagues–This is applicable to collaborative efforts that occur
both within and between institutions. Whether collaborations are between faculty peers, students, or
staff, all parties should have a clear understanding of who will determine how the data will be
distributed and shared (if applicable) even before it is collected.
 Between authors and journals - To reduce the likelihood of copyright infringement, some
publishers require a copyright assignment to the journal at the time of submission of a manuscript.
Authors should be aware of the implications of such copyright assignments and clarify the policies
involved.

Balance of obligations

Investigators must learn to negotiate the delicate balance that exists between an investigator’s willingness
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to share data in order to facilitate scientific progress, and the obligation to employer/sponsor, collaborators,
and students to preserve and protect data (Last, 2003). Signed agreements of nondisclosure between
investigators and their corporate sponsors can circumvent efforts to publish data or share with colleagues.
However, in some cases as with human participants data sharing may not be allowed due to confidentiality
reasons.

Technology

Advances in technology have enabled investigators to explore new avenues of research, enhance
productivity, and use data in ways unimagined before. However, careless application of new technologies
has the potential to create a slew of unanticipated data ownership problems that can compromise research
integrity. The following examples highlight data ownership issues resulting from the careless application of
technology:

 Computer – The use of computer technology has permitted rapid access to many forms of
computer-generated data (Veronesi, 1999). This is particularly the case in the medical profession
where patient medical record data is becoming increasingly computerized. While this process
facilitates data access to health care professionals for diagnostic and research purposes,
unauthorized interception and disclosure of medical information can compromise patients’ right of
privacy. While the primary justification for collecting medical data is to benefit the patient, Cios
and Moore (2002) question whether medical data has a special status based on their applicability to
all people.
 Genetics – Due to advances in technology, i nvestigators of the Human Genome Project have
opportunities to make significant contributions by addressing previously untreatable diseases and
other human conditions. However, the status of genetic material and genetic information remains
unclear (de Witte, Welie, 1997). Wiesenthal and Wiener (1996) discuss the conflict between the
rights of the individual for privacy, and the need for societal protection. The critical issues that
investigators need to be aware of include the ownership of genetic data, confidentiality rights to
such information, and legislation to control genetic testing and its applications (Wiesenthal and
Wiener, 1996).

The mentioned data ownership issues serve to highlight potential challenges to preserving data integrity.
While the ideal is to promote scientific openness, there are situations where it may not be appropriate
(especially in the case of human participants) to share data. The key is for researchers to know various
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What are the objectives of organizational politics?

Objectives of organizational politics include:

1. Gaining power

2. Boosting productivity

3. Gaining recognition

4. Resolving disputes

5. Promoting personal objectives

6. Protecting self-interest

7. Earning money and income

8. Developing power contacts

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What are the types of organizational politics?

Self-promotion

When an employee acts to further their career without regard for the impact on others around them. This
includes things like taking credit for the ideas of others and putting coworkers down to build themselves
up.

Office politics

When one employee or group attempts to influence another employee or group through persuasion,
manipulation, influence, or pressure. This can be positive if it means getting a group of skeptics on board
with an organization's vision or project, but the downside is that it can lead to tension and arguments if
someone believes that the win is coming at their expense.

Factionalism

A group becomes split based on common tasks and common interests, and these smaller groups form
alliances that align with their goals. In larger organizations, this can help to increase innovation and agilit y.
However, it will often have negative consequences as each faction commits to winning at any cost.

Gatekeeping

An employee or group of employees who already have a certain degree of power block other employees
and ideas. They do this to maintain their power and avoid being challenged. However, this stifles
innovation and prevents talent from rising through the organization.

Territorialism

An employee becomes extremely attached to a certain role or task and will not allow anyone else to
undertake it. For example, a manager who refuses to hand over the reins of a project.

The impact of organizational politics

Studies have shown that employees with political skills are better at gaining more power and managing
stress, are more productive, and have a greater impact on organizational goals. Plus, as a company grows,
organizational politics may be the reason it survives.

However, unchecked organizational politics can destroy a company when left to spiral out of control. Here
are some of the common negative impacts on employees:
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 Increased stress from fear of the unknown or losing their job

 Decrease in concentration and productivity as they are distracted by politics

 Increase in cynicism which leads to low morale and job satisfaction

 High employee turnover which can lead to a lack of qualified employees and a knowledge and skills
gap

 Miscommunication as neither employees nor managers fully know what's going on

 Resentment

How to manage organizational politics

While it's impossible to eradicate organizational politics in a large organization, there are several steps that
HR practitioners, managers, and leaders can take to minimize its negative impact:

 Improve your people skills

 Communicate openly and honestly

 Put yourself in your employees’ shoes and understand the landscape

 Collaborate respectfully across departments

 Maintain positive working relationships with all colleagues

 Don't have favorites or give preferential treatment to anyone

 Change your approach if something's not working

 Ensure employees feel valued and noticed and know they have opportunities

 Monitor any issues you notice

 Encourage employees to reach out with concerns

 Step in when needed

 Set a positive example for your team to follow

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Data lifecycle management (DLM):

What is data lifecycle management?

Data lifecycle management (DLM) is a policy-based approach to managing the flow of an information
system's data throughout its lifecycle: from creation and initial storage to when it becomes obsolete and is
deleted.

DLM products automate lifecycle management processes. They typically organize data into
separate tiers according to specified policies. They also automate data migration from one tier to another
based on those criteria. As a rule, newer data and data that must be accessed more frequently is stored on
faster and more expensive storage media, while less critical data is stored on cheaper, slower media.

What are the 3 main goals of data lifecycle management?

Organizations are handling more data than ever, and that data might be stored on premises, at colocation
facilities, in edge environments, on cloud platforms or any combination of these platforms. The need for an
effective DLM strategy has never been greater, but the strategy must be a comprehensive one to be
effective.

Data Lifecycle Management (DLM) combines the best practices from the various stages of the data life
cycle: production, data cleansing, data management, data protection, and data governance. It defines how
the data is captured, prepared, transported, managed, analyzed, and governed at each phase of the data life
cycle.

By following DLM, businesses can ensure that the correct data is in the right place at the right time,
enabling them to capitalize on data insights and create new opportunities. By leveraging data science,
companies are provided with a holistic view of data, making it possible to monitor data usage across the
various stages of the customer’s journey and detect any data misuse or breach.

The fundamental requirement for any software platform is data. In today’s complex environment, we may
generate data from many sources, such as network operations centers, mobile devices, social media sites,
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Data management

Management of data is composed of processing, merging, aggregation, classification, and data selection.

Data deletion

In the final stage of the data lifecycle process, data deletion is where the information in the datasets is
purged from the system.

What are the stages of the data management lifecycle?

The logical process of data life-cycle management can be divided into six integral stages.

1. Data Creation | Data Collection

The first stage in the data management lifecycle is data collection, sometimes referred to as data creation,
and the collection of data that occurs when someone uses a product. Depending on the product, companies
may collect data through a channel like an email, a web form, a website, or other means.
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being shared among various departments or teams of employees. The purpose of data sharing is to improve
productivity and minimize data maintenance.

This idea of sharing data has grown in parallel with cloud computing.

5. Data Archiving in the Data Management Lifecycle

Data archiving is a fundamental part of the data management lifecycle and is one of the most important
data lifecycle activities. In fact, it is the lifecycle activity in which data is often tested, cleaned, and
archived.

Data archiving ensures that data is protected, with the information being preserved and available for future
access. Data archiving allows business users to reclaim their access to data by having access through the IT
department instead of trying to retrieve data from the various servers themselves.

With businesses facing the challenge of extracting more value from their data as they grow, the need to
have access to archived data has become more pressing. Data archiving is one of the essential stages in the
data management lifecycle, and it is also one that many organizations overlook. This can lead to the loss of
valuable information in a data disaster or simply prolong the time to recover from the disaster.

6. Data Deletion | Data Re-use

Data deletion is the final step in the data management lifecycle, where the right to delete data is allocated
and enforced. To fulfill its objective, the role of a data deletion committee must be carefully set up.

With data deletion, the right to delete data is defined, and the data manager must ensure that the right to
delete data is honored. A deletion process must be implemented, with an effective data deletion policy and
an action plan that outlines how to achieve the objective of data deletion.
 :

Beyond data deletion, the elimination of duplicate or redundant data is also critical in the process. Some
organizations have an obligation to delete duplicate or redundant data in cases where the value of the data
has already been captured. It is vital that companies look into data optimization methods to make their
businesses more scalable and efficient while also protecting their users.

For example, a data reuse plan can help drive better business results by identifying the correct data to
integrate with the next iteration of the business processes.

Why is data management important?

The right information is the key to successful business practices, which makes data management so
important.

When data management is executed right, it can help businesses streamline their processes and improve
customer service. Companies can also obtain more insights to analyze performance and better understand
their customers.

By taking a data management approach, businesses can collect information quickly and cost-efficiently and
store that information in a secure environment. In addition to data lifecycle
 :

management, other automations may provide you with better access to data, for instance, using an order
management system e-commerce or a visitor behavior analysis tool.

What are the benefits of a data management lifecycle?

There are numerous advantages to data lifecycle management, such as reducing costs by allowing data to
be accessed and utilized more widely. Data-driven businesses also save time as it enables them to eliminate
costly and time-consuming data management processes and encourages more collaborative data sharing
among employees and users.

1. Compliance with data regulations

Data management lifecycle management is essential for businesses to comply with data regulations. One of
the central regulatory bodies is the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) which
replaced the 1995 Data Protection Directive.

The GDPR considers both economic and societal considerations, with the overriding goal of enabling
individuals and businesses alike to benefit from digital technologies in a safe and secure environment.

2. Access to the right data

Data management lifecycle management enhances data availability and accessibility to enable employees
to make better and quicker decisions, improve customer experiences, and be more agile in the face of
change. This is particularly important in terms of Internet of Things app development (IoT) and
deployments, as organizations are now looking to gain higher levels of data visibility.

3. Improved operational efficiency

Operational efficiency and agility are vital in today’s business world. Data management lifecycle
management can help increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the IT infrastructure and lead to a more
streamlined and efficient approach to daily operations.
 :

4. Improved customer experience

Data management lifecycle management provides businesses with the ability to unlock the value of their
data to serve their customers better and boost sales.

5. Data Governance

Cyber governance training of IT personnel in data management lifecycle management processes can help
business entities reduce the costs of data management and guarantee employees that their data is collected,
monitored, and maintained in the correct format.

Best practices for data management

Data management is the process by which businesses allocate resources to identify the methods that will
guarantee only the correct data is being captured, stored, used, and managed across the enterprise.

These are some of the best practices for data lifecycle management.
 :

Shared data management

Under this model, business and IT stakeholders agree on a standard data model. This ensures that the
correct data is captured at the right time across the company, which helps to improve performance and add
to revenue.

Develop a centralized repository for data lifecycle management

This will enable businesses to develop a centralized data management information repository, which
contains all the required data and processes, and allows data to be imported easily.

Data stewardship

This requires the role of data stewards in the business to control the data and oversee the ongoing
processes. This will ensure that the correct data is collected, managed, analyzed, and used in the right way
and ensure that the information is never misused.

Data training

For IT professionals to become more data-aware, they must embrace the right culture and ways of working.
IT professionals need to consider their data as a critical asset and enable this to work to their benefit. This
will help improve their ability to analyze data and determine which areas of their systems require the most
attention.

Data aggregation

This allows the business to gain a more holistic view of the business’s data and, therefore, make more
informed decisions.

Data standardization

This allows IT professionals to ensure that they’re using the correct data types for the proper purposes.
Data standardization helps drive efficiency and agility within the business and help them make more
informed decisions.
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Robust data governance

This ensures that all data is secured and organized. It will also help to ensure that systems and processes are
in place to help protect this data and help them to comply with regulations, such as GDPR.

Is it time to get started with data lifecycle management?

Data lifecycle management is a vital aspect of every business today.

More and more businesses are realizing how crucial it is to keep up with the ever-changing data
management requirements, which can prove to be quite challenging in today’s fast-paced technology
world. In fact, one of the main challenges companies face in data management is that their data is often
disorganized.

Through data lifecycle management, you can ensure data fragmentation and disorganization never
complicate your business needs but instead allow you to control and effectively utilize your data for
maximum output.

Big data analytics :-

Big data analytics describes the process of uncovering trends, patterns, and correlations in large amounts of
raw data to help make data-informed decisions. These processes use familiar statistical analysis
 :

techniques—like clustering and regression—and apply them to more extensive datasets with the help of
newer tools.

What is Big Data Analytics? Definition, Types and Use Cases

If you ask how much data is generated and consumed every day, there is no definitive answer. However, a
relevant data study suggests that there should be over 180 zettabytes of data by the year 2025. It’s a number
that’s hard to envision, but it’s possible due to the countless advanced technological devices available now.
It’s also possible to process these massive amounts of data to create something valuable, all thanks to big
data analytics.
Big data analytics is all about analyzing what’s hidden in the data. We usually call it big data when it is not
manageable by human capabilities. Big data surrounds us; wherever we look, wherever we go, we have Big
Data in some form, be it from our mobile devices, systems, gadgets, social media, or sensors. This big data
fuels most of the technology innovations like IoT (Internet of Things), AI (Artificial Intelligence),
Blockchain, Cloud Computing, etc.
Moreover, it is now the backbone of many startups and modern enterprises since it offers an endless source
of business insights to improve operations and create new revenue opportunities. Therefore, if you are
looking to generate actionable insights for your business growth and scalability, it’s time to explore what
big data analytics solutions can do for you. Let’s start with the basics.
 :

What is big data analytics

In simple words, Big data analytics is the process of examining business data sets from various sources to
derive critical insights such as hidden customer data patterns, correlations, current market trends, customer
preferences, behavior, etc. This helps you analyze all forms of untapped data generated from your business
and make more informed business decisions.
With the increasing complexity of data sets, the global big data market is expected to grow to 103
billion USD by the year 2027. With its widespread applications, big data has expanded its roots in every
field ranging from Fintech, healthcare, education to retail and manufacturing.

Why is big data analytics important for digital businesses?

Enterprises of scales and sizes rely on big data to understand who their best customers are, what their
customers want, and why customers choose different products. The more you know your customers, the
better you get at your services.
 :

Not just this, big data can be helpful in multiple domains. Below are a few of the big data analytics
business use cases:

Risk Mitigation

Every business prioritizes a strategic approach to risk management. While many advanced technologies can
help you make this possible, big data analytics plays a direct role in predicting and avoiding upcoming
risks. It allows companies to quantify and model risks with the help of predictive analytics that foresight
any operational changes on a prior basis.

Customer acquisition and retention

This cannot be stretched enough that big data analytics is the key to happy customers. From website visits
to social media interactions, big data reveals a lot about your customer’s daily preferences. This is essential
when it comes to creating buyer personas and customer profiles. When you personalize your products and
services according to your customers, you deliver them the highest level of satisfaction. This not only helps
bring new customers but also keeps customer loyalty intact.

Competitive edge

Big data also rescues you in the world of extensive competitive digital markets. For instance, big data
provides information about your competitors’ pricing models and how your target customers perceive
them. Moreover, you can also determine how your competitors are performing online by examining their
social media engagement.
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Identify trends and patterns

It is also possible to identify current market patterns and trends through big data, which can be useful in
product research and development. From product behavior to buying patterns, big data offers every insight
that helps you to monitor changes over time. This allows you to give enough time to your business to
prepare for upcoming changes.

Personalized marketing

Experts say marketing can break or make your business. For successful marketing, the not-so-secret
ingredient is “personalization.” This is one of the areas where you can leverage big data to perceive your
customers and create marketing campaigns to target specific segments. This is how renowned brands such
as Netflix and Amazon personalize their recommendations and products to deliver high converting
services, resulting in a sales boost.
Not to forget that the big data uses discussed above lead to superior customer service, improved operational
efficiencies, and ultimately an increase in revenue. Hence, big data analytics can be a cost-effective
solution to businesses bringing in maximum profitability.
Now, if your next question is whether big data solutions can be applied to your industry or not, our next
segment is for you.

Applications of Big Data analytics in various industries

Our imagination only limits the applications of big data analytics. Let’s look at some of the extensive use
cases of big data in different industries.

Banking and Finance

Big data helps with heavy-handed analysis of customer portfolios through training models to determine
fraudulent transactions, cybersecurity issues, illegal payments, along with identifying potential openings to
upsell products. It also enables banks and financial institutions to carry informed decisions based on
analyzing large volumes of customer data.
 :

Healthcare

The Healthcare sector is explicitly trying out multiple approaches to tap into AI and Machine learning.
According to a study, Big data analytics optimizes process-oriented expenditures by integrating AI-based
performance modeling and predictive care monitoring. The increase in data analytics demand in the
healthcare population has led to an insightful understanding of medical data like EHR (Electronic health
record), sensor data, biometric data, etc.

Retail and logistics

Major retailers utilize data analytics to manage supply chains, optimize inventory, and direct precision-
driven retargeting campaigns for better outcome-oriented marketing.
On top of that, thanks to data analytic applications that optimize shipments and delivery routes to deliver
timely orders to customers worldwide.

Travel

The customized ticketing platforms for every form of travel are well ingrained, with AI, machine learning,
and big data subsets leading the commercial side of the travel industry. Data analytics also allows travel
companies to make more evidence-driven decisions, optimize pricing strategies, and accurately anticipate
future demands.

Trending Big data analytics solutions you can leverage

Below are a few of the data analytics trends that are expected to shape the business industry in the
immediate future.
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Predictive analytics

Predictive analytics is analyzing past and current data to predict future events and trends. This data-driven
technique can be utilized by any industry that handles big data to improve efficiency and reduce risk. The
primary benefits of predictive analytics are enhanced capital flow, network monitoring, risk mitigation, and
optimization.

Augmented data management

Augmented data management aims to activate the scope of automation in significant data management
systems. Many startups have already started augmenting their everyday data system software for
performance improvement. In turn, AI software also aids in manual tasks rather than displacing the
overloads.

Hybrid AI

Successful business outcomes heavily rely on quality data. This brings the opportunity to explore robotic
process automation that nurtures end-to-end data assignments without disrupting the quality. Data analytic
tools and techniques such as data preparation, mining, and management are efficiently used to carry and
offload to AI.

DataOps

The demand for governance and integration tools in existing data pipelines has resulted in the emergence of
DataOps. DataOps comes with the incorporation of DevOps and big data agile methodologies to test and
deliver quality data insights.
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Wrapping Up!

This brings us to the end of our discussion on big data analytics and its extensive uses in today’s business
landscape. For more detailed insights on big data analytic solutions, we recommend you seek services from
technical industry experts. They can help you kickstart your business with advanced and scalable solutions
aligned with your business needs.
The importance of Big Data analytics

The true value of Big Data is measured by the degree to which you are able to analyze and understand
it. Artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and modern database technologies allow for Big Data
visualization and analysis to deliver actionable insights – in real time. Big Data analytics help companies
put their data to work – to realize new opportunities and build business models. As Geoffrey Moore, author
and management analyst, aptly stated, “Without Big Data analytics, companies are blind and deaf,
wandering out onto the Web like deer on a freeway.”
Evolution of Big Data
As inconceivable as it seems today, the Apollo Guidance Computer took the first spaceship to the moon
with fewer than 80 kilobytes of memory. Since then, computer technology has grown at an exponential rate
– and data generation along with it. In fact, the world’s technological capacity to store data has been
doubling about every three years since the 1980s. Just over 50 years ago when Apollo 11 lifted off, the
amount of digital data generated in the entire world could have fit on the average laptop. In 2020, Statista
estimates 64.2ZB of data was created or replicated and "The amount of digital data created over the next
five years will be greater than twice the amount of data created since the advent of digital storage."

Unit IV

What Is an Economic Network?

An economic network is a combination of individuals, groups, or countries interacting to benefit the
community as a whole. The primary goal of the group in an economic network is to strengthen its position
in a market.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 An economic network is a combination of individuals, groups, or countries who pool resources and
competitive advantages to benefit each other.
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 Common types of economic networks are joint ventures between two or more companies or
partnerships between corporations.
 The advantages of an economic network are access to a larger labor pool of talent and cost savings.
 The disadvantage of an economic network is that it may result in an imbalance of power between
larger members and smaller ones.

Understanding Economic Networks

Economic networks use all available competitive advantages and resources of each member to increase
the production and wealth of the entire group. The composition of these networks may vary. In some
economic networks, membership may be static (where members do not change), while in others, the
network may be dynamic. In these cases, the networks are constantly changing, as members leave or are
added. The activities in networks may consist of any number of things including recruitment, surveying,
knowledge, and resource sharing.

Economic networks may come in different forms. They may comprise groups of individuals, companies,
or nations that share a common goal. Common types of economic networks may come in the form of joint
ventures between two or more companies, partnerships between corporations (especially in different
nations), or even business groups that form a network with a common link and end goal.

Pros and Cons of Economic Networks

As with any other network, there are certain advantages and disadvantages to being part of an economic
network. Some of the benefits include a larger labor pool and savings on costs. When two or more people
or groups are sharing resources, they can share talent across the board and their costs can also be driven
down.

In addition to this, is the sharing of knowledge, so what one member may lack in knowledge, another
member may be able to account for with his expertise. For example, a junior mining company may not be
aware of certain local laws or regulations if it undertakes an exploration study in a new geographic area,
and therefore, may run into certain problems. However, if it partners up with one or more (larger)
companies, or even local ones, it may benefit from their knowledge when it comes to the lay of the land,
thus, avoiding any future problems

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER NETWORK IN BUSINESS:

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER NETWORK IN BUSINESS

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As a business grows, so does its equipment. The more computers and devices a company has the more
spread out the programs and information become. Unless you have your computers networked together.
Computer networking is a group of computers that are configured together while not necessarily in the
same physical location. When your computers are connected, the transmitted data between the computers
make for more seamless communications and operations across the company.
It’s also very cost-effective as it allows computers to share hardware and software licenses, cutting back on
those company expenses.

BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING IN BUSINESS

File sharing allows for improved communications on a cohesive network. Consistency across individual
computers with a central database creates cohesive operating systems. The benefits for business are larger
storage capacity, effective communication, flexibility, and saving money on the costs of software.
Large Storage Capacity
With computer networking, your critical files are all a part of central file servers. Your employees can
access these files and learn from the data for improved business operations. A central server lowers the
number of storage systems you need for the company’s data. You gain storage space with an increase
in employee productivity with access to files.
Improved Business Communication
Information is the basis of communication. Modern networking allows the transfer of information in real-
time anywhere with internet access. When your team has access to network files from any device you have
more flexibility with remote workers and employees that need to work outside of the office.
The more information available to employees, the more independently they can work. Downtime is a
revenue killer. Network access to employees creates the company growth needed to reach long-
term business goals.
If you have any issue with one device, you can access your information when you log into another device.
This creates network security where you don’t have to worry about losing critical files.
Flexibility and Convenience
Access to information through the network cuts down on steps that employees take to get the information
they need for their daily tasks. When computers aren’t connected you need to transfer files through a USB
drive or messages.
With computer sharing employees can take files from any other connected computer as if it were on their
own. This speeds up the daily tasks of your employees and creates a very functional workflow.
 :

Cost Benefits of Computer Networking

A quality computer network allows for resource sharing across devices. You will need less hardware when
your computers are connected and hardware is pricey equipment. Employees won’t need separate
printers or backup storage when their computers are connected.
You won’t need to install as many software updates and employees can share document scanning software.
The ability to share technology assets among employees is one of the biggest cost benefits of
this networking solution.
Networked Versions of Software
Buying software for every computer and device isn’t the most cost effective way to get your employees the
tools that they need. Many software companies offer versions of their software that were made for
networks. This way you can purchase a single license for the product you need. You can then have it
running on the central server that the individual computers are connected to.
This puts an end to carrying around a USB drive and trading it with the next employee that needs the
license. When you have a team of people with access to the tools they need, you have an efficient team of
self-starters.
Improved Customer Service
When your employees have access to company information they are better able to serve customers and
clients. They can pull up all the information they need on the customer and provide answers to their
questions quickly. They can also add information about the customer into the system so that other
employees can be updated in real-time.
THE PERFECT NETWORK NEEDS TO BE DONE RIGHT
There are many benefits to computer networking. There are also areas of this network type that need
attention to make sure your systems are safe and promote business growth.
Choosing the Best Computer Networking Method
There are a lot of options for your networking system and an IT provider can help you make the best
decision for your individual company. More freedom comes with modern computer networking, and you
no longer have as many restrictions over what hardware is compatible with the network.
This way you can have different operating systems across a variety of devices. You can have equipment
from different providers working together with one central server.
Network Security
When your computers are connected they could be open to more cyber threats. When you have one
computer that has an issue it can spread to the rest. Corrupt files are not isolated when you have computer
networking.
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This is not a problem when you have IT support to keep your system as a whole safe. IT consulting will
give you all of the information you and your employees need to keep your company data safe. Employees
may exchange corrupt files when they don’t know how to recognize and avoid these incidents.
Proper training of employees will keep your company data safe while remaining accessible to
promote employee productivity. Company security policies are crucial for a company of any size.
GroupOne provides custom IT security plans to protect your company. We get to know you and
your business goals to create technology strategies for the growth stage of your company. We know how
important company efficiency is and we help provide you with the most cost
effective computer networking and support needed to grow a successful business.
A computer network is fundamental to the successful daily operation of businesses and organisations of all
sizes, across all industries — but it’s easy to be confused by what your ‘network’ actually is, what it does
and how it does it.

With over 20 years of experience in providing network solutions for home and business, we thought we
would explain in simple terms what a computer network is and why it is important to your business.

What is a computer network?

A computer network refers to interconnected devices (such as a computer, printer, scanner, file storage, etc)
that exchange communications and resources with each other. To communicate, these devices transmit
information between each other using communications protocols — a system of rules.

From the user’s perspective, computer networks enable the sharing of resources and communications. For
businesses, your computer network is the spine of your IT infrastructure through which everything else
communicates.

How does a computer network work?

There are two key building blocks in the function of a computer network — nodes and links.

 Nodes include physical pieces like modems, personal computers and file servers. They are
connection points, able to send, receive or forward information.
 Links are what connect the nodes and allow them to transmit to each other. These can be either
wired, optical or wireless.

Within a network, these interconnected nodes are identified by a network address and often have hostnames
that are more human friendly to identify. The nodes follow a set of rules — called communication
protocols — that define how they receive and send data, dictated and specified by the design of the
network infrastructure.
 :

There are many types of communication protocols. One common example in modern computer networks is
packet-mode transmission — a network packet is a unit of data.

As mentioned, the links that transmit information between nodes can be wired, optical or wireless radio
frequency. These interconnections can be configured and arranged in many different ways, logically and
physically. This is called network topology — referring to how the links and nodes relate to each other.

What does a computer network do? Why are they so important for business?

A computer network enables endpoint users to communicate (whether that’s over phone, email, instant
messaging or video call), share resources (like printers, storage devices and software), share files as well
as access increased storage capacity.

When designed, implemented and maintained well, the use of these internal networks clearly has the
potential to drive big efficiencies in any organisation! Shared access makes work faster and more
consistent, since there’s only a single source (which also simplifies backup procedures). Centralised
administration can make IT support more streamlined, too.

With the advent of faster internet speeds, a business’ computer network can be spread over a wide
geographical location (known as a WAN, or wide area network). The links, in this instance, are the internet
connection, your home or business modem and then any internal devices such as your WiFi access point or
hard cabled data points.

In summary, your computer network can now be cloud based, utilising platforms such as Microsoft
SharePoint or Google Workspace.

Important things in a modern network

The earliest types of networks arrived in the 1950s, transmitting information over telephone lines, mainly
for use in defence and the military.

The first commercial modem for computers was released in 1958 by American telecommunications
company AT&T, allowing data to be transmitted at a breakneck speed of only 110 bits per second! Bear in
mind an average internet connection is now 50 megabits per second (52,428,800 bits per second, to be
precise!).

Since then, and the advent of the internet, computer networks have become incredibly more widespread,
powerful, functional and necessary. They’re critical to modern-day business operations and have become
more secure, programmable and automated.
 :

A modern day network service should be…

 Data secure — modern networking solutions often have built-in security features and can be
integrated with third-party anti-malware solutions.
 Adaptable — modern computer networks are usually software-defined, meaning they can be
controlled centrally quickly.
 Scalable — networking services can be optimised, scaled up or down based on need. They can be
integrated on a large scale.
 Virtual — a physical network infrastructure can be partitioned, creating ‘overlay’ networks in
which your nodes are virtually linked and data can be communicated. Many large-scale networks
are overlaid on the internet.

What are the different types of business computer networks?

Business computer networks can be classified in many ways, most commonly by geographical extent.

Smaller businesses will usually function with local area networks (LAN). This is a collection of devices in
one physical location, like an office, warehouse or shop. Traditionally, the premises would be cabled. More
recently, the advancement of WiFi and portable technology has meant that wireless connectivity is
preferred.

There are two types of LAN: peer-to-peer and client-server. The technology of these networks can be
wired or wireless.

Peer-to-peer networks

These involve two or more computers pooling together, with shared resources available to everyone on the
network. Computers are equally privileged and act as both the client and the server, communicating
directly with each other. A printer on one computer could be used by anyone else in the network, for
example.

 Pros — Very simple and easy to set up.

 Cons — Devices shared by a computer are reliant on that computer being operational — remove the
computer and you remove access to any connected devices, files or folders. Poor security and
scalability.

Client-server networks

These involve multiple workstations connecting to one or more servers, where the shared files and
resources are kept. Clients — also known as service requesters — access these from the server.
 :

The server does the work of ‘serving’ the clients with information they need to function. This could be
security, user permissions, file access, printer resources, email, software updates and so on.

 Pros — A robust system that is scalable and efficient.

 Cons — Initial costs can be expensive. Requires more expertise to set up, manage and maintain.
They can be quite insular to the business.

A client-server network is by far the best choice for your business, but before you consider this type of
network, read on. The internet and connectivity has changed this landscape providing an alternative option
for your business.

Cloud-based computer networks

The traditional client-server network has become prohibitive and out-dated. Remote and ‘hybrid’ working
behaviours have grown drastically in popularity, as has the tendency for businesses to operate nationally or
internationally.

For those businesses embracing this ‘new normal’, there is now a third type of network choice available to
you.

This type of network can be seen as a mixture of LAN and WAN (wide area network) systems. You will
possibly know this type of arrangement through products such as Microsoft SharePoint and Google
Workspace.

These types of cloud-based services provide businesses with the functionality of a LAN without being tied
to a single location; we’ve explored them in another Learning Hub post about cloud services for
business.

What sort of computer network solution does my business need?

Cloud-based systems have transformed the way we can work. For any business starting out or looking to
improve their IT, we would say that this type of network is where you should be focusing your investment.

They can provide businesses with a scalable, secure network that will allow your users to collaborate, share
information and work from almost anywhere in the world — just as if they were in the office.

Like the traditional LAN, these types of networks need to be set up, managed and maintained correctly and
shouldn’t be attempted if you’re not familiar with them. They may sound relatively simple, but if set up
wrong, they can hinder your business.
 :

We recommend that partnering with a professional IT specialist is by far your best way to get the most
from a network like this. Once you and your team are enjoying the benefits of a cloud-based business
network, you’ll never go back.

Sign me up — sounds great. Almost too great. What’s the catch?

The Achilles’ heel of this type of network is the internet connection. Simply put, no internet, no access to
your network. Investment in a high-quality internet connection is paramount. In the ‘new normal’ of hybrid
working behaviour, this applies equally to the home user as well as the business premises.

Elements of Networks of Network Economy:

Basic elements of a computer network include hardware, software, and protocols. Theinterrelationship of
these basic elements constitutes the infrastructure of the network.A network infrastructure is the topology
in which the nodes of a local area network (LAN) or awide area network (WAN) are connected to each
other. These connections involve equipmentlike routers, switches, bridges and hubs using cables
(copper, fiber, and so on) or wirelesstechnologies (Wi-Fi). Network interface cards, commonly referred to
as NICs, are used to connect a PC to a network.
The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking cable and the computer’s
internal bus. NICs come in three basic varieties: 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the numberof bits that
can be transferred to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable

There are four elements that distinguish different types of networks from each other: speed, size,connection
methods, and data-sharing methods.
Network Speed:;
 :

One of the distinguishing features of a network is its speed: how much data per second the network can

transmit.
Dialup networking
(where a computer connects over an ordinary telephone line) is the slowestform of networking in common
use, with a maximum speed of 56K.
Some networks' speeds depend on the number of simultaneous users in an area.
Wirelessnetworking
is usually much faster than dialup, but your wireless network access can slow downwhen you're using an
access point shared by many other users. In some cases,
home cablemodem connections
can also be slowed by high use in your neighborhood.
Ethernet-based networking
is the highest-speed form of networking in common use, with 100MB speeds widely available and gigabit
(1,000 MB) speeds being used more and morefrequently. Ethernet is also the foundation of the campus
network. However, Ethernet is the leastwidely available form of networking once you leave the campus
area.
Rule of Thumb: Higher speed = higher price
Generally speaking, the faster a network is, the more expensive it is for home users to haveinstalled in their
home.
Network Size:
Another defining characteristic of a network is its size, from "two computers and a cable" all theway up to
the Internet as a whole.
A typical
home network
has two or more computers separated from the Internet by a router,which directs internal network traffic
and manages connections to and from your Internet service provider. For a description of a typical home
network's components, and how each element canrepresent a section of a much larger network, see Parts of
a Network.
Sub networks
within a larger network share many characteristics with a home network, sincethey are separated from the
rest of the network by some form of routing and make a distinction between computers that belong to the
subnet and computers that don't.Sub networks usually include many more computers and printers than a
home network, and maycontain computers from more than one building, but the basic architecture is the
same. Access toresources on computers in the sub network can be controlled based on whether a request
 :

comesfrom another computer within the sub network, from elsewhere in the larger network, or
fromelsewhere in the world.
The Internet
is, as its name implies, the largest interconnected network on the planet. Whilethere are some private
networks that do not share any connection with the Internet for security purposes, most public and private
networks (such as UIUC net) are connected to the Internet.
Connectionmethods
A network is also defined by the way that computers within it connect to each other. Somenetworks require
that connecting users use telephone lines; others use Ethernet or televisioncables; others use only wireless
connections; and some networks permit several types of

Close

connection. For example, UUNet users can connect with telephone lines, Ethernet cable, orwireless cards,
but not with television cables. Each connection type has its own advantages anddisadvantages.
Telephone lines
56K Dialup:
Although traditional 56K dialup is the slowest type of connection, nearly anylocation will have a telephone
line that you can use to connect. However, outside the local areacode, you may need to dial a more
complex string of numbers in order to connect to your service provider, and some hotels also require an
extra string of numbers to dial an outside line.
High speed DSL/ISDN:
Some high speed Internet connection options are also available throughtelephone lines. You can have
high-speed phone-based network access installed in your home orapartment. Because DSL and ISDN
require reliable phone lines of a certain length, however, youcan't typically use your DSL or ISDN modem
from a hotel room on the road.
Ethernet
Ethernet is the fastest type of wired connection in common use. Many offices use Ethernetnetworking, and
nearly any computer built within the last few years has an Ethernet port built in.However, few hotels and
coffeehouses will offer Ethernet connections to travelers, and very fewapartments and houses can be
conveniently and inexpensively wired for Ethernet.
 :

Television cable (cable modem)

Your television cable is a convenient way to get high-speed network access at a house orapartment, since
most houses and apartments are easily connected to the existing cable network.However, most offices are
not wired for television cables, and most computers don't have atelevision cable connection built into them
for connection while traveling; a typical computerwill use its Ethernet or USB port to connect to a cable
modem, which attaches to the televisioncable network. Therefore, cable modems are most commonly used
in homes, and rarely if ever inhotels or offices.
Wireless
Wireless networks offer speed and convenience at the cost of lower security and variable access.Many
hotels, coffeehouses, bookstores, and libraries offer wireless access to their patrons, andsome cities are
designing citywide wireless access. On the other hand, a wired connection isalmost always more secure
than a wireless connection; any wireless network user connecting tothe same access point can "overhear"
what your computer is communicating, which makes theuse of strong encryption essential. In addition, the
number of users connecting to a wirelessaccess point can make a noticeable difference in your connection
speed. For more informationabout wireless security and speed, see
VPN for Wireless Users and
Wireless
The last defining characteristic of a network is how computers exchange data with each other. There
arethree main types of file sharing; a network can use just one file sharing method or any combination of
the three.
System-native file sharing
This type of file sharing is built into your operating system, originally intended for sharing files(and often

printers) with other users in your local network, and not intended for sharing files
ETHICAL ISSUES

Because of the ubiquity and importance of information systems in organizations of

all types, there are many potential misuses and abuses of information and electronic communication that
create privacy and security problems. In addition to questions of legality, misuse and abuse raise concerns
of ethics. Ethics refers to a system of moral principles that relates to the benefits and harms of particular
actions, and to the rightness and wrongness of motives and ends of those actions. In this section, we
look at ethical issues as they relate to computer and information system security.

Ethics and the IS Professions

To a certain extent, a characterization of what constitutes ethical behavior for those

who work with or have access to information systems is not unique to this context. The basic ethical
 :

principles developed by civilizations apply. However,

there are some unique considerations surrounding computers and information systems. First, computer
technology makes possible a scale of activities not possible before. This
includes a larger scale of recordkeeping, particularly on individuals, with the ability to develop finer-
grained personal information collection and more precise data mining and data matching. The expanded
scale of communications and the expanded scale of interconnection brought about by the Internet magnify t
he power of an individual to do harm. Second, computer technology has involved the creation of
new types of entities for which no agreed ethical rules have
previously been formed, such as databases, Web browsers, chat rooms, cookies, and so on.

Further, it has always been the case that those with special knowledge or spe-
cial skills have additional ethical obligations beyond those common to all humanity. We can illustrate this in
terms of an ethical hierarchy (Figure 23.6), based on one discussed in [GOTT99]. At the top of the
hierarchy are the ethical values profes-
sionals share with all human beings, such as integrity, fairness, and justice. Being a
professional with special training imposes additional ethical obligations with respect
to those affected by his or her work. General principles applicable to all profession-
als arise at this level. Finally, each profession has associated with it specific ethical values and obligations
related to the specific knowledge of those in the profession
and the powers that they have to affect others. Most professions embody all of these
levels in a professional code of conduct, a subject discussed subsequently.

Ethical Issues Related to Computers and Information Systems

Let us turn now more specifically to the ethical issues that arise from computer technology. Computers
have become the primary repository of both personal

information and negotiable assets, such as bank records, securities records, and other financial information.
Other types of databases, both statistical and otherwise, are
assets with considerable value. These assets can only be viewed, created, and altered
by technical and automated means. Those who
can understand and exploit the technology, plus those who have obtained access permission, have power rel
ated to those assets.

A classic paper on computers and ethics [PARK88b] points out that ethical issues arise as the result of the
roles of computers, such as the following:

•
 :

Repositories and processors of information: Unauthorized use of otherwise unused computer

services or of information stored in computers raises ques- tions of appropriateness or fairness.
• Producers of new forms and types of assets: For example, computer programs are entirely
new types of assets, possibly not subject to the same concepts of ownership as other assets.
• Instruments of acts: To what degree must computer services and users of computers, data,
and programs be responsible for the integrity and appropri- ateness of computer output?
• Symbols of intimidation and deception: The images of computers as thinking
machines, absolute truth producers, infallible, subject to blame, and as anthropomorphic
replacements of humans who err should be carefully considered.

Another listing of ethical issues, from [HARR90], is shown in Table 23.3. Both
of these lists are concerned with balancing professional responsibilities with ethical or moral
responsibilities. We cite two areas here of the types of ethical questions
that face a computing or IS professional. The first is that IS professionals may find
themselves in situations where their ethical duty as professionals comes into conflict
with loyalty to their employer. Such a conflict may give rise for an employee to con- sider “blowing the
whistle,” or exposing a situation that can harm the public or a
company’s customers. For example, a software developer may know that a product is scheduled to ship with
inadequate testing to meet the employer’s
deadlines. The decision of whether to blow the whistle is one of the most difficult that an IS profes-
sional can face. Organizations have a duty to provide alternative, less extreme opportunities for the
employee, such as an in-house ombudsperson coupled with a commitment not to penalize
employees for exposing problems in-house. Additionally, professional societies should provide a
mechanism whereby society members can get advice on how to proceed.

Another example of an ethical question concerns a potential conflict of inter- est. For example, if
a consultant has a financial interest in a certain vendor, this should be revealed to any client if that
vendor’s products or services might be recommended by the consultant.

Codes of Conduct

Unlike scientific and engineering fields, ethics cannot be reduced to precise laws or
sets of facts. Although an employer or a client of a professional can expect that the
professional has an internal moral compass, many areas of conduct may present eth-
 :

ical ambiguities. To provide

guidance to professionals and to articulate what employers and customers have a right to expect, a number
of professional societies have adopted ethical codes of conduct.

A professional code of conduct can serve the following functions [GOTT99]:

1. A code can serve two inspirational functions: as a positive stimulus for ethical conduct on the
part of the professional, and to instill confidence in the cus- tomer or user of an IS product or
service. However, a code that stops at just providing inspirational language is likely to be
vague and open to an abun- dance of interpretations.
2. A code can be educational. It informs professionals about what should be their
commitment to undertake a certain level of quality of work and their responsibil- ity for the well
being of users of their product and the public, to the extent the
product may affect nonusers. The code also serves to educate managers on their
responsibility to encourage and support employee ethical behavior and on their own ethical respons
ibilities.
3. A code provides a measure of support for a professional whose decision to act
ethically in a situation may create conflict with an employer or customer.
4. A code can be a means of deterrence and discipline. A professional society can use a code as a
justification for revoking membership or even a
professional license. An employee can use a code as a basis for a disciplinary action.
5. A code can enhance the profession’s public image, if it is seen to be widely honored.

We illustrate the concept of a professional code of ethics for computer profes- sionals with three
specific examples.

TheACM (Association for Computing Machinery) Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct (Figure 23.7) a
pplies to com-puter scientists.5 The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Code
of Ethics (Figure 23.8) applies to computer engineers as well as other types of elec- trical and electronic
engineers. The AITP(AssociationofI
Information Technology Professionals, formerly the Data Processing Management Association) Standard of
Conduct (Figure 23.9) applies to managers of computer systems and projects.

A number of common themes emerge from these codes, including (1) dignity
and worth of other people; (2) personal integrity and honesty; (3) responsibility for work; (4) confidentiality
of information; (5) public safety, health, and welfare; (6) participation in professional societies to improve
standards of the profession; and
 :

3. ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP IMPERATIVES.

 Articulate social responsibilities of members of an organizational unit and encourage

full acceptance of those responsibilities.
 Manage personnel and resources to design and build information systems that
enhance the quality of working life.

 Acknowledge and support proper and authorized uses of an organization’s comput-

ing and communication resources.

 Ensure that users and those who will be affected by a system have their needs clearly articulated
during the assessment and design of requirements; later the system must be validated to
meet requirements.

 Articulate and support policies that protect the dignity of users and others affected
by a computing system.

 Create opportunities for members of the organization to learn the principles and
limitations of computer systems.

4. COMPLIANCE WITH THE CODE.

Uphold and promote the principles of this Code.

Treat violations of this code as inconsistent with membership in the ACM.of Ethics and Professional
Conduct (Copyright ©1997, Association for Computing Machinery, Inc.)

We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in
affecting the quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its
members and the communities we serve, do hereby commit our-
selves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:

1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the
public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;
2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose
them to affected parties when they do exist;
3. to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data;
4. to reject bribery in all its forms;
5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and
potential consequences;
6. to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological
 :

tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of
pertinent limitations;
7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and
correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others;
8. to treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender,
disability, age, or national origin;
9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action;
10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and to
support them in following this code of ethics

In recognition of my obligation to management I shall:

• Keep my personal knowledge up-to-date and insure that proper expertise is available when
needed.
• Share my knowledge with others and present factual and objective information to
management to the best of my ability.
• Accept full responsibility for work that I perform.
• Not misuse the authority entrusted to me.
• Not misrepresent or withhold information concerning the capabilities of equipment, software o
r systems.
• Not take advantage of the lack of knowledge or inexperience on the part of others.

In recognition of my obligation to my fellow members and the profession I shall:

• Be honest in all my professional relationships.

• Take appropriate action in regard to any illegal or unethical practices that come to my atten-
tion. However, I will bring charges against any person only when I have reasonable basis for
believing in the truth of the allegations and without any regard to personal interest.
• Endeavor to share my special knowledge.
• Cooperate with others in achieving understanding and in identifying problems.

• Not use or take credit for the work of others without specific acknowledgement and
authorization.
• Not take advantage of the lack of knowledge or inexperience on the part of others for
personal gain.

In recognition of my obligation to society I shall:

 :

• Protect the privacy and confidentiality of all information entrusted to me.

• Use my skill and knowledge to inform the public in all areas of my expertise.
• To the best of my ability, insure that the products of my work are used in a socially responsi
ble way.
• Support, respect, and abide by the appropriate local, state, provincial, and federal laws.
• Never misrepresent or withhold information that is germane to a problem or situation of
public concern nor will I allow any such known information to remain unchallenged.
• Not use knowledge of a confidential or personal nature in any unauthorized manner or to
achieve personal gain.

In recognition of my obligation to my employer I shall:

• Make every effort to ensure that I have the most current knowledge and that the proper
expertise is available when needed.
• Avoid conflict of interest and insure that my employer is aware of any potential conflicts.
• Present a fair, honest, and objective viewpoint.
• Protect the proper interests of my employer at all times.
• Protect the privacy and confidentiality of all information entrusted to me.
• Not misrepresent or withhold information that is germane to the situation.
• Not attempt to use the resources of my employer for personal gain or for any purpose
without proper approval.
• Not exploit the weakness of a computer system for personal gain or personal satisfaction.

 The future of the networked economy:

The concept of money is known since the dawn of civilization, and probably emerged as bartering type
arrangements took too much time and effort, also giving more mobility to who held it.

Electronics are all around us and part of every aspect of our life. We trust our devices fully, we store all our
saving in digital bank accounts, we rely on automatic braking computers in our vehicles to reduce braking
time and have pacemakers to regulate our heartbeats to live longer. Electronics saw a transformation in the
past century from the analog vacuum tubes to solid state digital circuits, impact individuals, organizations
and society.
 :

As McAdam (1999) pointed out in his article “The future of digital is analog” a while ago, led us to explore
the possibilities of how analog computing can impact today’s digitalized network economy based on
digitally stored money - currency information and blockchain technology.

As digital money is part of our life now, we all would like to know what will be the future money, will it be
still relevant, what this new value will look like and how it may transform organizations, society and
individuals from a network thinking perspective.

Future of digital computers

Quantum computing is knocking on our doors, while it is not true analog computing, it is very close to it,
and the first quantum computer designed for commercial use was announced this year as the IBM Q
System One. While this offers only 20 quantum bits, and not the 50 expected by researchers to achieve
quantum supremacy, it won’t take a long time to do so (Aron, 2019).

This is an important achievement as in nature many systems rely on both analog and digital regimes, the
simplest example would be a tree that a network of roots, where it inputs nutrients while its outputs leave
and seeds, adapting it’s functions nicely in time to the current season. When is it cut down, we found out
that it counted time digitally as we can count the rings on it’s trunk. Dyson (2019) emphasizes that humans
will retain control as long as is transformation between the differences in space and differences in time in
digital computing require programming, however we don’t understand how but analog computers do
mediate information between the spatial structure and it’s behavior over time and they do this by learning
to control their own behavior and the environment around it. He compares this to today’s networked traffic
monitoring apps, where while no one is actually in control, the flow of the traffic is redirected and traffic
jams are solved, coming to the conclusion that analog computing complexity is given by the setup of the
network and that is possible to build combined analog and digital systems without fully understanding it, if
it starts to behave intelligently.

Economic implications of analog computing

All our personal and financial data that is stored and transactions made through public or private networks
today rely on cryptography. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin are based on cryptographic keys. But all these
cryptographic methods rely on mathematical theory and digital computer science practices with the
assumption that such algorithms and their keys are hard to break, in other words they are not feasible to
break as it will require a huge computing power. The huge computing power here means either cost
prohibitive supercomputers needed to break such a code which will take considerably more financial
 :

resources than the gains obtained with the breaking of the core, or with regular computer it will take such a
long time, that the finding the key in the end will make it long expired.

While access to a quantum computer is quite costly yet, Shor(1994) defined an highly efficient algorithm
that can be used to break such cryptographic keys with the use of quantum computers providing
exponentially shorter time than digital computing. It is just a matter of time when cyber criminals will start
using quantum computers to gain virtual assets that may lead to a total collapse of the global financial
systems. This issue was already recognized, Kiktenko et al(2018) proposed a quantum-safe blockchain
platform, this won’t solve centrally stored financial information, and certainly won’t protect financial
transactions. The first question is what will happen if criminal organizations will start breaking such
centrally stored banking information, will this start a chain reaction and lead to a failed global banking
system?

A complete transformation is expected to happen in the networked economy by the introduction of

quantum computing, as it will be able to quickly and efficiently do stock market predictions, portfolio
optimization with the help of quantum machine learning and perform risk analysis according to Orus et al
(2019). There is a trend towards a globalized economy and global governance, not necessary towards a
single global currency, but a basket based on the US Dollar, the Euro and the Chinese Yuan in a cashless
world. The second question is if a few global companies will become to dominate the stock and currency
markets, can fail one currency to gain on the others?

There is no doubt applications of analog computing on our digital finances can be considered an emergent
phenomena, so one approach answering these questions can be to consider Bonabeau(2002)’s agent based
modelling. As he proposes, such a model should be built from bottom up, so this leads us to identify an
agent in this model as the individuals most affected by changes occurred in the financial world. It’s not the
CEO’s of the few global companies who will take home astonishing bonuses, but the myriad of ordinary
people who will see their life savings or investments in funds disappear overnight. One thing is certain
without needing to model it, that most people will lose faith in fiat currencies backed up by governments,
so there will be a need for something new, instead of going back to pure bartering.

As O’Driscoll (2018) argues, crypto-currencies are seen by governments as financial investments rather
than a rival monetary system, also expressing his concern about the volatility exceeding the gold’s market
price. According to Eichengreen (1985)’s book governments have abandoned the gold and silver standards
exactly because they were not able to create money out of “thin air” in crisis situations if the money needed
to be backed up by a commodity. And looking at the side effects of these are also obvious: the oversupply
of money created in this way led to over-consumption effectively being responsible for the environmental
 :

issues we are facing today on a global level (Whillians & Dunn, 2014). So, what would be the next
currency that won’t need to be back up by a commodity and it’s not created out of “thin air”? What will
people consider as value?

Value in crisis

An excellent example of a how a society can live without money was shown by the Greek economic crisis
in 2009, when organizations and individuals bank accounts were frozen, severely limiting the amount of
money each could use. To understand why it had such an impact on Greece, let’s look back a bit in history.
The thousand years old Confucianist guanxi still present in modern day China was brought into Eastern
Europe by the Ottoman occupation (Mosca, 2010).

As Stoica (2012) explained, the quanxi’s equivalent in Romania is the P.C.R., an acronym from the words
‘Pile’ ~ file, the tool used to smooth out objects, ‘Cunostinte’ – acquaintances; ‘Relatii’ – relations. While
the acronym is the same as the socialist party name that ruled before the fall of the communism, it survived
it and it is today the base of what we call corruption. Romania having its own currency managed to pass the
world economic crisis with inflation.

In Greece, while it’s described as “Volema” - narcissism, “Meso” - mediator, “Rousfeti” - clientelism,
“Ohaderfismos” - live for today leading to massive tax avoidance led Greeks to the crisis and made them
reflect back to their values. Because they were using Euro as the currency, could not use inflation as a tool
to get out of the crisis situation. Rapid changes that needed to be made in the society were researched by
Chalari(2012) and identified as values as meritocracy, justice, transparency, education and health within a
well organized state. The research identified the importance of individual reflexion, how individuals
recognized the importance of their own actions or inaction would affect the entire society who they started
to consider as their family, critically evaluating it to consider personal improvement in order to disrupt their
society’s bad habits and individualist thinking to the good of the whole.

These family relations, the Confucian filial piety, or the way to realize one’s ethical ideals through means
of respect for family extending the concept to the entire society as a network of relations, the guanxi
became less important with the appearance of global department stores and supermarkets as Hsiung (2013)
researched. From this we can conclude the opposite as well: in the event of losing faith in fiat currencies,
the globalized network of supermarkets and stores selling mostly useless goods will disappear. Family
relations will again become important, without which survival will become hard. And why in a westernizes
society we don’t care more about our family or treat society as our family? Because this would take a lot of
or time, our time is money.
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Time as money

Let’s not forget that even in current organizations people are paid by the hour. However it was
demonstrated that this practice of placing a price on time impairs individuals' ability to derive happiness
from pleasurable experiences (DeVoe & House, 2011). The number of hours people work remained more
or less constant in the past decades, getting paid for your time made individuals feel less environmentally
responsible (Whillians & Dunn, 2014). So today’s globalized society’s over-consumption, surrounding
ourselves with possessions it does not brings individual happiness, and it also heavily impacts the
environment, and this mainly happens because of fiat currencies made out of “thin air”, cheap money is
easily available flooding the markets. No wonder that in today’s world most won’t find it pleasurable to
work for their employers as they are paid for their time, and they use this payment to get a false sense of
happiness. A study made by Mogilner and Norton (2016) showed that individuals who focus more in their
time than on their money, spending time or money on others rather than on themselves, spending money
for new experiences rather than possessions are happier.

Implication for organizations

Now it is clear why most feel unhappy for working for global corporations, as individuals don’t feel it as
family, and they do it just for getting payment for their time. In case of a total fail of the centralized
banking systems, fiat currencies will disappear overnight, governments may fail. What remains are product
or service organizations with their stock or potential. Following the “future of digital is analog” we’ll
explore the “the future of fiat money is bartering”. Bartering was replaced with coins and banknotes as we
humans have the capacity to believe in fictions, aided by our complex communication system, as it was less
time consuming to exchange this fictious money. Bartering thus never disappeared, but an intermediary
medium intervened, money that could be stored and used later. So what if we lose faith in money? What we
have now what our ancestors did not had is a complex global communication network that makes
transaction possible almost instantly, and we have the blockchain technology that removes the need of a
3rd party mediation or supervision.

A decentralized quantum safe blockchain bartering mechanism may be a solution, organizations may start
exchanging goods and services. A simple scenario would be the following Organization A produces
Product X, but it will need Product Y for this. A service Organization B may help find Organization C that
produces Product Y, also helping selling Product X, and will do these to obtain a small percentage for
Product X and Product Y. This is also scalable, so Organization A may pay employees based on
meritocracy in a small percentages of Product X , Organization B either in Product X or Y. Organization D
 :

will help transporting the goods and obtain a small percentage of the products when delivered, same for
Organization E for storing goods. Gold and silver will remain commodities. Transparency of service
organizations will assure that both individuals and other organizations will get best value.

As advantages of such a bartering system we can see the following: the complex problems of today’s
monetary system will disappear. Products will be produced to just meet the need of the society as there is
no possibility to store such commodities. This will also reduce the chance of concentration of economic
power to the top 1%. Waste will be reduced as natural and human resources will be used just to meet the
needs. The blockchain applied to a bartering system will reduce the problems traditional bartering systems
had: it will reduce the time and effort to find someone to exchange your goods with as the network will
give a higher possibility of coincidence of wants. The absence of a common measure of value like fiat
currencies will create a barter system when all the products in the world will be expressed in every other
good, an exchange rate that was hard to be tracked before the industrial age. The lack of divisibility of big
commodities will create communities that will hold part of a product, e.g. if a village needs a small
hydroelectric power plant each can contribute, leading to more decentralized communities. Storing wealth
won’t happen for products that will decrease their value over time, fashionable products may cease to exist,
individuals will store product that they will actually need, organizations will stock commodities that they
think they will use reducing waste. The banking system and the insurance industry will transform to solve
the issue of future payments in a bartering society. Transportation of goods in a barter system will reduce
pollution as it will be more convenient to exchange local products than to transport them long distances,
especially for perishable or live products. Global pollution will also be reduced if cryptocurrency mining
will disappear as there will be no need for an intermediary currency.

Ikeda & Hamid (2018) researched such a system and it’s impact on society, offering examples of some
already established companies for a peer-to-peer energy sharing as Power Ledger, insurance industry
startup InsureETH for travel delay insurance based on smart contracts. They gave a solution as a peer-to-
peer global barter web called Mariana, to give the next step to capitalism today to evaluate products
multidirectionally, where the mining process from cryptocurrencies is replaced with something that
resembles to an auction: a block is added to the original chain when a barter agreement is reached.
However, they identify the problem of logistics, as the logistics industry has hubs that can be overloaded,
as the current infrastructure is prepared mostly for one direction deliveries. In their view capitalism will
evolve to a new stage when one can pay taxes by producing electricity with photovoltaic cells on their
houses, because bartering is a very old decentralized system and applying blockchain technology to it will
be natural.
 :

Implication for individuals

We saw that being paid by the hour is not the best solution. In a peer-to-peer blockchain based transparent
barter economy individuals getting paid in products or services that they can exchange will be able to
assess, compare their earnings to other similar individuals. While further research will be needed on this,
the assumption would be that job market can be also transformed to a blockchain based smart contracts, so
each individual will be able to decide where and what will work the next period, and if he/she wants to
work, or it has enough resources stored for now. This way each individual can decide if they want to spend
more time with their family, focus on their personal development, increasing their happiness. There are
already companies like StartMonday, who try to apply blockchain technology solution to the job market
(InvestorIdeas.com,2018) so it’s just a matter of time until this will be adopted, however there are no
details on how such jobs will look like, how can smart contracts for it be stored in blockhains, how
individual’s time can be introduced in this equation.

Conclusions

We saw that the rapid advancements of quantum computing and AI will transform the financial world as
we knew it, also affecting our belief in the fictional fiat currencies. Bartering systems are still existing
today and will be increasingly popular in the future of the networked economy. Real values of society as
ancient social networking systems did not completely disappear, it accentuates in crisis situations, but deep
inside we all know that we would need to spend more time with families, relatives and acquaintances.
Research shows that the current capitalism based on fiat currencies does not work in our best interest in
terms of happiness, more, we are being paid for our time also reduces our environmental responsibility. In a
world without fiat currencies and centralized institutions a peer-to-peer block-chained barter-based
economy will be a the solution that will lead to a better society producing less waste, happy individuals,
new industry sectors emerging, existing ones transforming, others disappearing.

Further studies would be needed if individuals time could be bartered for in such a blockchain system, or if
we should base our job market more on meritocracy defined in smart contracts involving the time factor.

HTML:- There are four required tags in HTML. These are html, title, head and body. The table below
shows you the opening and closing tag, a description and an example. These are the tags you put at the
beginning and end of an HTML file.

What is HTML?

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language

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 HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages

 HTML describes the structure of a Web page
 HTML consists of a series of elements
 HTML elements tell the browser how to display the content
 HTML elements label pieces of content such as "this is a heading", "this is a paragraph", "this is a
link", etc.

A Simple HTML Document

!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Page Title</title>
</head>
<body>

<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>

o/p:

My First Heading

My first paragraph.

Example Explained

 The <!DOCTYPE html> declaration defines that this document is an HTML5 document
 :

 The <html> element is the root element of an HTML page

 The <head> element contains meta information about the HTML page
 The <title> element specifies a title for the HTML page (which is shown in the browser's title bar or
in the page's tab)
 The <body> element defines the document's body, and is a container for all the visible contents,
such as headings, paragraphs, images, hyperlinks, tables, lists, etc.
 The <h1> element defines a large heading
 The <p> element defines a paragraph

What is an HTML Element?

An HTML element is defined by a start tag, some content, and an end tag:

<tagname> Content goes here... </tagname>

The HTML element is everything from the start tag to the end tag:

<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>

Start tag Element content End tag

<h1> My First Heading </h1>

<p> My first paragraph. </p>

<br> none

Web Browsers
The purpose of a web browser (Chrome, Edge, Firefox, Safari) is to read HTML documents and display them correctly.

A browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses them to determine how to display the documen
 :

HTML Page Structure

Below is a visualization of an HTML page structure:

:
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Solution:

IT Infrastructure Management
MBA-II nd Sem
Section A
Que1. Explain in brief the meaning of the following
(A)Application Programming Interface:-
An API defines data structures and subroutine calls that extend existing applications with new features. They are also
used to build new applications on top of other software components. On the web, APIs make it possible to integrate
apps with services such as Google Maps and Facebook. Some APIs support network programming. Network
programming is a type of software development for applications that connect and communicate over computer
networks, including the internet. Network APIs provide entry points to protocols and reusable software libraries.
Network APIs support web browsers, web databases, and many mobile apps. They are widely supported across many
programming languages and operating systems.
APIs and Socket Programming:
Traditional network programming followed a client-server model. The primary APIs used for client-server
networking were implemented in socket libraries : built into operating systems. For example, Berkeley sockets and
Windows Sockets (Winsock) APIs were the two primary standards for socket programming for many years
Remote Procedure Calls
RPC APIs extend basic network programming techniques by adding the capability for applications to invoke
functions on remote devices instead of only sending messages to them. With the explosion of growth on the web,
XMLRPC has emerged as a popular mechanism for RPC.
Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP)
SOAP was developed in the late 1990s as a network protocol using XML as its message format and Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) as its transport. SOAP generated a loyal following of web services programmers and
became widely used for enterprise applications.
Representational State Transfer (REST) :
REST is another programming model that supports web services. Like SOAP, REST APIs use HTTP, but instead of
XML, REST applications often use a Javascript Object Notation (JSON). REST and SOAP differ in their approaches
to state management and security, both key considerations for network programmers. Mobile apps may or may not
use network APIs, but ones that do often use REST.
The Future of APIs:
Both SOAP and REST continue to be actively used for the development of new web services. Being a newer
technology than SOAP, REST is more likely to evolve and produce other offshoots of API development. : Operating
systems have also evolved to support the many new Network API technologies. In modern operating systems such as
Windows 10, for example, sockets continue to be a core API, with HTTP and other additional support layered on top
for RESTful style network programming. As is often the case in computer fields, newer technologies tend to roll out
faster than old ones become obsolete. Look for interesting new API developments to happen especially in the areas
of cloud computing and the Internet of Things (IoT), where the characteristics of devices and their usage models are
different from traditional network programming environments.
API stands for application programming interface. APIs are the little pieces of code that make it possible for digital
devices, software applications, and data servers to talk with each other, and they’re the essential backbone of so
many services we now rely on. API is an application that we use every day. In an internet-connected world, web and
mobile applications are designed for humans to use, while APIs are designed for other digital systems and
applications to use. Websites and APIs both do the same things, like return data, content, images, video, and other
information. But APIs don’t return all the details that are needed to make things look pretty for the human eye—you
only get the raw data and other machine-readable information needed behind the scenes to put the resources being
delivered to work, with very little assistance from a human.
(B)Decision Support System:-
 :

What is a decision support system (DSS)?

A decision support system (DSS) is a computer program application used to improve a company's decision-
making capabilities. It analyzes large amounts of data and presents an organization with the best possible
options available.

Decision support systems bring together data and knowledge from different areas and sources to provide users
with information beyond the usual reports and summaries. This is intended to help people make informed
decisions.

Typical information a decision support application might gather and present include the following:

 comparative sales figures between one week and the next;

 projected revenue figures based on new product sales assumptions; and

 the consequences of different decisions.

A decision support system is an informational application as opposed to an operational application.

Informational applications provide users with relevant information based on a variety of data sources to support
better-informed decision-making. Operational applications, by contrast, record the details of business
transactions, including the data required for the decision-support needs of a business.

Decision support system components

A typical DSS consists of three different parts: knowledge database, software and user interface.

Knowledge base. A knowledge base is an integral part of a decision support system database, containing
information from both internal and external sources. It is a library of information related to particular subjects
and is the part of a DSS that stores information used by the system's reasoning engine to determine a course of
action.

Learn about knowledge base uses in customer service and call centers.

Software system. The software system is composed of model management systems. A model is a simulation of
a real-world system with the goal of understanding how the system works and how it can be improved.
Organizations use models to predict how outcomes will change with different adjustments to the system.

For example, models can be helpful for understanding systems that are too complicated, too expensive or too
 :

dangerous to fully explore in real life. That's the idea behind computer simulations used for scientific research,
engineering tests, weather forecasting and many other applications.

Models can also be used to represent and explore systems that don't yet exist, like a proposed new technology, a
planned factory or a business's supply chain. Businesses also use models to predict the outcomes of different
changes to a system -- such as policies, risks and regulations -- to help make business decisions.

User interface. The user interface enables easy system navigation. The primary goal of the decision support
system's user interface is to make it easy for the user to manipulate the data that is stored on it. Businesses can
use the interface to evaluate the effectiveness of DSS transactions for the end users. DSS interfaces include
simple windows, complex menu-driven interfaces and command-line interfaces.

Intelligent decision support system (IDSS)

Users can also bake artificial intelligence (AI) into decision support systems. Called intelligent
decision support systems (IDSS), the AI mines and processes large amounts of data to get insights
and make recommendations for better decision-making. It does this by analyzing multiple sources of
data and identifying patterns, trends and associations to emulate human decision-making capabilities.

Designed to act similar to a human consultant, an IDSS gathers and analyzes data to support
decision-makers by identifying and troubleshooting issues, and providing and evaluating possible
solutions. The AI component of the DSS emulates human capabilities as closely as possible, while
more efficiently processing and analyzing information as a computer system.

The IDSS may include advanced capabilities such as a knowledge base, machine learning, data
mining and a user interface. Examples of IDSS implementations include flexible or smart
manufacturing systems, intelligent marketing decision support systems and medical diagnostic
systems.

Types of decision support systems

Decision support systems can be broken down into categories, each based on their primary sources
of information.

Data-driven DSS

A data-driven DSS is a computer program that makes decisions based on data from internal
databases or external databases. Typically, a data-driven DSS uses data mining techniques to
 :

discern trends and patterns, enabling it to predict future events. Businesses often use data-driven
DSSes to help make decisions about inventory, sales and other business processes. Some are used
to help make decisions in the public sector, such as predicting the likelihood of future criminal
behavior.

Model-driven DSS

Built on an underlying decision model, model-driven decision support systems are customized
according to a predefined set of user requirements to help analyze different scenarios that meet these
requirements. For example, a model-driven DSS may assist with scheduling or developing financial
statements.

Communication-driven and group DSS

A communication-driven and group decision support system uses a variety of communication tools --
such as email, instant messaging or voice chat -- to allow more than one person to work on the same
task. The goal behind this type of DSS is to increase collaboration between the users and the system
and to improve the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the system.

Knowledge-driven DSS

In this type of decision support system, the data that drives the system resides in a knowledge base
that is continuously updated and maintained by a knowledge management system. A knowledge-
driven DSS provides information to users that is consistent with a company's business processes and
knowledge.

Document-driven DSS

A document-driven DSS is a type of information management system that uses documents to retrieve
data. Document-driven DSSes enable users to search webpages or databases, or find specific search
terms. Examples of documents accessed by a document-driven DSS include policies and procedures,
meeting minutes and corporate records.

(C) Analytical Processing System(OLAP):

OLAP stands for On-Line Analytical Processing. OLAP is a classification of software technology which authorizes
analysts, managers, and executives to gain insight into information through fast, consistent, interactive access in a
wide variety of possible views of data that has been transformed from raw information to reflect the real
dimensionality of the enterprise as understood by the clients.

OLAP implement the multidimensional analysis of business information and support the capability for complex
estimations, trend analysis, and sophisticated data modeling. It is rapidly enhancing the essential foundation for
 :

Intelligent Solutions containing Business Performance Management, Planning, Budgeting, Forecasting, Financial
Documenting, Analysis, Simulation-Models, Knowledge Discovery, and Data Warehouses Reporting. OLAP enables
end-clients to perform ad hoc analysis of record in multiple dimensions, providing the insight and understanding
they require for better decision making.

Who uses OLAP and Why?

OLAP applications are used by a variety of the functions of an organization.

o Budgeting
o Activity-based costing
o Financial performance analysis
o And financial modeling

Sales and Marketing

o Sales analysis and forecasting

o Market research analysis
o Promotion analysis
o Customer analysis
o Market and customer segmentation

Production

o Production planning
o Defect analysis

OLAP cubes have two main purposes. The first is to provide business users with a data model more intuitive to them
than a tabular model. This model is called a Dimensional Model.

The second purpose is to enable fast query response that is usually difficult to achieve using tabular models.

How OLAP Works?

Fundamentally, OLAP has a very simple concept. It pre-calculates most of the queries that are typically very hard to
execute over tabular databases, namely aggregation, joining, and grouping. These queries are calculated during a
process that is usually called 'building' or 'processing' of the OLAP cube. This process happens overnight, and by the
time end users get to work - data will have been updated.
 :

OLAP Guidelines (Dr.E.F.Codd Rule)

Dr E.F. Codd, the "father" of the relational model, has formulated a list of 12 guidelines and requirements as the basis
for selecting OLAP systems:

1) Multidimensional Conceptual View: This is the central features of an OLAP system. By needing a
multidimensional view, it is possible to carry out methods like slice and dice.

2) Transparency: Make the technology, underlying information repository, computing operations, and the dissimilar
nature of source data totally transparent to users. Such transparency helps to improve the efficiency and productivity
of the users.

3) Accessibility: It provides access only to the data that is actually required to perform the particular analysis, present
a single, coherent, and consistent view to the clients. The OLAP system must map its own logical schema to the
heterogeneous physical data stores and perform any necessary transformations. The OLAP operations should be
 :

Fast

It defines which the system targeted to deliver the most feedback to the client within about five seconds, with the
elementary analysis taking no more than one second and very few taking more than 20 seconds.

Analysis

It defines which the method can cope with any business logic and statistical analysis that is relevant for the function
and the user, keep it easy enough for the target client. Although some preprogramming may be needed we do not
think it acceptable if all application definitions have to be allow the user to define new Adhoc calculations as part of
the analysis and to document on the data in any desired method, without having to program so we excludes
products (like Oracle Discoverer) that do not allow the user to define new Adhoc calculation as part of the analysis
and to document on the data in any desired product that do not allow adequate end user-oriented calculation
flexibility.

Share

It defines which the system tools all the security requirements for understanding and, if multiple write connection is
needed, concurrent update location at an appropriated level, not all functions need customer to write data back, but
for the increasing number which does, the system should be able to manage multiple updates in a timely, secure
manner.
 :

Multidimensional

This is the basic requirement. OLAP system must provide a multidimensional conceptual view of the data, including
full support for hierarchies, as this is certainly the most logical method to analyze business and organizations.

Information

The system should be able to hold all the data needed by the applications. Data sparsity should be handled in an
efficient manner.

The main characteristics of OLAP are as follows:

1. Multidimensional conceptual view: OLAP systems let business users have a dimensional and logical view of
the data in the data warehouse. It helps in carrying slice and dice operations.
2. Multi-User Support: Since the OLAP techniques are shared, the OLAP operation should provide normal
database operations, containing retrieval, update, adequacy control, integrity, and security.
3. Accessibility: OLAP acts as a mediator between data warehouses and front-end. The OLAP operations
should be sitting between data sources (e.g., data warehouses) and an OLAP front-end.
4. Storing OLAP results: OLAP results are kept separate from data sources.
5. Uniform documenting performance: Increasing the number of dimensions or database size should not
significantly degrade the reporting performance of the OLAP system.
6. OLAP provides for distinguishing between zero values and missing values so that aggregates are computed
correctly.
7. OLAP system should ignore all missing values and compute correct aggregate values.
8. OLAP facilitate interactive query and complex analysis for the users.
9. OLAP allows users to drill down for greater details or roll up for aggregations of metrics along a single
business dimension or across multiple dimension.
10. OLAP provides the ability to perform intricate calculations and comparisons.
11. OLAP presents results in a number of meaningful ways, including charts and graphs.

Benefits of OLAP

OLAP holds several benefits for businesses: -

1. OLAP helps managers in decision-making through the multidimensional record views that it is efficient in
providing, thus increasing their productivity.
2. OLAP functions are self-sufficient owing to the inherent flexibility support to the organized databases.
3. It facilitates simulation of business models and problems, through extensive management of analysis-
capabilities.
4. In conjunction with data warehouse, OLAP can be used to support a reduction in the application backlog,
faster data retrieval, and reduction in query drag.
 :

Motivations for using OLAP

1) Understanding and improving sales: For enterprises that have much products and benefit a number of channels
for selling the product, OLAP can help in finding the most suitable products and the most famous channels. In some
methods, it may be feasible to find the most profitable users. For example, considering the telecommunication
industry and considering only one product, communication minutes, there is a high amount of record if a company
want to analyze the sales of products for every hour of the day (24 hours), difference between weekdays and
weekends (2 values) and split regions to which calls are made into 50 region.

2) Understanding and decreasing costs of doing business: Improving sales is one method of improving a
business, the other method is to analyze cost and to control them as much as suitable without affecting sales. OLAP
can assist in analyzing the costs related to sales. In some methods, it may also be feasible to identify expenditures
which produce a high return on investments (ROI). For example, recruiting a top salesperson may contain high costs,
but the revenue generated by the salesperson may justify the investment.

(D)Data Visualization:
Data visualization is the graphical representation of information and data. By using visual elements like charts, graphs, and
maps, data visualization tools provide an accessible way to see and understand trends, outliers, and patterns in data. Additionally,
it provides an excellent way for employees or business owners to present data to non-technical audiences without confusion.

In the world of Big Data, data visualization tools and technologies are essential to analyze massive amounts of information and
make data-driven decisions.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of

data visualization?
Something as simple as presenting data in graphic format may seem to have no downsides. But sometimes data can be
misrepresented or misinterpreted when placed in the wrong style of data visualization. When choosing to create a data
visualization, it’s best to keep both the advantages and disadvantages in mind.

Advantages
Our eyes are drawn to colors and patterns. We can quickly identify red from blue, and squares from circles. Our culture is visual,
including everything from art and advertisements to TV and movies. Data visualization is another form of visual art that grabs
our interest and keeps our eyes on the message. When we see a chart, we quickly see trends and outliers. If we can see
something, we internalize it quickly. It’s storytelling with a purpose. If you’ve ever stared at a massive spreadsheet of data and
couldn’t see a trend, you know how much more effective a visualization can be.

Some other advantages of data visualization include:

 Easily sharing information.

 Interactively explore opportunities.

 Visualize patterns and relationships.

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Disadvantages

While there are many advantages, some of the disadvantages may seem less obvious. For example, when viewing a visualization
with many different datapoints, it’s easy to make an inaccurate assumption. Or sometimes the visualization is just designed
wrong so that it’s biased or confusing.

Some other disadvantages include:

 Biased or inaccurate information.

 Correlation doesn’t always mean causation.

 Core messages can get lost in translation.

Why data visualization is important

The importance of data visualization is simple: it helps people see, interact with, and better understand data. Whether simple or
complex, the right visualization can bring everyone on the same page, regardless of their level of expertise.

It’s hard to think of a professional industry that doesn’t benefit from making data more understandable. Every STEM field
benefits from understanding data—and so do fields in government, finance, marketing, history, consumer goods, service
industries, education, sports, and so on.

While we’ll always wax poetically about data visualization (you’re on the Tableau website, after all) there
are practical, real-life applications that are undeniable. And, since visualization is so prolific, it’s also one
of the most useful professional skills to develop. The better you can convey your points visually, whether
in a dashboard or a slide deck, the better you can leverage that information. The concept of the citizen data
scientist is on the rise. Skill sets are changing to accommodate a data-driven world. It is increasingly
valuable for professionals to be able to use data to make decisions and use visuals to tell stories of when
data informs the who, what, when, where, and how.

While traditional education typically draws a distinct line between creative storytelling and technical
analysis, the modern professional world also values those who can cross between the two: data
visualization sits right in the middle of analysis and visual storytelling.

Data visualization and big data

As the “age of Big Data” kicks into high gear, visualization is an increasingly key tool to make sense of the
trillions of rows of data generated every day. Data visualization helps to tell stories by curating data into a
form easier to understand, highlighting the trends and outliers. A good visualization tells a story, removing
the noise from data and highlighting useful information.

However, it’s not simply as easy as just dressing up a graph to make it look better or slapping on the “info”
part of an infographic. Effective data visualization is a delicate balancing act between form and function.
 :

The plainest graph could be too boring to catch any notice or it make tell a powerful point; the most
stunning visualization could utterly fail at conveying the right message or it could speak volumes. The data
and the visuals need to work together, and there’s an art to combining great analysis with great storytelling.

Of course, one of the best ways to understand data visualization is to see it. What a crazy concept! With
public data visualization galleries and data everywhere online, it can be overwhelming to know where to
start. Tableau’s own public gallery shows off loads of visualizations made with the free Tableau Public
tool, we feature some common starter business dashboards as usable templates, and Viz of the Day collects
some of the best community creations. We’ve also collected 10 of the best examples of data
visualization of all time, with examples that map historical conquests, analyze film scripts, reveal hidden
causes of mortality, and more.

Different types of visualizations

When you think of data visualization, your first thought probably immediately goes to simple bar graphs or
pie charts. While these may be an integral part of visualizing data and a common baseline for many data
graphics, the right visualization must be paired with the right set of information. Simple graphs are only the
tip of the iceberg. There’s a whole selection of visualization methods to present data in effective and
interesting ways.

General Types of Visualizations:

 Chart: Information presented in a tabular, graphical form with data displayed along two axes. Can
be in the form of a graph, diagram, or map. Learn more.

 Table: A set of figures displayed in rows and columns. Learn more.

 Graph: A diagram of points, lines, segments, curves, or areas that represents certain variables in
comparison to each other, usually along two axes at a right angle.

 Geospatial: A visualization that shows data in map form using different shapes and colors to show
the relationship between pieces of data and specific locations. Learn more.

 Infographic: A combination of visuals and words that represent data. Usually uses charts or
diagrams.
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 Dashboards: A collection of visualizations and data displayed in one place to help with analyzing
and presenting data. Learn more.

More specific examples

 Area Map: A form of geospatial visualization, area maps are used to show specific values set over
a map of a country, state, county, or any other geographic location. Two common types of area
maps are choropleths and isopleths. Learn more.

 Bar Chart: Bar charts represent numerical values compared to each other. The length of the bar
represents the value of each variable. Learn more.

 Box-and-whisker Plots: These show a selection of ranges (the box) across a set measure (the
bar). Learn more.

 Bullet Graph: A bar marked against a background to show progress or performance against a goal,
denoted by a line on the graph. Learn more.

 Gantt Chart: Typically used in project management, Gantt charts are a bar chart depiction of
timelines and tasks. Learn more.

 Heat Map: A type of geospatial visualization in map form which displays specific data values as
different colors (this doesn’t need to be temperatures, but that is a common use). Learn more.

 Highlight Table: A form of table that uses color to categorize similar data, allowing the viewer to
read it more easily and intuitively. Learn more.

 Histogram: A type of bar chart that split a continuous measure into different bins to help analyze
the distribution. Learn more.

 Pie Chart: A circular chart with triangular segments that shows data as a percentage of a
whole. Learn more.

 Treemap: A type of chart that shows different, related values in the form of rectangles nested
together. Learn more.

(E) Future of the networked Economy:

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access rights because ownership becomes increasingly marginal to business success and economic
progress.

Notable examples of the network economy model include the arms trafficking and the illegal drug trade.
Merchants participating in those markets cannot openly advertise their wares and participate in the open
market since that would attract the attention of law enforcement agencies. Instead they have to rely on a
network of people they are familiar with be it friends, relatives or fellow gang members. However, illicit
trade dynamics have recently shifted towards an open market model due to the emergence of Darknet
markets where merchants and buyers can easily communicate and post detailed product reviews and
descriptions while staying anonymous.

Section –B

Unit-1
Que1. What are the cyber security and crime related challenges faced by manager in recent times?
What are defenses counter them?

Ans:-

Today cyber security is the main component of the country's overall national security and economic
security strategies. In India, there are so many challenges related to cybersecurity. With the increase of the
cyber-attacks, every organization needs a security analyst who makes sure that their system is secured.
These security analysts face many challenges related to cyber security such as securing confidential data of
government organizations, securing the private organization servers, etc.

The recent important cyber security challenges are described below:

 :

1. Ransomware Evolution

Ransomware is a type of malware in which the data on a victim's computer is locked, and payment is
demanded before the ransomed data is unlocked. After successful payment, access rights returned to the
victim. Ransomware is the bane of cybersecurity, data professionals, IT, and executives.

Ransomware attacks are growing day by day in the areas of cybercrime. IT professionals and business
leaders need to have a powerful recovery strategy against the malware attacks to protect their organization.
It involves proper planning to recover corporate and customers' data and application as well as reporting
any breaches against the Notifiable Data Breaches scheme. Today's DRaaS solutions are the best defence
against the ransomware attacks. With DRaaS solutions method, we can automatically back up our files,
easily identify which backup is clean, and launch a fail-over with the press of a button when malicious
attacks corrupt our data.
 :

Cyber Security Risk Analysis

Risk analysis refers to the review of risks associated with the particular action or event. The risk analysis is applied to
information technology, projects, security issues and any other event where risks may be analysed based on a
quantitative and qualitative basis. Risks are part of every IT project and business organizations. The analysis of risk
should be occurred on a regular basis and be updated to identify new potential threats. The strategic risk analysis
helps to minimize the future risk probability and damage.

Enterprise and organization used risk analysis:

o To anticipates and reduce the effect of harmful results occurred from adverse events.
o To plan for technology or equipment failure or loss from adverse events, both natural and human-caused.
o To evaluate whether the potential risks of a project are balanced in the decision process when evaluating to
move forward with the project.
o To identify the impact of and prepare for changes in the enterprise environment.

Benefits of risk analysis

Every organization needs to understand about the risks associated with their information systems to effectively and
efficiently protect their IT assets. Risk analysis can help an organization to improve their security in many ways. These
are:

o Concerning financial and organizational impacts, it identifies, rate and compares the overall impact of risks
related to the organization.
o It helps to identify gaps in information security and determine the next steps to eliminate the risks of security.
o It can also enhance the communication and decision-making processes related to information security.
o It improves security policies and procedures as well as develop cost-effective methods for implementing
information security policies and procedures.
o It increases employee awareness about risks and security measures during the risk analysis process and
understands the financial impacts of potential security risks.

Steps in the risk analysis process

The basic steps followed by a risk analysis process are:

Conduct a risk assessment survey:

Getting the input from management and department heads is critical to the risk assessment process. The risk
assessment survey refers to begin documenting the specific risks or threats within each department.

Identify the risks:

This step is used to evaluate an IT system or other aspects of an organization to identify the risk related to software,
hardware, data, and IT employees. It identifies the possible adverse events that could occur in an organization such as
human error, flooding, fire, or earthquakes.

Analyse the risks:

 :

Once the risks are evaluated and identified, the risk analysis process should analyse each risk that will occur, as well as
determine the consequences linked with each risk. It also determines how they might affect the objectives of an IT
project.

Develop a risk management plan:

After analysis of the Risk that provides an idea about which assets are valuable and which threats will probably affect
the IT assets negatively, we would develop a plan for risk management to produce control recommendations that can
be used to mitigate, transfer, accept or avoid the risk.

Implement the risk management plan:

The primary goal of this step is to implement the measures to remove or reduce the analyses risks. We can remove or
reduce the risk from starting with the highest priority and resolve or at least mitigate each risk so that it is no longer a
threat.

Monitor the risks:

This step is responsible for monitoring the security risk on a regular basis for identifying, treating and managing risks
that should be an essential part of any risk analysis process.

Types of Risk Analysis

The essential number of distinct approaches related to risk analysis

Qualitative Risk Analysis

o The qualitative risk analysis process is a project management technique that prioritizes risk on the project by
assigning the probability and impact number. Probability is something a risk event will occur whereas impact
is the significance of the consequences of a risk event.
o The objective of qualitative risk analysis is to assess and evaluate the characteristics of individually identified
risk and then prioritize them based on the agreed-upon characteristics.
 :

o The assessing individual risk evaluates the probability that each risk will occur and effect on the project
objectives. The categorizing risks will help in filtering them out.
o Qualitative analysis is used to determine the risk exposure of the project by multiplying the probability and
impact.

Quantitative Risk Analysis

o The objectives of performing quantitative risk analysis process provide a numerical estimate of the overall
effect of risk on the project objectives.
o It is used to evaluate the likelihood of success in achieving the project objectives and to estimate
contingency reserve, usually applicable for time and cost.
o Quantitative analysis is not mandatory, especially for smaller projects. Quantitative risk analysis helps in
calculating estimates of overall project risk which is the main focus.

Que 2.What do you mean by Search Engine Optimization? what website ranking factors do
organization use as their strategy for search engine optimization? why the organic search listing are
more valuable paid search engine listing for more companies?

Ans: SEO stands for “search engine optimization.” In simple terms, SEO means the process of
improving your website to increase its visibility in Google, Microsoft Bing, and other search
engines whenever people search for:

 Products you sell.

 Services yoru provide.
 Information on topics in which you have deep expertise and/or experience.

The better visibility your pages have in search results, the more likely you are to be found and
clicked on. Ultimately, the goal of search engine optimization is to help attract website visitors
who will become customers, clients or an audience that keeps coming back.

What you’ll learn in this guide:

 How SEO differs from SEM and PPC

 Why SEO is important
 SEO types and specializations
 How SEO works
 How to learn SEO

How is SEO different from SEM and PPC?

SEM and PPC are two other common terms you will read about a lot here on Search Engine
Land and hear about in the larger search marketing community.
 :

 Featured snippets.
 Maps.
 Images.
 Videos.
 Top stories (news).
 People Also Ask.
 Carousels.

Another reason SEO is critical for brands and businesses: unlike other marketing channels, good
SEO work is sustainable. When a paid campaign ends, so does the traffic. Traffic from social
media traffic is at best unreliable – and a fraction of what it once was.

SEO is the foundation of holistic marketing, where everything your company does matters. Once
you understand what your users want, you can then implement that knowledge across your:

 Campaigns (paid and organic).

 Website content.
 Social media properties.

SEO is a channel that drives the traffic you need to achieve key business goals (e.g.,
conversions, visits, sales). It also builds trust – a website that ranks well is generally regarded as
authoritative or trustworthy, which are key elements Google wants to reward with better rankings.

Types of SEO
There are three types of SEO:

 Technical SEO: Optimizing the technical aspects of a website.

 On-site SEO: Optimizing the content on a website for users and search engines.
 Off-site SEO: Creating brand assets (e.g., people, marks, values, vision, slogans, catchphrases, colors) and
doing things that will ultimately enhance brand awareness and recognition (i.e., demonstrating and growing
its expertise, authority and trustworthiness) and demand generation.

You maintain 100% control over content and technical optimizations. That’s not always true with
off-site (you can’t control links from other sites or if platforms you rely on end up shutting down or
making a major change), but those activities are still a key part of this SEO trinity of success.

Imagine SEO as a sports team. You need both a strong offense and defense to win – and you
need fans (a.k.a., an audience). Think of technical optimization as your defense, content
optimization as your offense, and off-site optimization as ways to attract, engage and retain a
loyal fanbase.

Technical optimization
Optimizing the technical elements of a website is crucial and fundamental for SEO success.
 :

It all starts with architecture – creating a website that can be crawled and indexed by search
engines. As Gary Illyes, Google’s trends analyst, once put it in a Reddit AMA: “MAKE THAT
DAMN SITE CRAWLABLE.”

You want to make it easy for search engines to discover and access all of the content on your
pages (i.e., text, images, videos). What technical elements matter here: URL structure,
navigation, internal linking, and more.

Experience is also a critical element of technical optimization. Search engines stress the
importance of pages that load quickly and provide a good user experience. Elements such as
Core Web Vitals, mobile-friendliness and usability, HTTPS, and avoiding intrusive interstitials all
matter in technical SEO.

Another area of technical optimization is structured data (a.k.a., schema). Adding this code to
your website can help search engines better understand your content and enhance your
appearance in the search results.

Plus, web hosting services, CMS (content management system) and site security all play a role in
SEO.

Content optimization
In SEO, your content needs to be optimized for two primary audiences: people and search
engines. What this means is that you optimize the content your audience will see (what’s actually
on the page) as well as what search engines will see (the code).

The goal, always, is to publish helpful, high-quality content. You can do this through a
combination of understanding your audience’s wants and needs, data and guidance provided by
Google.

When optimizing content for people, you should make sure it:

 Covers relevant topics with which you have experience or expertise.

 Includes keywords people would use to find the content.
 Is unique or original.
 Is well-written and free of grammatical and spelling errors.
 Is up to date, containing accurate information.
 Includes multimedia (e.g., images, videos).
 Is better than your SERP competitors.
 Is readable – structured to make it easy for people to understand the information you’re sharing (think:
subheadings, paragraph length, use bolding/italics, ordered/unordered lists, reading level, etc.).

For search engines, some key content elements to optimize for are:

 Title tags
 :

 Meta description
 Header tags (H1-H6)
 Image alt text
 Open graph and Twitter Cards metadata

Off-site optimization
There are several activities that may not be “SEO” in the strictest sense, but nonetheless can
align with and help contribute indirectly to SEO success.

Link building (the process of acquiring links to a website) is the activity most associated with off-
site SEO. There can be great benefits (e.g., rankings, traffic) from getting a diverse number of
links pointing at your website from relevant, authoritative, trusted websites. Link quality beats link
quantity – and a large quantity of quality links is the goal.

And how do you get those links? There are a variety of website promotion methods that
synergize with SEO efforts. These include:

 Brand building and brand marketing: Techniques designed to boost recognition and reputation.
 PR: Public relations techniques designed to earn editorially-given links.
 Content marketing: Some popular forms include creating videos, ebooks, research studies, podcasts (or
being a guest on other podcasts) and guest posting (or guest blogging).
 Social media marketing and optimization: Claim your brand’s handle on any and all relevant platforms,
optimize it fully and share relevant content.
 Listing management: Claiming, verifying and optimizing the information on any platforms where information
about your company or website may be listed and found by searchers (e.g., directories, review sites, wikis).
 Ratings and reviews: Getting them, monitoring them and responding to them.

Generally, when talking about off-site, you’re talking about activities that are not going to directly
impact your ability to rank from a purely technical standpoint.

However, again, everything your brand does matters. You want your brand to be found anywhere
people may search for you. As such, some people have tried to rebrand “search engine
optimization” to actually mean “search experience optimization” or “search everywhere
optimization.”

SEO specialties
Search engine optimization also has a few subgenres. Each of these specialty areas is different
from “regular SEO” in its own way, generally requiring additional tactics and presenting different
challenges.

Five such SEO specialties include:

 Ecommerce SEO: Additional SEO elements include optimizing category pages, product pages, faceted
navigation, internal linking structures, product images, product reviews, schema and more.
 :

 Enterprise SEO: This is SEO on a massive scale. Typically this means dealing with a website (or multiple
websites/brands) with 1 million+ pages – or it may be based on the size of the organization (typically those
making millions or billions in revenue per year). Doing enterprise also typically means delays trying to get
SEO changes implemented by the dev team, as well as the involvement of multiple stakeholders.
 International SEO: This is global SEO for international businesses – doing SEO for multiregional or
multilingual websites – and optimizing for international search engines such as Baidu or Naver.
 Local SEO: Here, the goal is to optimize websites for visibility in local organic search engine results by
managing and obtaining reviews and business listings, among others.
 News SEO: With news, speed is of utmost importance – specifically making sure you get into Google’s index
as quickly as possible and appear in places such as Google Discover, Google’s Top Stories and Google
News. There’s a need to understand best practices for paywalls, section pages, news-specific structured
data, and more.

How does SEO work?

If you found this page via Google search, you likely searched Google for [what is seo] or [seo].

This guide is published on Search Engine Land, an authoritative website with great expertise on
and experience in the topic of SEO (we’ve been covering all SEO changes, big and small since
2006).

Originally published in 2010, our “what is SEO” page has earned a whopping 324,203 links.

Put simply, these factors (and others) have helped this guide earn a good reputation with search
engines, which has helped it rank in Position 1 for years. It has accumulated signals that
demonstrate it is authoritative and trustworthy – and therefore deserves to rank when someone
searches for SEO.

But let’s look at SEO more broadly. As a whole, SEO really works through a combination of:

 People: The person or team responsible for doing or ensuring that the strategic, tactical and operational
SEO work is completed.
 Processes: The actions taken to make the work more efficient.
 Technology: The platforms and tools used.
 Activities: The end product, or output.

Many other things factor into how SEO works. What follows is a high-level look at the most
important knowledge and process elements.

Six critical areas, in combination, make SEO work:

1. Understanding how search engines work

Simply, if you want people to find your business via search – on any platform – you need to
understand the technical processes behind how the engine works – and then make sure you are
providing all the right “signals” to influence that visibility.
 :

When talking about traditional web search engines like Google, there are four separate stages of
search:

 Crawling: Search engines use crawlers to discover pages on the web by following links and using sitemaps.
 Rendering: Search engines generate how the page will look using HTML, JavaScript and CSS information.
 Indexing: Search engines analyze the content and metadata of the pages it has discovered and add them to
a database (though there’s no guarantee every page on your website will be indexed).
 Ranking: Complex algorithms look at a variety of signals to determine whether a page is relevant and of
high-enough quality to show when searchers enter a query.

But optimizing for Google search is different from optimizing for search other platforms like
YouTube or Amazon.

Let’s take Facebook, for example, where factors such as engagement (Likes, comments, shares,
etc.) and who people are connected to matter. Then, on Twitter, signals like recency, interactions,
or the author’s credibility are important.

And further complicating things: search engines have added machine learning elements in order
to surface content – making it even harder to say “this” or “that” resulted in better or worse
performance.

2. Researching
Research is a key part of SEO. Some forms of research that will improve SEO performance
include:

 Audience research: It’s important to understand your target audience or market. Who are they (i.e., their
demographics and psychographics)? What are their pain points? What questions do they have that you can
answer?
 Keyword research: This process helps you identify and incorporate relevant and valuable search terms
people use into your pages – and understand how much demand and competition there is to rank for these
keywords.
 Competitor research: What are your competitors doing? What are their strengths and weaknesses? What
types of content are they publishing?
 Brand/business/client research: What are their goals – and how can SEO help them achieve those goals?
 Website research: A variety of SEO audits can uncover opportunities and issues on a website that are
preventing success in organic search. Some audits to consider: technical SEO, content, link profile and E-E-
A-T.
 SERP analysis: This will help you understand the search intent for a given query (e.g., is it commercial,
transactional, informational or navigational) and create content that is more likely to earn rankings or
visibility.
 :

3. Planning
An SEO strategy is your long-term action plan. You need to set goals – and a plan for how you
will reach them.

Think of it your SEO strategy as a roadmap. The path you take likely will change and evolve over
time – but the destination should remain clear and unchanged.

Your SEO plan may include things such as:

 Setting goals (e.g., OKRs, SMART) and expectations (i.e., timelines/milestones).

 Defining and aligning meaningful KPIs and metrics.
 Deciding how projects will be created and implemented (internal, external or a mix).
 Coordinating and communicating with internal and external stakeholders.
 Choosing and implementing tools/technology.
 Hiring, training and structuring a team.
 Setting a budget.
 Measuring and reporting on results.
 Documenting the strategy and process.

4. Creating and implementing

Once all the research is done, it’s time to turn ideas into action. That means:

 Creating new content: Advising your content team on what content needs to be created.
 Recommending or implementing changes or enhancements to existing pages: This
could include updating and improving the content, adding internal links, incorporating
keywords/topics/entities, or identifying other ways to optimize it further.
 Removing old, outdated or low-quality content: The types of content that aren’t ranking
well, driving converting traffic or helping you achieve your SEO goals.

5. Monitoring and maintaining

You need to know when something goes wrong or breaks on your website. Monitoring is critical.

You need to know if traffic drops to a critical page, pages become slow, unresponsive or fall out of the
index, your entire website goes offline, links break, or any other number of potential catastrophic issues.

6. Analyzing, assessing and reporting on performance

If you don’t measure SEO, you can’t improve it. To make data-driven decisions about SEO, you’ll need to
use:

 Website analytics: Set up and use tools (at minimum, free tools such as Google Analytics, Google Search
Console and Bing Webmaster Tools) to collect performance data.
 :

 Tools and platforms: There are many “all-in-one” platforms (or suites) that offer multiple tools, but you can
also choose to use only select SEO tools to track performance on specific tasks. Or, if you have the
resources and none of the tools on the market do exactly what you want, you can make your own tools.

After you’ve collected the data, you’ll need to report on progress. You can create reports using
software or manually.

Performance reporting should tell a story and be done at meaningful time intervals, typically
comparing to previous report periods (e.g., year over year). This will depend on the type of
website (typically, this will be monthly, quarterly, or some other interval),

SEO is ongoing
SEO never ends. Search engines, user behavior and your competitors are always changing.
Websites change and move (and break) over time. Content gets stale. Your processes should
improve and become more efficient.

Bottom line: There’s always something you can be monitoring, testing or improving. Or, as Bruce
Clay put it: SEO will only be done when Google stops changing things and all your competition
dies.

How to learn SEO

Now that you understand more about what SEO is and how it works – how can you learn more?

Reading (or, if you prefer, watching or listening to) the latest SEO news, research, best practices
and other developments should become one of your regular habits, whether it’s daily, weekly or
monthly. You should also invest in attending at least one or two events per year.

The expectations and behavior of searchers are constantly evolving, which means algorithms are
constantly changing to keep up. That, in combination with new breakthroughs in technology (look
no further than the explosive rise of ChatGPT in late 2022 and the sudden addition of generative
AI to search results in 2023).

Here are some trusted resources and tips to help you grow as an SEO professional.

Search Engine Land’s SEO resources

Search Engine Land has been covering SEO since 2006. In addition to news stories written by
our editorial staff, Search Engine Land publishes contributed articles from a diverse group of
subject matter experts featuring helpful SEO tips, tactics, trends and analysis.

We’re biased, but we highly suggest you sign up to receive Search Engine Land’s free email
newsletter featuring a roundup of the latest SEO news, and insights every weekday.

Search Engine Land also has multiple categories on topics dedicated to specific areas and
platforms which you may find helpful:
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Unit II

Que 4 What is strategic SWOT analysis? How do porter competitive forces model demonstrate that use
of IT can help organization in achieving competitive advantage?

Ans:

SWOT analysis is a framework for identifying and analyzing an organization's strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats. These words make up the SWOT acronym.

The primary goal of SWOT analysis is to increase awareness of the factors that go into making a
business decision or establishing a business strategy. To do this, SWOT analyzes the internal and
external environment and the factors that can impact the viability of a decision.

Businesses commonly use SWOT analysis, but it is also used by nonprofit organizations and, to a
lesser degree, individuals for personal assessment. SWOT is also used to assess initiatives, products
or projects. As an example, CIOs could use SWOT to help create a strategic business planning
template or perform a competitive analysis.

The SWOT framework is credited to Albert Humphrey, who tested the approach in the 1960s and
1970s at the Stanford Research Institute. SWOT analysis was originally

developed for business and based on data from Fortune 500 companies. It has been adopted by
organizations of all types as a brainstorming aid to making business decisions.

When and why should you do a SWOT analysis?

SWOT analysis is often used either at the start of, or as part of, a strategic planning process. The
framework is considered a powerful support for decision-making because it enables an organization
to uncover opportunities for success that were previously unarticulated. It also highlights threats
before they become overly burdensome.

SWOT analysis can identify a market niche in which a business has a competitive advantage. It can
also help individuals plot a career path that maximizes their strengths and alert them to threats that
could thwart success.
 :

 making investments in technologies, geographical locations or markets.

SWOT analysis is similar to PEST analysis, which stands for political, economic, social and technological.
PEST analysis lets organizations analyze external factors that affect its operations and competitiveness.

SWOT analysis pros and cons

Among the advantages of using a SWOT approach are the following:

 The analysis creates a visual representation of the factors that are most likely to impact whether the business,
project, initiative or individual can successfully achieve an objective.

 By involving experienced cross-discipline team members, a SWOT analysis can encourage many different
perspectives and approaches.

 Such diversity can allow a SWOT analysis to flesh out each element and expose creative ideas and
overlooked problems that might otherwise go unnoticed.

Although a SWOT snapshot is important for understanding the many dynamics that affect success, the analysis
does have limits, such as the following:

 The analysis may not include all relevant factors because some strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats can easily be overlooked or misunderstood.

 The input for each element can often be empirical or subjective and give a skewed perspective.

 Because it only captures factors at a particular point in time and doesn't allow for how those factors could
change over time, the insight SWOT offers can have a limited shelf life.

Competitive Advantage:

Competitive advantage refers to factors that allow a company to produce goods or services better or more
cheaply than its rivals. These factors allow the productive entity to generate more sales or superior
margins compared to its market rivals. Competitive advantages are attributed to a variety of
factors including cost structure, branding, the quality of product offerings, the distribution network,
intellectual property, and customer service.

Understanding Competitive Advantage

Competitive advantages generate greater value for a firm and its shareholders because of certain strengths
or conditions. The more sustainable the competitive advantage, the more difficult it is for competitors to
 :

neutralize the advantage. The two main types of competitive advantages are comparative advantage and
differential advantage.

The term "competitive advantage" traditionally refers to the business world, but can also be applied to a
country, organization, or even a person who is competing for something.

DEFINITION
Competitive advantage refers to the factors or attributes that allow a given company to produce
more affordable or higher quality services or products than its competitors.

Definition and Example of Competitive Advantage

Competitive advantage is what makes an entity's goods or services superior to all of a customer's
other choices.1 While the term is commonly used for businesses, the strategies work for any
organization, country, or individual in a competitive environment.

For instance, a retailer that offers the lowest prices around has a competitive advantage over other
retailers whose prices are higher. The low prices can make that retailer's products more attractive
than other, higher-priced options.

How Competitive Advantage Works

To create a competitive advantage, a business must provide a clear benefit to its target market that's
better than what the competition offers.

Consider: What is the real benefit this product or service provides? It must be something that
customers need, and it must offer real value. Business owners also need to stay up to date on the new
trends that affect the product, including any new technology.

For example, in the early days of the internet, newspaper owners were slow to respond to the
availability of free news online. They thought people would continue to pay for news delivered on
paper once a day. By not staying up to date on the advance (and advantages) of the internet, they
allowed their competitive advantage to slip away.

A business also needs to be closely attuned to its target market to create demand, the driver of
all economic growth. They need to know exactly who their customers are and how they can make
 :

their lives better. In the example above, newspapers' target market shrank to older people who
weren't comfortable getting their news online.

Finally, it's important to identify competitors. Competitors aren't just similar companies or
products. They also include anything else your customer could do to meet the need you can fulfill.
Newspapers thought their competition was other newspapers until they realized it was the internet.
They didn't know how to compete with a news provider that was instant and free.

Types of Competitive Advantage

THE BALANCE / MELISAA LING

In 1985, Harvard Business School Professor Michael Porter wrote Competitive Advantage, the definitive
business school textbook on the topic, which helps companies to create a sustainable competitive
advantage.

In his book, Porter explained that a company must create clear goals, strategies, and operations to build
sustainable competitive advantage. The corporate culture and values of the employees must be in alignment
with those goals. Porter researched hundreds of companies to identify the three primary ways that
companies achieve a sustainable advantage: cost leadership, differentiation, and focus.

Cost Leadership

Cost leadership means that companies provide reasonable value at a lower price. Firms do that by
continuously improving operational efficiency. They might pay their workers less. Some firms compensate
for lower wages by offering intangible perks such as stock options, benefits, or promotional opportunities.
 :

While innovation is driven by many factors, it's clear that the U.S. has benefited from its diverse makeup as
a country. In fact, there's scientific evidence showing that diversity, and maintaining a diverse workplace,
help to drive innovation and market growth forward.2

Amar Bhidé makes a good point in "The Venturesome Economy: How Innovation Sustains Prosperity in a
More Connected World." Even if the United States starts to lag behind other countries in producing
engineers, it's still better at bringing innovations to market. That's just one of the ways natural resources
boost America's advantage.3

Individual

There can be individual competitive advantage, too. For instance, at work, you can use the theory of
competitive advantage to advance your career. If you are an employee, work as if you were in business for
yourself. Your target market is your employer, your benefit is how you increase the company's profit, and
your competitors are other employees and technology.

Communicate your competitive advantage in your appearance, your resume, and your interview. Once
you've got the job, continuing communicating your advantage in your work performance. You can use your
advantage to differentiate yourself from your peers and move ahead.

Que 5 Write a descriptive note on cloud computing and cloud service model?

Ans: Cloud Computing:-

Cloud computing is on-demand access, via the internet, to computing resources—applications, servers (physical
servers and virtual servers), data storage, development tools, networking capabilities, and more—hosted at a remote data
center managed by a cloud services provider (or CSP). The CSP makes these resources available for a monthly subscription fee
or bills them according to usage.

Compared to traditional on-premises IT, and depending on the cloud services you select, cloud computing helps do the
following:

 Lower IT costs: Cloud lets you offload some or most of the costs and effort of purchasing, installing, configuring, and
managing your own on-premises infrastructure.

 Improve agility and time-to-value: With cloud, your organization can start using enterprise applications in minutes,
instead of waiting weeks or months for IT to respond to a request, purchase and configure supporting hardware, and
install software. Cloud also lets you empower certain users—specifically developers and data scientists—to help
themselves to software and support infrastructure.

 Scale more easily and cost-effectively: Cloud provides elasticity—instead of purchasing excess capacity that sits
unused during slow periods, you can scale capacity up and down in response to spikes and dips in traffic. You can also
take advantage of your cloud provider’s global network to spread your applications closer to users around the world.

The term ‘cloud computing’ also refers to the technology that makes cloud work. This includes some form of virtualized IT
 :

resources to accommodate periodic spikes in usage.

In contrast to SaaS and PaaS (and even newer PaaS computing models such as containers and serverless), IaaS provides the users
with the lowest-level control of computing resources in the cloud.

IaaS was the most popular cloud computing model when it emerged in the early 2010s. While it remains the cloud model for
many types of workloads, use of SaaS and PaaS is growing at a much faster rate.

Serverless computing
Serverless computing (also called simply serverless) is a cloud computing model that offloads all the backend infrastructure
management tasks–provisioning, scaling, scheduling, patching—to the cloud provider, freeing developers to focus all their time
and effort on the code and business logic specific to their applications.

What's more, serverless runs application code on a per-request basis only and scales the supporting infrastructure up and down
automatically in response to the number of requests. With serverless, customers pay only for the resources being used when the
application is running—they never pay for idle capacity.

FaaS, or Function-as-a-Service, is often confused with serverless computing when, in fact, it's a subset of serverless.
FaaS allows developers to execute portions of application code (called functions) in response to specific events. Everything
besides the code—physical hardware, virtual machine operating system, and web server software management—is provisioned
automatically by the cloud service provider in real-time as the code executes and is spun back down once
the execution completes. Billing starts when execution starts and stops when execution stops .

Types of cloud computing

Public Cloud

Public cloud is a type of cloud computing in which a cloud service provider makes computing resources—
anything from SaaS applications, to individual virtual machines (VMs), to bare metal computing hardware,
to complete enterprise-grade infrastructures and development platforms—available to users over the public
internet. These resources might be accessible for free, or access might be sold according to subscription-
based or pay-per-usage pricing models.

The public cloud provider owns, manages, and assumes all responsibility for the data centers, hardware,
and infrastructure on which its customers’ workloads run, and it typically provides high-bandwidth network
connectivity to ensure high performance and rapid access to applications and data.

Public cloud is a multi-tenant environment—the cloud provider's data center infrastructure is shared by all
public cloud customers. In the leading public clouds—Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google Cloud, IBM
Cloud, Microsoft Azure, and Oracle Cloud—those customers can number in the millions.

Many enterprises are moving portions of their computing infrastructure to the public cloud because public
cloud services are elastic and readily scalable, flexibly adjusting to meet changing workload demands.
Others are attracted by the promise of greater efficiency and fewer wasted resources since customers pay
 :

2. Software as a Service (SaaS)

SaaS allows users to instantly access a collection of applications on the cloud. Simply install software through the cloud-hosting

service and then set up access permissions for multiple users in an organization. Apps can also be updated automatically, which

— for businesses — offers the benefit of not having to manage software applications across multiple platforms. Instead, opt to

subscribe to an all-in-one service.

SaaS is one of the most popular cloud computing platforms because it allows businesses to access cloud-based applications without

the need to install multiple platforms. SaaS is ideal for lean companies that require lots of collaboration, especially if staff works

remotely. However, it is important to note that SaaS-based applications may run slower than applications run on a business's own

servers.

SaaS cloud service operates through a third-party vendor on a monthly or annual subscription basis. This makes SaaS fairly

affordable for most businesses, because it provides the convenience of powerful tools necessary for daily tasks while also saving

on costs. All the company needs is an internet connection.

3. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

PaaS involves a third-party–hosted server or operating system. This can also be referred to as a "solution stack," because it

typically contains everything a developer needs to build an application.

PaaS allows businesses to use a platform provided by a third party in order to develop and run applications. The third-party

provider supports the platform by eliminating the need to install some on-premise software and hardware. PaaS simplifies

application development and management because it eliminates a business’s need to maintain an onsite infrastructure. In

addition, PaaS is scalable and allows for more cost-effective development because it already allows for the use of a solution

stack, which contains many of the tools and software apps developers use every day.

Each of these three cloud computing service delivery models offer their own unique benefits and limitations, as well as varying

levels of flexibility and control over the cloud's structure. Cloud service models also add several new resources for businesses that

boost efficiency while lowering costs, especially when scaling operations, as these platforms often eliminate the need for in-house

hardware and software.

The demand for cloud services is not slowing down any time soon. Eventually, depending on their needs, most businesses will

rely on using one or all three models to keep up with the introduction of new technologies. Therefore, whether a business is big or

small, cloud services are the solution for diversifying service offerings and empowering staff, all while adding more flexibility.
 :

If you would like to learn more about cloud computing and cloud infrastructure, enroll in a cloud training course through

ExitCertified. Our vendor-approved cloud training courses prepare you to efficiently utilize all the capabilities of industry-leading

cloud platforms.

Unit-III

Que 6 Explain giving examples cost of poor quality data also explain the life cycle of data to illustrate the
way data travel through the organization?

Ans: Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) is the cost associated with producing poor-quality products or services
for the customer. In other words, it is the total financial losses incurred by the company due to errors and
subpar work. For example, scrap, rework, repair, and warranty failure all add to the cost of poor quality.

Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) is the cost associated with producing poor-quality products or services for the
customer. In other words, it is the total financial losses incurred by the company due to errors and subpar
work. For example, scrap, rework, repair, and warranty failure all add to the cost of poor quality.

Cost of Quality is a methodology used in the organization to measure the number of resources used for
good quality. In other words, it is the cost of making quality products or services.

The cost of quality is the combination of the cost of good quality and the cost of poor quality.

Why Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)

 Tells how profit is affected by the quality

 Speaks the language of management
 Helps to prioritize improvement actions
 Optimize the resources and also helps in identifying wastes in the system
 Improves continuous improvement culture
Categories of Cost of Quality

The cost of quality can be divided into four categories: prevention cost, appraisal cost, internal failure cost,
and external failure cost.
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Preventive Cost– Preventive costs are the costs of activities that are specially designed to prevent poor
quality of products or services. In other words, these efforts ensure that failures never happen in the first
place.

 Quality planning
 Contract review
 Trainings
 Quality audits
 Supplier evaluation
 Market research
 Process capability studies

Appraisal costs–Appraisal costs are incurred when the company pays a consultant or expert to find the
causes of the poor quality of the product or service. In other words, appraisal costs are related to testing,
measuring, and auditing. The appraisal cost focuses on the discovery of defects rather than the prevention
of defects.

 Incoming goods inspection

 In-process inspection
 Supplier inspection
 Laboratory testing
 Final goods inspection
 :

 Calibration

Internal failure–Internal failure costs result from the finding of defects prior to delivery of the product or
service to the customers. In addition, these are the costs due to the failure of a product to achieve the
required quality standards.

 Rework
 Repair
 Internal scrap
 Re-testing
 Efforts spent on failure analysis
 Raw material rejects
 In-process rejects

External failure–External failure costs arise from the rejection of the product or services by the customers
after delivery. In other words, these are the costs when a product or service fails to meet the required
quality standards and is detected after it reaches the customer.

 Warranty claims
 Customer visits
 Penalties
 Replacements
 Investigations
 Loss of goodwill
When to use Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)

Organizations use COPQ to understand the opportunities to improve quality by reducing internal and
external failure costs. They do this by spending more on preventing problems than fixing them.

Steps in implementing Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)

 Define the organization’s quality goals and objectives

 Estimate the current capabilities of machines, systems, and processes
 Collect data for prevention cost, appraisal cost, internal failure cost and external failure cost
 Validate the quality cost data with finance
 Pareto the quality costs and adopt an action-first mindset
 :

 Implement corrective actions such as automating the quality audits, streamlining the inspection
process, implementing Poka-Yoke, etc.
 Compare the quality costs before and after you have implemented the above steps. Check out the
figure shown below for an example
 Finally, present the new quality cost model to top management

Example of Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)

Quality assurance is everything for an organization. Incorporating Six Sigma and other Lean tools allows
companies to reduce waste (Raw materials, Logistics costs, and unnecessary man hrs) which increases their
bottom line.

Let’s say you are running a DMAIC project. In the define phase, you want to quantify the cost of poor
quality. You start by defining what a defect is. Then, you measure how many defects per million
opportunities your process has (You would use this same material to create your baseline sigma in
the measure phase, next).

Example: Imagine producing TVs, and for every 1M produced 2% were damaged…That’s 20,000 TVs. If
those damages were not salvageable, and it cost $100 to produce each unit, then it costs your company 20k
*$100 = $2 Million
 :

But that’s not all. How many people would you need to hire for re-inspection, warranty repair, supplier
evaluation, etc.? Here you go for the breakup of the costs. Below is the split-up of various costs (Just as an
example).

Total material cost is $100 per unit, and an additional $10 per unit is spent on quality costs. At 20k units,
that is $200k. The total cost to the company would be $2.2 Million

High-quality data is essential for every organization as it underpins its ability to drive process efficiencies,
fuel innovation, acquire and retain customers and bring new products and services to market. The most
advanced array of analytics and business intelligence tools available can’t support your business’s growth
ambitions without a reliable and scalable supply of trustworthy data to consume.

While it is almost impossible to accurately estimate the cost of poor data quality as it is highly dependent
on the nature and size of the business, and the extent of the problem, it has been reported by experts that
poor data quality can cost businesses anywhere from 20% to 35% of their revenue. Ouch!

Poor data quality can be costly for businesses in a variety of ways. Some of the main costs associated with
poor data quality include:

 Reduced operational efficiency: Poor data quality can lead to inaccurate or incomplete
information, which can slow down or impede business processes, such as inventory management,
marketing campaigns, and customer service.
 :

 Increased costs for data cleansing and maintenance: Businesses may have to spend additional
time and resources to cleanse and maintain their data, which can increase costs.
 Inaccurate decision-making: Poor data quality can lead to incorrect insights, which can result in
poor decisions, missed opportunities, and lost revenue.
 Lost customers and decreased revenue: Poor data quality can lead to poor customer service, as
businesses are unable to communicate effectively with their customers. This can lead to lost
customers and decreased revenue.
 Legal issues and non-compliance: Poor data quality can result in businesses not being able to
comply with legal and regulatory requirements, which can result in fines and penalties.

In order to avoid these costs, it is essential to have a strategy that clearly sets out what “good” data quality
looks like for your organization, how it supports important business initiatives, and who is responsible for
the quality and stewardship of business-critical data. This strategy should also cover how data quality will
be assessed, how issues will be dealt with, and how data quality will be improved over time.

Of course, if it was that simple everyone would be doing it. There are a variety of challenges associated
with ensuring data quality, including:

 Data volume and variety: With the growth of big data, businesses are dealing with larger volumes
of data from a variety of sources, which can make it difficult to ensure data quality.
 Data complexity: Data can be complex and hard to understand, especially when it comes from
multiple sources with different structures and formats.
 Data entry errors: Poor data quality can be introduced through human error during data entry, such
as typos, transpositions, and other inaccuracies.
 Data integrity: Ensuring data integrity, or the consistency and accuracy of data across multiple
systems and databases, can be problematic as it requires data to conform to entity, referential, and
domain -specific rules and constraints which need to be enforced.
 Data Governance: A lack of data governance can lead to a lack of accountability, ownership, and
inconsistent definitions of data. Inadequate data governance measures can also compromise the
security of data, and lead to the mishandling of sensitive and personal data.
 Data Profiling: Identifying errors, inconsistencies, and patterns in data may require complex data
profiling which necessitates specialized knowledge and tools.

Master data management (MDM) has long been touted as a means of addressing data quality issues as it
focuses on the accuracy, consistency, and completeness of your master data. We would argue though that
this doesn’t go far enough. Master data is the critical data that is used across multiple business functions,
 :

such as customer, product, and supplier data. Typically this data resides in structured files and systems and
should be relatively easy for an MDM system to ingest. However, a lot of valuable data can be found in
semi- and unstructured data such as emails, pdfs, and presentations. In order to create a Golden Record or
single source of truth, MDM systems need to be able to handle all types of data from a multitude of
sources.

As well as cleaning and standardizing data for use across the business, a modern MDM system should
enrich data from external sources and increase data quality over time via a process of continual
improvement. Modern MDM systems will also support Data Governance, by helping to establish and
enforce ownership, accountability, categorization, and oversight of data.

Overall, master data management helps organizations to ensure that their data is accurate, consistent, and
complete. By implementing MDM, organizations can improve the quality of their data, which in turn will
improve the efficiency of business processes and the quality of decision-making.

To learn more about how MDM systems measure and increase data quality, read our white paper “The
Metrics that Define Data Quality”.

Life cycle of Data:

The 5 Stages of Data LifeCycle Management

Data LifeCycle Management is a process that helps organisations to manage the flow of data throughout its
lifecycle – from initial creation through to destruction. While there are many interpretations as to the
various phases of a typical data lifecycle, they can be summarised as follows:
 :

 More informed risk management techniques based on large data sample sizes
 Greater knowledge of consumer behavior, demands, and sentiment can result in better product
development data and strategic management processes

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now!

Characteristics of Big Data Analytics

Conceptually, big data projects can be extremely challenging for enterprises as such projects
often fail. Big data characteristics are primarily defined by the four Vs. Let us now take a look at
the four Vs of big data analytics:

Volume

Big data volume is greater than the volume of processed data in a normal system of an
enterprise. This results in newly-designed systems. The reason for such volumes of data varies
with developments.

One reason for big data volume is that the data from different IT systems, which are merged,
multiply the amount of data. Alternatively, a crawler procures or extracts third-party data to merge
it with its systems.

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Training in Bangalore.

Veracity

The ingestion and processed data of different systems result in veracity challenges regarding
data accuracy. For example, if different records show the same data with different dates and
timestamps, it is hard to determine which record is the correct one.

Alternatively, if data is incomplete and we do not know about it, then there can be a system error.
Hence, big data systems need concepts, methods, and tools to overcome the veracity challenge.
 :

Variety

Along with the different source systems, the data that was not logged and overridden before can
be stored in big data scenarios. The data is like record updates, and history changes, and can
allow for new use cases, such as time-series analytics, that are otherwise impossible on old
override data.

There are new data sources that generate enormous volumes of data. The more simplistic
versions include data from social media or smartphone apps with new insights into customer
interactions.

The variety in such data ranges from unstructured social media text data to structured operative
enterprise system data. It can go over computable financial time-series data, time-series commit
logs, app usage, and semi-structured customer interaction data.

Big data systems and landscapes find it difficult to handle this variety in data and allow users to
combine the data in order to make sense of it.

Velocity

As the business models of enterprises are depending on IoT data more and more, IoT data is
continuously resulting in the increasing speed of data generation. Data generation is not static
records in a database solely; a continuous stream of data generation is necessary.

This further leads to concerns about data storage as well as computation and reaction to events
in data streams. Batch processing enough for large volumes of data cannot keep up with the
increasing velocity anymore. This is why modern big data analytics landscapes should be able to
store this fast-generated data quickly and execute data computations and movements efficiently.

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Types of Big Data Analytics

The following are the four types of big data analytics:
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Big Data Analytics Implementation in Major Sectors

Now, let us learn a bit more about the big data analytics services and the role they play in our
day-to-day lives.

Retail

The retail industry is actively deploying big data analytics. It is applying the techniques of data
analytics to understand what the customers are buying and then offering products and services
that are tailor-made for them.

Today, it is all about having an omni-channel experience. Customers may make contact with a
brand on one channel and then finally buy the product(s) through another channel, meanwhile
going through more intermediary channels. The retailers will have to keep track of these
customer journeys, and they must deploy their marketing and advertising campaigns based on
that, to improve the chances of increasing sales and lowering costs.

Technology

Technology companies are heavily deploying big data analytics. They are finding out more about
how customers interact with websites or apps and gather key information. Based on this,
technology companies can optimize their sales, customer service, customer satisfaction, etc. This
also helps them launch new products and services since we are living in a knowledge-intensive
economy, and the companies in the technology sector are reaping the benefits of big data
analytics.
 :

Healthcare

Healthcare is another industry that can benefit from big data analytics tools, techniques, and
processes. Healthcare personnel can diagnose the health of their patients through various tests,
run them through the computers, and look for telltale signs of anomalies, maladies, etc. It also
helps in healthcare to improve patient care and increase the efficiency of the treatment and
medication processes. Some diseases can be diagnosed before their onset so that measures can
be taken in a preventive manner rather than a remedial manner.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing is an industrial sector that is involved with developing physical goods. The life
cycle of a manufacturing process can vary from product to product. Manufacturing systems are
involved within the industry setup and across the manufacturing floor.

There are a lot of technologies that are involved in manufacturing such as the Internet of Things
(IoT), robotics, etc., but the backbone of all of these is firmly based on big data analytics. By
using this, manufacturers can improve their yield, reduce the time to market, enhance the quality,
optimize the supply chain and logistics processes, and build prototypes before the launch of
products. It can help manufacturers through all these steps.

Energy

Most oil and gas companies, which come under the energy sector, are extensive users of big
data analytics. It is deployed when it comes to discovering oil and other natural resources.
Tremendous amounts of big data go into finding out what the price of a barrel of oil will be, what
the output should be, and if an oil well will be profitable or not.

It is also deployed in finding out equipment failures, deploying predictive maintenance, and
optimally using resources in order to reduce capital expenditure.
 :

Big Data Analytics Tools

In this section, we will go through the various aspects of the big data analytics domain:

 Apache Spark: Spark is a framework for real-time data analytics, which is a part of the Hadoop
ecosystem.
 Python: Python is one of the most versatile programming languages that is rapidly being deployed
for various applications including machine learning.
 SAS: SAS is an advanced analytical tool that is used for working with large volumes of data and
deriving valuable insights from it.
 Hadoop: Hadoop is the most popular big data framework that is deployed by a wide range of
organizations from around the world for making sense of big data.
 SQL: SQL is used for working with relational database management systems.
 Tableau: Tableau is the most popular business intelligence tool that is deployed for the purpose of
data visualization and business analytics.
 Splunk: Splunk is the tool of choice for parsing machine-generated data and deriving valuable
business insights out of it.
 R: R is the no. 1 programming language that is being used by data scientists for statistical
computing and graphical applications alike.

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Big Data Analytics Challenges

Big data analytics does not just come with wide-reaching benefits, it also comes with its
own challenges:
 :

 Accessibility of Data: With larger volumes of data, storage and processing become a challenge.
Big data should be maintained in such a way that it can be used by less-experienced data
scientists and data analysts as well.
 Data Quality Maintenance: With high volumes of data from disparate sources and in different
formats, the proper management of data quality requires considerable time, effort, and resources.
 Data Security: The complexity of big data systems poses unique challenges when it comes to
security. It can be a complex undertaking to properly address such security concerns within
complicated big data ecosystems.
 Choosing the Right Tools: Choosing big data analytics tools from the wide range that is available
in the market can be quite confusing. One should know how to select the best tool that aligns with
user requirements and organizational infrastructure.
 Supply-demand Gap in Skills: With a lack of data analytics skills in addition to the high cost of
hiring experienced professionals, enterprises are finding it hard to meet the demand for skilled big
data analytics professionals.

Future Scope of Big Data Analytics

Big data analytics will have a significant role to play in the market in the coming years. It has
already gained traction and most big enterprises have started making use of big data analytics to
run their business operations.

Here is what the future will look like for big data analytics:

 It is a golden time to witness tremendous growth in cognitive analysis.

 Enterprises will make the most out of data for securing financial gain, which further affirms the
future scope of big data analytics.
 The open-source solution is expected to have relevance in the market again.
 Enterprises will pay more attention to data accuracy and security.
 There will be a steep rise in the demand for data scientists.

Plenty of job profiles are currently available in the data analytics domain. Enterprises have started
strictly shifting their focus on the skill sets of an individual during the recruitment process and are
gradually doing away with the traditional way of just looking at degrees.
 :

As per LinkedIn, there are over 3,000 and 42,000 big data analytics job openings available in
India and the US respectively.

Anyone with strong analytical and numerical skills will have a good scope in the field. Some of the
major job profiles in big data analytics are data architects, data analysts, database administrators,
data scientists, data engineers, and statisticians.

(B) Data and Text Mining:

Data Mining:
Data mining is the process of finding patterns and extracting useful data from large data sets.
It is used to convert raw data into useful data. Data mining can be extremely useful for
improving the marketing strategies of a company as with the help of structured data we can
study the data from different databases and then get more innovative ideas to increase the
productivity of an organization. Text mining is just a part of data mining.
Data mining is the process of discovering patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data. It
involves the use of various techniques such as machine learning, statistical analysis, and
database management to extract insights and information from data.

 Data mining can be applied to a wide range of data types such as numerical, categorical, and
image data. It can be used for tasks such as prediction, classification, clustering, and association
rule mining. Data mining can be applied in various industries such as finance, healthcare, retail,
and manufacturing.
Text Mining:
Text mining is basically an artificial intelligence technology that involves processing the data
from various text documents. Many deep learning algorithms are used for the effective
evaluation of the text. In text mining, the data is stored in an unstructured format. It mainly
uses the linguistic principles for the evaluation of text from documents.
Text mining, also known as text data mining, is a specific application of data mining that deals with
unstructured text data. It involves the use of natural language processing (NLP) techniques to extract
useful information and insights from large amounts of unstructured text data, such as documents, emails,
and social media posts. Text mining can be used for tasks such as sentiment analysis, named entity
recognition, and topic modeling.

Text mining, on the other hand, is mainly used to extract useful information and insights from
 :

unstructured text data. This can include extracting named entities, such as people and organizations, from
a document, or identifying sentiment, such as positive or negative, from a social media post. Text mining
can be used in various fields such as natural language processing, information retrieval, and social media
analysis.

Below is a table of differences between Data Mining and Text Mining:

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S.No. Data Mining Text Mining

Data mining is the statistical technique of Text mining is the part of data mining which
1.
processing raw data in a structured form. involves processing of text from documents.

Pre-existing databases and spreadsheets are The text is used to gather high quality
2.
used to gather information. information.

3. Processing of data is done directly. Processing of data is done linguistically.

Computational linguistic principles are used to

4. Statistical techniques are used to evaluate data.
evaluate text.

In data mining data is stored in structured In text mining data is stored in unstructured
5.
format. format.

Data is heterogeneous and is not so easy to

6. Data is homogeneous and is easy to retrieve.
retrieve.

7. It supports mining of mixed data. In text mining, mining of text is only done.
 :

S.No. Data Mining Text Mining

It combines artificial intelligence, machine It applies pattern recognizing and natural

8.
learning and statistics and applies it on data. language processing to unstructured data.

It is used in fields like marketing, medicine, It is used in fields like bioscience and customer
9.
healthcare. profile analysis.

Unit IV

Que 8 How network economy has affected the business environment? How do information system
help organization? How do information system help organization indealing with business risk?

Ans

What’s a networked economy?

Many experts—including subject matter analysts at Deloitte—see the networked economy as the natural
outcome of what happens when all the actors inside a business ecosystem are interconnected. Through
technology, these interconnections enable customers to drive choices, select preferences, and make their
predispositions known. This interconnectedness fundamentally flips the script. It takes some of the power
away from producers of goods and services to drive value and puts it in the hands of consumers in the
extended enterprise.

According to Brent Nickerson, a Deloitte Risk and Financial Advisory partner at Deloitte & Touche LLP,
the networked economy also transforms the “enterprise” as industries have defined it for years.
Historically, this term encompassed the people, processes, technology, and systems within a company. But
as Nickerson describes it, a networked economy broadens the scope of everything, necessitating a new way
of thinking.

Networked economy trends to follow

These exterprises—and a networked economy itself, for that matter—don’t happen in a vacuum. They need
to capitalize on a number of trends to work. So what can you do?

 Collaborate on business models. One of the biggest trends to drive the networked economy is
collaborative business models, or models that enable different types of businesses to work together to
 :

drive sales. The Internet of Things (IoT), the ultimate extended enterprise, is a good enabler of this
type of collaboration. If, for instance, a consumer has a smart washing machine, the customer can
instruct it to order more detergent pods online whenever the supply runs low. In this case,
collaboration breeds convenience, which typically leads to happy customers.

In fact, IoT in the networked economy is a win-win-win for customers, manufacturers, and goods and
service providers:

1. Customers win because they have value added to their everyday products and they’re happy.

2. Manufacturers win because customers are happy—not only with functionality but also with the “it”
factor.

3. The goods or services providers win because they’re taking care of their customers and can use the
experience to hone their solutions.

 Be radically transparent. Another important trend driving the networked economy: The widespread
movement to radical transparency. Kevin Lane, a Deloitte Risk and Financial Advisory principal at
Deloitte & Touche LLP, says that when companies begin to interlink networks, it’s important that all
parties be transparent about how they do business throughout their own respective extranets, so as not
to alienate any potential customers. He adds that companies must ask themselves what kinds of
networks they want to associate with and what sorts of belief systems they’re willing to tolerate from
partners they collaborate with.

“Everything out there can be seen, and the consumer sees it all and makes his or her own judgments,”
says Lane, who also serves as the retail industry leader for Deloitte’s Enterprise Compliance Services
practice. “No one ever fully gets his or her way, but the idea is that the networks, somewhat
organically through the interconnection, develop their own consensus point and middle-ground
answer.”

 Get a handle on your risks. Companies that wish to create exterprises must also have a handle on
their risks. And they must perform regular risk assessments to quantify how vulnerable their
networked economy is to threats.

On the most basic level, risk assessment is about physical security—locking down facilities so that
only authorized employees come and go. But the broader day-to-day realities of risk assessment go
 :

hand in hand with a push for more transparency: As companies learn more about the other companies
in their exterprise, previously undisclosed risks emerge, creating an opportunity for remediation—or at
least a backup plan. In evaluating this risk, companies must think not only of themselves but also their
customers. Something could be both legal and ethical, but it may still not align to the preferences of
the consumers involved.

Leveraging connections for the networked economy approach

As the first wave of companies begins to embrace the networked economy approach, opportunities abound
to leverage the ensuing connections into smart business decisions for the extended enterprise. To create
value, organizations can:

 Extend and amplify connections. For starters, companies must extend and amplify connections through
consortia and other industry groups. Some of these groups are more marketing-oriented in nature and
enable participants to network with each other and share leading practices. Others are functional—
participants meet to collaborate on devising standards, rules, and other forms of self-regulation.

 Innovate to capture new revenue streams. Looking forward, companies must also figure out how to
capture new revenue streams. Subject matter experts say this likely will be driven almost entirely by
the networked economy and the exterprise—by third parties that spark new products, new
development, and innovation. A number of contract manufacturers around the world have already set
up product innovation centers where they offer design, engineering, prototyping, and manufacturing
necessary to build out new products.

In addition to changing the product catalog, these centers have sparked a sea change in strategy. Now more
than ever, innovation is coming from the edges of a corporate network and working its way in. The
exterprise has also indirectly expanded distribution channels, since companies are now connected to so
many other companies.

Ultimately, the one-two punch of more innovation and more places to sell new products enables companies
to penetrate deeper into their existing consumer bases and, at the same time, acquire new consumers.

In the context of a networked economy, both scenarios can lead to additional revenue—yet another way
risk, when managed well, can create value in the business world of today.

Que 9 Develop the home Page of Travel agency Hind Bharman using HTML tags for Italian bold
underline centre paraghraph and font?
 :

Ans

<html>
<head>
<title>Page Title</title>
</head>
<body>

<h1>Travel Agency</h1>
<p>Hindi Bharman.</p>

</body>
</html>
:
:
:
 :

Solution:-
 :

Sec A
Que1.Explain in brief the following

(A) Mesaage and Collaboration:

Business communication is becoming more critical with millions of business emails exchanged daily. It is
becoming a fact that email is one of the most critical functions in an IT Infrastructure and the availability of
email services affects the organization as a whole. Missing emails mean missing business opportunities.

At eSense, we have brought together the best talent for crafting Messaging and Collaboration Solutions.
Our team of certified professionals is capable of implementing the most complex messaging solutions,
using Microsoft Technologies, which ensures an uninterrupted flow of business communication.

Adopting the latest technology of messaging and collaboration from Office 365 bundle, which is Teams:

With Teams you can Chat, make calls and meetings for today’s teams, the best in class communication tool
for the Teams of Today! Communicate in the moment and keep everyone in the know. Stay connected with
chat, calls, and meetings within your team and in private or small group conversations. Schedule and join
online Skype meetings with HD video and many more!

Additionally, we have Microsoft Exchange which is the most advanced email solution yet. It helps to
ensure that your communications are always available while you remain in control. With a modern UI and
advanced management capabilities, Microsoft Exchange is inarguably the best email solution on the
market.

Combined with Office Web Apps and Skype For Business, your teams can collaborate across continents,
no matter where they are. These advanced tools and technologies will help them work as effectivity as if
they were next to one another.

To increase your control, you may want your messaging and collaboration solution deployed either on your
corporate premises, or in a cloud. A cloud ensures maximum availability and accessibility and eliminates
difficulties in IT. In either case, eSense can help you rollout your next Collaboration and messaging
solution.

eSense offers the complete set of Microsoft Technologies to help you build a solid Collaboration and
Messaging infrastructure using:
 :

1. Microsoft Teams

2. Microsoft Exchange Server 2016

3. Microsoft Skype For Business Servers (Formerly Lync)

4. Microsoft Office Web Apps

5. Collaborative technologies are a combination of powerful online collaboration software that make it
possible for real time communication and collaboration between teams regardless of where they may be.

COLLABORATIVE WORKSPACE

These make it possible for teams to bring their projects into a workspace and allow them share and co-edit
documents in real time. They mostly combine video conferencing with real time content collaboration on
office documents, PDFs, images, whiteboards, texts etc.

TEAMWORK AND COLLABORATION

This connotes the ability to work effectively on a common task with other members of a team. A good
collaborative technology software such as Sinnaps provides an easy way for businesses to track the work of
employees in order to get the best possible results.
This platform can allow you create to-do lists for ongoing projects, send requests to colleagues, reminders
for upcoming deadlines and allow for team members make remarks to posts within the platform.
Since its introduction, Sinnaps tool has popularized the concept of remote collaboration, offering features,
integrations and organizational tools that are making teams more productive. Loved by millions of
businesses around the world, this is without doubt the most effective way for teams on different displays to
connect with each other and collaborate on content.
 :

COLLABORATIVE STRATEGIES

Working in groups creates synergy between businesses and stakeholders. It encourages idea generation and
sharing as well as improve communication and trust. Collaborative strategies entail leveraging your
stakeholders to plan your desired outcomes. For a business, stakeholders may include financiers,
employees, partners, suppliers and vendors, and to realize a business objective, they must be properly
engaged throughout the entire process.

COLLABORATIVE STRATEGIES FOR BUSINESSES

 Building trust
 :

 Promoting open communication

 Creating group roles
 Establishing clear-cut responsibilities
 Creating and promoting flexible group norms
The Sinnaps tool provides an avenue to engage stakeholders in a way that allow for integrating the above
strategies towards achieving your outcome
.
Collaborative Work Environment
Effective Team Collaboration
Collaboration Tools for Business

TYPES OF COLLABORATION TECHNOLOGIES AS THEY RELATE TO TIME AND LOCATION.

 TIME
Real-time/ Synchronous: This allows for real-time communication and collaboration between users. They
have built-in collaborative strategies that allow teams to complete several tasks together at the same time.
Asynchronous: This is a team collaboration software that allow workers to work together, however at
different times.
 LOCATION
Collocated: This collaborative process enables users to perform tasks together in one place.
Non-Collocated: This allows users to work together from different places.
One great collaborative technology example is Sinnaps, which helps team members communicate and work
together in real time. It allows for creation of projects and tasks within projects and permits users to follow
the progress of these tasks from various browsers and devices. It is a flexible collaboration solution
designed for project teams, large corporations as well as small businesses.

WHY USE COLLABORATION TECHNOLOGIES AND SOFTWARE

Below are some benefits of implementing a good collaborative communication software such as Sinnaps in
organizations as well as small businesses.
Successfully implementing a good collaboration strategy will afford you many advantages, including but
limited to the following:

 SAVE TIME
 :

Collaborative teamwork and planning can be a tedious process and may lead to a waste of valuable time if
the required synergy is not put in. In a business, time is tantamount to money and the greater time you save,
the smaller your bulk of unwanted expenses.
If you’re looking to cut cost on your project endeavors, collaboration systems may just help you in the
regard.
An effective collaboration system can assist in maintaining order and managing stages in workflow through
open communication and coordination among concerned individuals and teams towards achieving a unified
goal.
 STRENGTHEN TEAM RELATIONSHIPS
To build effective teamwork and collaboration among employees, businesses need to have them work
together to complete tasks and projects. The Sinnaps social collaboration software is designed to make it
easy for teams to work as a concerted unit for the actualization of a single goal. This is accomplished in
part by embedding this technology into the way work is performed, such that using it becomes a part of the
job.
 ENHANCE PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVE ORGANIZATION
Keeping a handle on a team and its members and overseeing their progress is not an easy task. The ability
of a project manager to coordinate the activities of project members and promote synergy between them
including keeping track of what has been done as well as what needed to be done will be the difference
between succeeding and failing.

(B)Cyber Security:
Cybersecurity management refers to an organization's strategic efforts to safeguard information resources.
It focuses on the ways businesses leverage their security assets, including software and IT security
solutions, to safeguard business systems.

These resources are increasingly vulnerable to internal and external security threats such as industrial
espionage, theft, fraud, and sabotage. Cybersecurity management must employ a variety of administrative,
legal, technological, procedural, and employee practices to reduce organizations’ risk exposure.
Importance of Risk Management in Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity is crucial to operational processes because it guards against the theft and destruction of data
and IT systems, including personally identifiable information (PII), protected health information (PHI),
personal data, data pertaining to intellectual property, and information systems.
 :

Your company cannot protect itself from data breaches without a cybersecurity strategy. In the absence of
effective cybersecurity management practices, your organization becomes a prime target for cyber
criminals.

Framework of Cybersecurity Management

While a commonly accepted framework for cybersecurity has not been established, there are some guiding
principles, precautions, and technologies that many organizations have chosen to adopt, including:

 Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP) Top 10

 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) program

 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 27000 series

These serve as the de facto frameworks for cybersecurity management, and they outline techniques and
standards for protecting digital assets.
 :

Cybersecurity Management Benefits:

An effective cybersecurity management policy takes into account the risks that exist for an organization's
resources. Those that administer the program formalize processes and procedures. Once vulnerabilities are
found, the management policy will outline solutions to stop malicious code from infiltrating the
organization's perimeter defense systems, servers, and desktops. It also describes how to deploy mitigation
measures and who is in charge in the event of a breach.

A cybersecurity management program provides an organization with critical services, such as:

1. Designing and implementing an efficient enterprise security architecture

2. Mitigating advanced threats
3. Securing Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices
 :

4. Identity and access management (IAM)

5. Providing security intelligence

Some external cybersecurity management services also provide IT security consulting to help companies
craft the best strategies to protect their environments now and in the future.

Difference Between Cybersecurity and Cybersecurity Management

What is cybersecurity management? A cybersecurity management system is different from cybersecurity

itself. Cybersecurity management focuses on ways to organize security assets, people, and processes, while
cybersecurity is a general label for protecting an organization’s digital infrastructure.

In this cybersecurity management definition, the act of managing cybersecurity involves both technical
strategy and shaping company culture.

6 Best Practices in Cybersecurity Management

Here are six tried-and-tested best practices for cybersecurity management.

1. Understand Your IT Assets and Environment

Effective cybersecurity management requires in-depth knowledge of the IT environments and resources
within your firm, including all data and other digital assets, BYOD devices, systems, networks, third-party
services, technologies, endpoints, and other relevant items.

Awareness of all the elements of your IT landscape is critical, especially because each facet of your
network can be used to penetrate your system. Also, it is imperative that you assess your assets and monitor
your IT environment continuously.
2. Deploy a Risk Management Strategy

Managing risk without a well-thought-out and effective cybersecurity risk management strategy is
counterproductive. Organizations must create sound strategies and plans to keep them up-to-date.
 :

This is particularly important because of the increasing size and complexity of organizations, which may
make it difficult for a single person or small team to handle cybersecurity management on their own.

( C ) Data Governance Strategy :

A data governance strategy is the operating model for data governance for the business. It defines how an
organization plans to achieve specific business goals through the strategic use and governance of its data
assets.

Data governance requires a system. It’s important to have a solid framework of the people, processes, and
technologies involved. This uncovers actionable intelligence, maintains compliance with regulations, and
mitigates risks. Let’s explore the key steps for building an effective data governance strategy.

What is a Data Governance Strategy?

Data governance focuses on the daily tasks that keep information usable, understandable, and protected. A
data governance strategy consists of the background planning work that sets the holistic requirements for
how an organization will manage data consistently. This includes:
 Assigning responsibility for implementing the policies and processes,
 Defining policies for sharing and processing data,
 Creating processes for naming and storing data,
 Establishing measurements for keeping data clean and usable.
A data governance strategy provides a framework that connects people to processes and technology. It
assigns responsibilities, and makes specific folks accountable for specific data domains. . It creates the
standards, processes, and documentation structures for how the organization will collect and manage data.
This ensures integrity by keeping data clean, accurate, and usable. Through this foundation, you ensure
secure data storage and access.
 :

There’s an old saying that “bad facts make bad law.” And in the world of analytics, bad data makes for bad
decisions. A data governance strategy helps prevent your organization from having “bad data” — and the
poor decisions that may result!
Here’s why organizations need a governance strategy:
 Makes data available: So people can easily find and use both structured and unstructured data.
 Maintains data consistency: Standardizing data fields across databases and departments makes data easy to
manipulate and navigate, (and make consistent decisions from).
 Maintains data accuracy: Deleting, updating, or correcting stale or irrelevant data is important to maintain
the integrity and value of analytics.
 Supports data security: To pass compliance audits, companies must ensure sensitive data is defined and
protected across all locations. This includes where the organization stores, processes, and transmits it
(details an organization must be ready to share with auditors, or increasingly, with individuals whose
personal data has been captured and seek to have a say in how companies use it.)
 :

A data governance strategy helps organizations gain greater value from data science and business
intelligence tools, as well as the analysts and scientists utilising them. At the same time, it enhances data
security and compliance programs.
How Does Data Governance Support a Data Strategy?

A company’s data strategy focuses on all people, processes and technology required to effectively make
use of data assets to generate business value in line with the business strategy. This could include
operational efficiency, minimising expenditure, risk mitigation, or revenue increase.
Data governance sets out the foundation for organizing data and its related assets, and establishes policies
and practices for keeping data secure and usable.
A data governance strategy is a subset of the wider data strategy; it creates the framework to govern data
effectively, and allows the wider data strategy to be met and delivered upon in line with the business
strategy.
Defensive vs Offensive
Defensive data strategy focuses on minimizing risk. The activities associated with this include:
 :

 Regulatory compliance mandates like data privacy and financial reporting laws
 Detecting and mitigating risk of fraud and theft
 Identifying, standardizing, and governing authoritative data sources
On the other hand, an offensive data strategy supports business objectives. These activities include:
 Gaining insight about customer needs
 Integrating customer and market data for planning future business goals
 Supporting the sales and marketing pipelines
 Operational efficiency and process improvement
Organizations need to balance offense and defense, and a robust data governance strategy can help. For
example, governed, labeled data makes it easier to put appropriate privacy controls over sensitive
information and ensures more accurate analytics, as long as this information is centrally located and well-
curated, EG, ready to be consumed by all.
Enabling wider access is important, as silos create inefficiencies. Governing your data in a tool only viewed
by governance and privacy teams misses out on the large community of analysts and scientists struggling to
find, understand, trust, and use data in innovative ways.
 :

How to Develop a Data Governance Strategy

What does the business seek to do with data? Your data strategy should be clear and easy to communicate
in simple language. If only a data scientist can understand the strategy, it’s unlikely that strategy will be
successful, if everyone is to get onboard. Governance plays a key role in supporting that strategy at every
step.
Where does your business sit? For companies in highly regulated industries, like financial services
or healthcare, data strategies are most often compliance focused: defensive. They may set a data strategy
focused on protecting private health data and passing compliance audits. In this case, governance ensures
key processes are documented for future audits. Increasingly, even across these industries, the CDO’s
success is determined by the positive value delivered. CDOs are increasingly de-prioritizing defensive
strategies as a result.
By contrast, less regulated industries, like retail, are freer to pursue more aggressive, offense-focused
strategies. An example of an offensive data strategy may be to use data to drive sales in a new location, or
to gather competitive intelligence for a new product launch. In these cases, governance will structure
processes: how insights are gleaned and key choices made.
 :

information and negotiable assets, such as bank records, securities records, and other financial information.
Other types of databases, both statistical and otherwise, are
assets with considerable value. These assets can only be viewed, created, and altered
by technical and automated means. Those who
can understand and exploit the technology, plus those who have obtained access permission, have power rel
ated to those assets.

A classic paper on computers and ethics [PARK88b] points out that ethical issues arise as the result of the
roles of computers, such as the following:

• Repositories and processors of information: Unauthorized use of othe

rwise unused computer services or of information stored in computers raises ques-
tions of appropriateness or fairness.
• Producers of new forms and types of assets: For example, computer pro
grams are entirely new types of assets, possibly not subject to the same concepts of
ownership as other assets.
 :

• Instruments of acts: To what degree must computer

services and users of computers, data, and programs be responsible for the integrity and
appropri- ateness of computer output?
• Symbols of intimidation and deception: The images of computers as thi
nking machines, absolute truth producers, infallible, subject to blame, and as anthro- pomorphic
replacements of humans who err should be carefully considered.

Another listing of ethical issues, from [HARR90], is shown in Table 23.3. Both
of these lists are concerned with balancing professional responsibilities with ethical or moral
responsibilities. We cite two areas here of the types of ethical questions
that face a computing or IS professional. The first is that IS professionals may find
themselves in situations where their ethical duty as professionals comes into conflict
with loyalty to their employer. Such a conflict may give rise for an employee to con- sider “blowing the
whistle,” or exposing a situation that can harm the public or a
company’s customers. For example, a software developer may know that a product is scheduled to ship with
inadequate testing to meet the employer’s
deadlines. The decision of whether to blow the whistle is one of the most difficult that an IS profes-
 :

sional can face. Organizations have a duty to provide alternative, less extreme opportunities for the
employee, such as an in-house ombudsperson coupled with a commitment not to penalize
employees for exposing problems in-house. Additionally, professional societies should provide a
mechanism whereby society members can get advice on how to proceed.

Another example of an ethical question concerns a potential conflict of inter- est. For example, if
a consultant has a financial interest in a certain vendor, this should be revealed to any client if that
vendor’s products or services might be recommended by the consultant.

Codes of Conduct

Unlike scientific and engineering fields, ethics cannot be reduced to precise laws or
sets of facts. Although an employer or a client of a professional can expect that the
professional has an internal moral compass, many areas of conduct may present eth-
ical ambiguities. To provide
guidance to professionals and to articulate what employers and customers have a right to expect, a number
of professional societies have adopted ethical codes of conduct.

A professional code of conduct can serve the following functions [GOTT99]:

1. A code can serve two inspirational functions: as a positive stimulus for ethical
conduct on the part of the professional, and to instill confidence in the cus- tomer or user of an
IS product or service. However, a code that stops at just providing inspirational language is
likely to be vague and open to an abun- dance of interpretations.
2. A code can be educational. It informs professionals about what
should be theircommitment to undertake a certain level of quality of work and their responsibil- ity
for the well being of users of their product and the public, to
the extenttheproduct may affect nonusers. The code also serves to educate managers on theirrespon
sibility to encourage and support employee ethical behavior and on their own ethical responsibilitie
s.
3. A code provides a measure of support for a professional whose
decision to actethically in a situation may create conflict with an employer or customer.
4. A code can be a means of deterrence and discipline. A professional society can use a code as a
justification for revoking membership or even a
professional license. An employee can use a code as a basis for a disciplinary action.
 :

5 A code can enhance the profession’s public image, if it is seen to be widely honored.

We illustrate the concept of a professional code of ethics for computer profes- sionals with three
specific examples. TheACM (Association for Computing Machinery) Code of Ethics and Professional Con
duct (Figure 23.7) applies to computer scientists.5 The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer
s) Codeof Ethics (Figure 23.8) applies to computer engineers as well as other types of elec- trical and
electronic engineers.

The AITP(AssociatioInformation Technology Professionals, formerly the Data Processing Management Ass
ociation) Standard ofConduct (Figure 23.9) applies to managers of computer systems and projects.

A number of common themes emerge from these codes, including (1) dignity
and worth of other people; (2) personal integrity and honesty; (3) responsibility for work; (4) confidentiality
of information; (5) public safety, health, and welfare; (6) participation in professional societies to improve
standards of the profession; and

(7) the notion that public knowledge and access to technology is equivalent to social power.

All three codes place their emphasis on the responsibility of professionals to

other people, which, after all, is the central meaning of ethics. This emphasis on peo-
ple rather than machines or software is to the good. However, the codes make little specific
mention of the subject technology, namelycomputers and information systems. That is, the approach is qu
ite generic and could apply to most professions and does not fully reflect the unique ethical problems
related to the development
and use of computer and IS technology. For example, these codes do not specifically deal with the issues
raised in Table 23.3 or by [PARK88b] listed in the preceding subsection.

1. GENERAL MORAL IMPERATIVES

Contribute to society and human well-being

 Avoid harm to others.

 :

 Be honest and trustworthy.

 Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
 Honor property rights including copyrights and patent.
 Give proper credit for intellectual property.
 Respect the privacy of others.
 Honor confidentiality.

2 MORE SPECIFIC PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES.

Strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness and dignity in both the process and
products of professional work.
 Acquire and maintain professional competence.
 Know and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work.
 Accept and provide appropriate professional review.
 Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their
impacts, including analysis of possible risks.
 Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities.
 Improve public understanding of computing and its consequences.
 Access computing and communication resources only when authorized to do so.

3 ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP IMPERATIVES.

Articulate social responsibilities of members of an organizational unit and encourage

full acceptance of those responsibilities.
 Manage personnel and resources to design and build information systems that
enhance the quality of working life.
 Acknowledge and support proper and authorized uses of an organization’s comput-
ing and communication resources.
 Ensure that users and those who will be affected by a system have their needs clearly
articulated during the assessment and design of requirements; later the system must
be validated to meet requirements.
 Articulate and support policies that protect the dignity of users and others affected
by a computing system.
 Create opportunities for members of the organization to learn the principles and
limitations of computer systems.
 :

4. COMPLIANCE WITH THE CODE.

Uphold and promote the principles of the Treat violations of this code as inconsistent with members
hip in the ACM.

We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in
affecting the quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its
members and the communities we serve, do hereby commit our-
selves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:

1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the
public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;
2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose
them to affected parties when they do exist;
3 to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data;
4 to reject bribery in all its forms;
5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and
potential consequences;
6. to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological
tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of
pertinent limitations;
7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and
correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others;
8. to treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender,
disability, age, or national origin;
9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action;
10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and to
support them in following this code of ethics

In recognition of my obligation to management I shall:

• Keep my personal knowledge up-to-date and insure that proper expertise is available when
needed.
• Share my knowledge with others and present factual and objective information to
 :

management to the best of my ability.

• Accept full responsibility for work that I perform.
• Not misuse the authority entrusted to me.
• Not misrepresent or withhold information concerning the capabilities of equipment, software or
systems.
• Not take advantage of the lack of knowledge or inexperience on the part of others.

In recognition of my obligation to my fellow members and the profession I shall:

• Be honest in all my professional relationships.

• Take appropriate action in regard to any illegal or unethical practices that come to my attention.
However, I will bring charges against any person only when I have reasonable basis forbelieving
in the truth of the allegations and without any regard to personal interest.Endeavor to share my s
pecial knowledge. Cooperate with others in achieving understanding and in identifying problem
.Not use or take credit for the work of others without specific acknowledgement andauthorizatio
n. Not take advantage of the lack of knowledge or inexperience on the part of others for
personal gain.

In recognition of my obligation to society I shall:

• Protect the privacy and confidentiality of all information entrusted to me.

• Use my skill and knowledge to inform the public in all areas of my expertise.
• To the best of my ability, insure that the products of my work are used in a socially responsible wa
y.
• Support, respect, and abide by the appropriate local, state, provincial, and federal laws.
• Never misrepresent or withhold information that is germane to a problem or situation of
public concern nor will I allow any such known information to remain unchallenged.
•Not use knowledge of a confidential or personal nature in any unauthorized manner or to achieve
personal gain.

In recognition of my obligation to my employer I shall:

• Make every effort to ensure that I have the most current knowledge and that the proper
expertise is available when needed.
• Avoid conflict of interest and insure that my employer is aware of any potential conflicts.
• Present a fair, honest, and objective viewpoint.
• Protect the proper interests of my employer at all times.
• Protect the privacy and confidentiality of all information entrusted to me.
 :

• Not misrepresent or withhold information that is germane to the situation.

• Not attempt to use the resources of my employer for personal gain or for any purpose without
proper approval.
• Not exploit the weakness of a computer system for personal gain or personal satisfaction.

Unit-I
Que2 (a) What kind of data network and application programmer interface related technicalities are
required to be known by the manager in recent times for performing business operation effectively and
gaining competitive position?
Ans:

A data network is a system of technologies and protocols designed to transmit data between two or more
devices.
Data networks refer to systems designed to transfer data between two or more access points via the use of
system controls, transmission lines and data switching. What makes a data network unique from other types
of networks is that it is set up to transmit data only.
How does it work? Generally, data networks are defined by their ability to transmit signals via packet
switching. The data message is broken down into discrete bits called packets, and these packets are then
sent over a digital network that uses an optimal route to minimize lag in data networking speed. Once
transmitted, the packets of data are reassembled after they arrive at the destination.
There is a wide range of benefits to using data networks that are worth understanding before you begin to
adopt this approach. To start, it's useful to learn about the top three.
1. Communication
Perhaps the largest benefit of using a data network is its ability to enable fast and seamless communication.
Linked computers over a data network can communicate with each other and transfer files without the need
for physical transfer media.
2. Collaboration
A data network can enable seamless collaboration between two geographically separated individuals or
teams. Multiple users (connected over a data network) can simultaneously work on the same project or
document remotely.
3. Resource Sharing
A data network doesn't require a physical connection to share information. This means that resources such
as the internet, storage medium and printers can be shared between two or more nodes.
 :

Data flow in data networks

Data communication involves the transmission of digital messages between devices including computers,
smartphones, mobile devices, radios and more. The way data is communicated and flows in networks can
be classified into "simplex" or "duplex" communication.
In simplex communication, data only flows in one direction — from the transmitter to the receiver. This
flow, however, becomes bidirectional when dealing with duplex communication, meaning that data can
flow back and forth between the transmitter and receiver.
Duplex communication can also function in full-duplex or half-duplex mode. In full-duplex mode, both the
transmitter and receiver work simultaneously. In half-duplex, only one can function at a time.
Private vs. public: Types of data networks
There are two basic types of data networks: private and public networks. What are the differences between
each type of data network?
Private data networks
A private data network is designed to facilitate data transmission between individuals and various
departments in a single organization. For companies with offices in different geographical locations, the
network can be designed to include these disparate facilities as nodes on the network to allow
communication and data transfer via a centralized server.
This server serves as the main repository for all data files used to facilitate business activities within the
organization. Private data networks can be created by provisioning the connections through a
communications carrier or by using VPNs (virtual private networks) that reside on a master server.
Public data networks
In contrast to private data networks, a public data network isn't limited to users and systems within a single
organization. It can be accessed by individual and corporate entities anywhere. A public network is set up
using multiple servers, communication protocols and cell towers to transmit data over broad distances.
Typically, users require some type of access credential to make use of the network. Service providers may
charge a subscription fee before granting users access to authorized sections of the network to engage in
several functions related to the transmission or retrieval of data.
Types of data networks: Other classifications
Beyond private and public categories, data networks can also be classified based on size, physical
architecture and coverage area. There are various classifications that you may encounter, including the
following.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
A personal area network (PAN) is a network that's designed to connect computers and devices within a
user's personal workspace.
 :

LAN (Local Area Network)

A local area network (LAN) is a type of data network that uses switches, routers, cables and access points
to enable the interconnection of devices and endpoints to internal/web servers within a limited area (such as
a building or an office).
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed and works essentially like a LAN — but it covers a much
larger area. A MAN can be designed to span several buildings and typically covers a metropolitan area or
campus.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
A wide area network (WAN) is a collection of LANs and other data networks that share information and
communicate with each other over a large area (typically 50 kilometers or more in diameter). The internet
is the largest example of a WAN in existence. It relies on a large, complex network of service providers
using servers, modems, switches and routers to provide connectivity to organizations and individuals all
around the world.
Satellite network
A satellite network is made up of one central hub and thousands of remote hubs designed to transmit
weather data, voice and data to mobile devices, television, telecommunications, radio, navigation
information, military surveillance and broadband internet service.
Cellular data network
Finally, a cellular data network is a wireless network where fixed-location transceiver base stations
(distributed over land cells) provide each cell with network coverage to enable it to transmit content such as
data and voice. Each cell is designated with a unique frequency (or set of frequencies) to avoid
communication interference with other nearby cells.
Understanding data networks
Advances and innovations in data networking technology have continually evolved the way data is
transmitted and received. Today's data networks are a true feat of ingenuity — ranging from simple single
connections to incredibly complex systems of routers, switches and network hubs.

Application Program Interface:-

“What is an API?” API is the acronym for application programming interface — a software intermediary
that allows two applications to talk to each other. APIs are an accessible way to extract and share data
within and across organizations.
 :

APIs are all around us. Every time you use a rideshare app, send a mobile payment, or change the
thermostat temperature from your phone, you’re using an API. When you use one of the above apps, they
connect to the Internet and send data to a server. The server then retrieves that data, interprets it, performs
the necessary actions, and sends it back to your phone. The application then interprets that data and
presents you with the information you wanted in a readable way. What are the characteristics of an API?

The term “API” has been generically used to describe connectivity interfaces to an application. However,
over the years, the modern API has taken on some unique characteristics that have truly transformed the
technology space. First, modern APIs adhere to specific standards (typically HTTP and REST), which
enable APIs to be developer-friendly, self-described, easily accessible, and understood broadly.

Additionally, today, APIs are treated more like products than code. They are designed for consumption for
specific audiences (e.g. mobile developers), and they are documented and versioned in a way that enables
users to have clear expectations of their maintenance and lifecycle.

Because APIs are more standardized, they can be monitored and managed for both performance and scale.
And, most importantly, they have a much stronger discipline for security and governance. The way this
works in practice is that – going back to the weather phone application example – your phone’s data is
never fully exposed to the server and.

Likewise, the server is never fully exposed to your phone. Instead, each communicates with small packets
of data –– sharing only that which is absolutely necessary. We can think of the above concept similar to
ordering takeout at your favorite restaurant. You, the customer, tell the waiter what you would like to eat
and they’ll tell you what they need in return and, in the end, you get your meal!

And, finally, just like any other piece of software that is productized, the modern API has its own software
development lifecycle (SDLC) –– from mocking, designing, and testing to building, managing, and
retiring. These APIs are well documented for both consumption and versioning in the process.

Build a successful API strategy

Watch webinar

Today, APIs have become so valuable that they comprise a large part of many business’ revenue. For
example, on average, 35% of organizations’ revenue is now generated by APIs and related
 :

implementations. These companies are contributing to a marketplace of thousands of APIs, otherwise

referred to as the API economy.

How APIs enable digital transformation

Companies are digitally transforming faster than ever to keep up with their competitors and increase
customer demands. APIs help them digitize, connect, and innovate across their products and services. APIs
are a key enabler of these efforts. In fact, 90% of executives say that APIs are mission-critical to their
businesses. By adopting API-driven strategies, they can drive growth and innovation. Incorporating APIs
into business operations can help:

 Simplify and accelerate their go-to-market strategies

 Enhance customer experiences
 Improve operational agility and speed
 Develop and pursue new revenue, market, and channel opportunities

To learn how to establish an API strategy that can enhance the customer experience or transform your
business, read this whitepaper on API strategy essentials.

(b) Write a bfrief note on the IT Risk Management?

Ans:- In many ways, risk is the cost of doing business. Risk is incurred through every aspect of commercial
business and is most clearly defined within the framework of the business contract
collection. Business contracts govern all relationships and the flow of money throughout the enterprise, so
the contract collection of any business provides the most comprehensive overview of the risks faced on a
day-to-day basis. This includes employment, procurement and acquisition, finance, sales, and human
resources.

Risk management is not about the elimination of risk. Risk can benefit businesses by creating productive
opportunities, and risk management can increase efficiencies in administrative systems in a way that
delivers improvements throughout the operation. And the way you manage risk can mean the difference
between success and struggle in a commercial enterprise.

4 Types of Risk Management

The four types of risk management are quite different and cover a wide range of scenarios. They are not
equally appropriate for every risk assessment, but they are an important part of initial risk management
 :

decisions to determine which technique should be used. While the choice is sometimes clear, it is important
for businesses to examine risk in the context of existing systems and processes.

1. Risk Avoidance – Avoidance of risk means withdrawing from a risk scenario or deciding not to
participate.
2. Risk Reduction – The risk reduction technique is applied to keep risk to an acceptable level and
reduce the severity of loss through.
3. Risk Transfer – Risk can be reduced or made more acceptable if it is shared.
4. Risk Retention – When risk is agreed, accepted and accounted for in budgeting, it is retained

Everything in business involves contracts at some point. As the modern global marketplace has grown
more interconnected, business contracts have become more complex. While contracts are the lifeblood of
any business, they are also the business element that incurs the most risk. Risk appetite and risk
tolerance are elements of the risk management program that should be kept under constant review as they
fluctuate in relation to the company's financial position. The four types of risk management techniques
ensure that all risk scenarios are covered by a protocol that is appropriate and effective. This relationship
may be explored through the lens of the four techniques.

1. Risk Avoidance

There are four elements to contract risk avoidance that arise after the risk associated with a contract is
deemed to be too high.

 Refusal of Proposal – If due diligence reveals the contract risk to be too high during the first stage
of the contract life cycle, the company will simply decline the contract as proposed.
 Renegotiation – When risk has increased during the course of the contract life cycle, opportunities
to review and renegotiate terms may be taken to introduce new conditions that avoid new risk.
 Non-Renewal – At the end of the initial contract life cycle, the business may decline to renew the
contract if the risk is estimated as being too high.
 Cancellation – Where circumstances cause risk to increase beyond acceptable levels during the
course of the contract life cycle and outside of the agreed renewal timeframe, cancellation clauses
may be enacted.

2. Risk Reduction

An effective contract lifecycle management system reduces the contract risk in its initial stages.
 :

 Contract Negotiation – When necessary, renegotiation at later contract life cycle stages can be
effective in contract risk reduction, including at the renewal stage. This should always be aimed
toward the mitigation of risk and the reduction of loss.
 Standardization – Creating a library of standardized terms, conditions and clauses is an important
method of contract risk reduction. It ensures a cohesive approach by all personnel and enables
teams to author contracts with the confidence of knowing that legal language is pre-approved falls
within the acceptable risk profile of the business.

3. Risk Transfer

The transfer or sharing of contract risk in contract management is accomplished through due diligence on
third parties and subsequent outsourcing. This is an effective strategy for both manufacturing and service
provision businesses where certain aspects of the operation can be contracted out to another company.

4. Risk Retention

Every time a business signs, renegotiates, or renews a contract, there is an element of risk retention because
every contract incurs risk at a some level. All active contracts represent retention of contract risk, so it is
incumbent upon the business to incorporate this into risk management planning, risk assessment processes,
and the regular review of the risk appetite and tolerance framework.

By building the four types of risk management into a culture of everyday best practices, commercial
enterprises send a message to third parties that they are safe to deal with. This includes customers as much
as suppliers. When entities and individuals know that their interests are a priority, the business benefits
from repeat business and loyalty.

Que3 What is mean by searching on internet? How does search engine works?

Ans:-

To perform a search, you'll need to navigate to a search engine in your web browser, type one or more
keywords—also known as search terms—then press Enter on your keyboard. In this example, we'll search
for recipes. After you run a search, you'll see a list of relevant websites that match your search terms.

With billions of websites online today, there is a lot of information on the Internet. Search engines make
this information easier to find. Let's look at the basics of using a search engine, as well as some techniques
you can use to get better search results.
 :

Go to a search engine. A search engine is a website that collects and organizes information on the internet
and makes it available for searching. Search engines use

algorithms to display the most relevant search results based on trends, your location, and sometimes even
your web activity. Many search engines have their own mobile apps that make searching easier on your
phone or tablet. Check out some of the most popular search engines:

 Google is the most popular search engine in the world.[1] It's so popular that the word "Googling" is
often used in place of "searching the web." Google also has special image and video search features
that make it easy to find all sorts of media.
 Bing is Microsoft's answer to Google, and the second most popular search engine. Many of
Google's functions, like image and video searching, are also available on Bing.[2]
 Yahoo used to be the largest search engine in the world. These days, it's powered by Bing and
delivers similar results.
 DuckDuckGo is a privacy-focused search engine that doesn't collect or store your personal
information. In fact, this search engine is so privacy-focused that it doesn't even look at your
location or IP address.
 Startpage.com is another search engine focused on privacy, but it uses Google's search engine in the
background instead of its own program.[3] The benefit is that you'll get Google's excellent quality
results without sacrificing your personal data.
 Swisscows is another privacy-focused search engine, but it uses its own software that gives relevant
results influence by semantics.[4]
 Yandex is one of the most popular search engines in Russia, but the English version has gained
traction in other countries, including the United States.

The work of the search engine is divided into three stages, i.e., crawling, indexing, and retrieval.

1) Crawling

SEO How search engine works

This is the first step in which a search engine uses web crawlers to find out the webpages on the World
Wide Web. A web crawler is a program used by Google to make an index. It is designed for crawling,
which is a process in which the crawler browses the web and stores the information about the webpages
visited by it in the form of an index.
 :

So, the search engines have the web crawlers or spiders to perform crawling, and the task of crawler is to
visit a web page, read it, and follow the links to other web pages of the site. Each time the crawler visits a
webpage, it makes a copy of the page and adds its URL to the index. After adding the URL, it regularly
visits the sites like every month

or two to look for updates or changes.

2) Indexing

SEO How search engine works

In this stage, the copies of webpages made by the crawler during crawling are returned to the search engine
and stored in a data centre. Using these copies, the crawler creates the index of the search engine. Each of
the webpages that you see on search engine listings is crawled and added to the index by the web crawler.
Your website should be in the index only then it will appear in the search engine pages.
 :

We can say that the index is like a huge book which contains a copy of each web page found by the
crawler. If any webpage changes, the crawler updates the book with new content.

So, the index comprises the URL of different webpages visited by the crawler and contains the information
collected by the crawler. This information is used by search engines to provide the relevant answers to
users for their queries. If a page is not added to the index, it will not be available to the users. Indexing is a
continuous process; crawlers keep visiting websites to find out new data.

3) Retrieval
 :

This is the final stage in which the search engine provides the most useful and relevant answers in a
particular order in response to a search query submitted by the user. Search engines use algorithms to
improve the search results so that only genuine information could reach the users, e.g., PageRank is a
popular algorithm used by search engines. It shifts through the pages recorded in the index and shows those
webpages on the first page of the results that it thinks are the best.

Unit-II

Que 4 Enumerate different digital technologies transforming how business is done?

Ans:- Digital transformation is the integration of digital technology into all areas of a business,
fundamentally changing how you operate and deliver value to customers. It's also a cultural change that
requires organizations to continually challenge the status quo, experiment, and get comfortable with failure.
 :

Digital transformation is imperative for all businesses, from the small to the enterprise. That message
comes through loud and clear from seemingly every keynote, panel discussion, article, or study related to
how businesses can remain competitive and relevant as the world becomes increasingly digital. What's not
clear to many business leaders is what digital transformation means. Is it just a catchy way to say moving to
the cloud? What are the specific steps we need to take? Do we need to design new jobs to help us create a
framework for digital transformation, or hire a consulting service? What parts of our business strategy need
to change? Is it really worth it?

A note: Some leaders feel the very term "digital transformation" has become so widely used, so broad, that
it has become unhelpful. You may not love the term. But love it or not, the business mandates behind the
term – to rethink old operating models, to experiment more, to become more agile in your ability to
respond to customers and rivals – aren't going anywhere.

This article aims to answer some of the common questions around digital transformation and provide
clarity, specifically to CIOs and IT leaders, including lessons learned from your peers and digital
transformation experts. Because technology plays a critical role in an organization's' ability to evolve with
the market and continually increase value to customers, CIOs play a key role in digital transformation.

[ Want a shareable PDF of this entire article? Download it now. ]

It's also worth noting that today's organizations are in different places on the road to digital transformation.
If you are feeling stuck in your digital transformation work, you are not alone. One of the hardest questions
 :

in digital transformation is how to get over the initial humps from vision to execution. It creates angst:
Many CIOs and organizations think they lag far behind their peers on transformation, when that isn't the
case.

In recent years, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought new urgency to meeting digital transformation
goals – and forced many organizations to speed up transformation work.

Yet IT leaders continue to grapple with challenges including budgeting, talent struggles, and culture
change. Let's dig in for advice from your peers and digital transformation experts.

[ Where is your team's digital transformation work stalling? Get the eBook: What's slowing down your
Digital Transformation? 8 questions to ask. ]

What is digital transformation?

Because digital transformation will look different for every company, it can be hard to pinpoint a definition
that applies to all. However, in general terms, we define digital transformation as the integration of digital
technology into all areas of a business resulting in fundamental changes to how businesses operate and how
they deliver value to customers. Beyond that, it's a cultural change that requires organizations to
continually challenge the status quo, experiment often, and get comfortable with failure. This sometimes
means walking away from long-standing business processes that companies were built upon in favor of
relatively new practices that are still being defined.

Digital transformation should begin with a problem statement, a clear opportunity, or an aspirational
goal, Jay Ferro, chief information & technology officer of Clario, recently explained. "The "why" of your
organization's digital transformation might be around improving customer experience, reducing friction,
increasing productivity, or elevating profitability, for example," Ferro notes. "Or, if it's an aspirational
statement, it might revolve around becoming the absolute best to do business with, utilizing enabling digital
technologies that were unavailable years ago."

Leaders, think about what digital transformation will mean – in practice - to your company and how you
will articulate it. "Digital is a loaded word that means many things to many people," says Jim Swanson,
CIO of Johnson & Johnson. When you discuss digital transformation, unpack what it means, advises
Swanson, who led digital transformation at Bayer Crop Science (and previously served as CIO
at Monsanto) before joining Johnson & Johnson in early 2020.
 :

At an MIT Sloan CIO Symposium series event, IT leaders agreed that consumer behavior has quickly
shifted in many ways since the start of the pandemic. Sandy Pentland, a professor at the MIT Media Lab,
described how optimized automated systems in areas like supply chain management broke down when
faced with rapid shifts in both demand and supply — a reality that just about everyone has faced on a
personal level during the pandemic.

It's early to guess which long-term consumer behavior changes will stick. However, Rodney Zemmel,
global leader, McKinsey Digital of McKinsey & Company, says that on the consumer side "digital has
been accelerating in just about all categories." An important factor to watch will be the degree to which
forced change — three out of four Americans tried a new shopping behavior, for example — will revert
when possible, post today's emphasis on stay-in-place.

McKinsey data shows that the accelerated shift towards streaming and online fitness is likely to stay
permanently, Zemmel says. But the biggest shifts were around food. Both home cooking and online
grocery shopping — a category that has been generally resistant to getting moved online — will probably
stay more popular with consumers than in the past. Cashless transactions are also gaining steam. On the
B2B side, McKinsey data shows remote selling is working.

For CIOs, this means rapid experimentation is no longer optional.

Mark Anderson, senior director of solution architecture, Equinix, described year one of the pandemic as "a
forced test of many things we had thought about but not tried." For example, he observed, "Many supply
chains are not well understood and underpinned with paper. We've started looking at technologies like
blockchain and IoT."

As Dion Hinchcliffe, VP and principal analyst at Constellation Research, writes: "The top IT executives in
today's rapidly evolving organizations must match the pace of change, fall behind, or lead the pack. That's
the existential issue at stake in today's digitally-infused times, where bold action must be actively supported
 :

by out-of-the-box experimentation and pathfinding. This must be done while managing the inexorable daily
drumbeat of operational issues, service delivery, and the distracting vagaries of the unpredictable, such as a
major cyberattack or information breach."

Improving customer experience has become a crucial goal – and thus a crucial part of digital
transformation. Hinchcliffe calls seamless customer experience "the most important discriminating factor
for how a business will perform."

[ Will your organization continue to thrive? Download the HBR Analytic Services report: IT Leadership in
the Next Normal. ]

How has the COVID-19 pandemic changed digital transformation?

"We've seen the COVID crisis rapidly re-shape both the "what" and the "how" of companies' digital
transformation agendas, notes Mercer's Swift.

Take employee experience for example, she suggests. "Even as employee experience has become a key
theme in the HR community, in IT circles this notion had been getting a mixed reception – sometimes
stereotyped as "spoiled employees expecting best-in-class consumer-grade tech on shoestring budgets,"
says Swift.

"Today, with a vast portion of the workforce now remote, employee experience of digital technology has
gone from "nice to have" to "the only way work gets done. Consequently, it's getting the problem-solving
focus it likely long deserved."

Swift calls out some other areas of digital transformation efforts that COVID-19 pushed higher on CIO
agendas:

 Furthering the reach of customer support via tools including chatbots

 Automation tools for resilience reasons
 Radical housecleaning of redundant or conflicting systems

In response to the pandemic, CIOs have also embraced the notion that "the perfect is the enemy of the
good," Swift adds. "Nothing silences an individual's – or an organization's – inner perfectionist like a full-
blown crisis. In response to dramatic disruption, many organizations have undergone a healthy re-
negotiation of their relationship to digital technology – prioritizing "hey, it works!" over "after years of
 :

slaving over this initiative, we've assembled the very best bells and whistles." The "working
software" lionized in the Agile Manifesto is getting a true moment in the sun." (For more, read Swift's full
article: Digital transformation: 5 ways COVID-19 is forcing positive changes.)

What does a digital transformation framework look like?

Although digital transformation will vary widely based on organization's specific challenges and demands,
there are a few constants and common themes among existing case studies and published frameworks that
all business and technology leaders should consider as they embark on digital transformation.

For instance, these digital transformation elements are often cited:

 Customer experience
 Operational agility
 Culture and leadership
 Workforce enablement
 Digital technology integration

While each guide has its own recommendations and varying steps or considerations, CIOs should look for
those important shared themes when developing their own digital transformation strategy.

A few examples of digital transformation frameworks include:

MIT Sloan: The New Elements of Digital Transformation

 :

Cognizant: How to Win with Digital: A Playbook for Successful Digital Transformation

Prophet: Six Stages of Digital Transformation

Ionology: A Step-By-Step Guide to Digital Transformation

What role does culture play in digital transformation?

In recent years, IT's role has fundamentally shifted. CEOs increasingly want their CIOs to help generate
revenue for the organization.

Rather than focusing on cost savings, IT has become the primary driver of business innovation. Embracing
this shift requires everyone in the company to rethink the role and impact of IT in their day-to-day
experience.

What drives digital transformation?

An important element of digital transformation is, of course, technology. But often, it's more about
shedding outdated processes and legacy technology than it is about adopting new tech. It's also about
enabling innovation.

In the area of government IT, for example, more government agencies are on the verge of realizing the
cloud model's full potential - beyond cost-cutting to using cloud for strategic advantage, notes Dave Egts,
chief technologist, North America Public Sector, Red Hat. "Deloitte recently released a list of nine
technology trends transforming government, and one, in particular, will be key to enabling the future of
technology in government: The cloud as an innovation driver," Egts says.

The prevalence of legacy technology in enterprise IT still hinders CIOs' ability to successfully embark on a
digital transformation strategy. As Beth Devin, Managing Director and Head of Innovation Network &
Emerging Technology, Citi Ventures has explained, legacy tech can become a costly barrier to
transformation. "If you're spending 70 to 80 percent of the IT budget operating and maintaining legacy
systems, there's not much left to seize new opportunities and drive the business forward. And this
expenditure will grow as technology ages and becomes more susceptible," Devin notes.

What's more, new technologies are built using cloud architectures and approaches, she points out: "What is
the long-term value of leveraging the best new technology for your business and customers?"
 :

[ Leading CIOs are reimagining the nature of work while strengthening organizational resilience. Learn 4
key digital transformation leadership priorities in a report from Harvard Business Review Analytic
Services. ]

A critical factor driving legacy upgrades, according to a recent Deloitte survey, is technological relevance,
she says. "Legacy solutions lack flexibility and carry a significant technology debt due to dated languages,
databases (and) architectures," Deloitte reported. "This liability prevents many organizations from
advancing and supporting analytics, real-time transactions, and a digital experience." (Read Devin's full
article: Digital transformation: 9 ROI factors when upgrading legacy systems. )

If businesses want to evolve with the rapid pace of digital change today, they must work to increase
efficiency with technology wherever possible. For many, that means adopting agile principles across the
business. Automation technologies also help many IT organizations gain speed and reduce technical debt.

What are the key trends in digital transformation in 2022?

As Enterprisers' Stephanie Over by has reported, digital transformation took on new urgency during the
pandemic. Some CIOs and IT organizations achieved previously unimaginable speed of change. Today,
CEOs see digital transformation work as key to future success. “As organizations have weathered the
upheavals instigated by the pandemic, digitization has become integral to their responses and also their
future plans,” Over by notes.

E.G. Nadhan, chief architect, Red Hat, notes: "Even companies who have embarked on multi-year
transformational journeys have had to make adjustments midstream, as they should. The operative word
that defines the purpose for digital transformation in 2022 is resilience. The pandemic taught enterprises to
be prepared for seismic shifts in the market dynamics and consumer needs. Forward-thinking enterprises
will focus on the ability to effectively pivot and deal with change with minimal to no impact to internal and
external consumers."

"There will be increased focus on experimentation with configurable parameters to predict enterprise
behavior using simulated environments. And such experimentation will yield more insight into the optimal
configurations that are most resilient," Nadhan says.

Consider these eight key digital transformation trends that business and IT leaders should be aware of in
2022:
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 Focus on resiliency and sustainability

 An emphasis on using cloud to enable innovation
 AI-fueled automation of business processes
 Continued acceptance of remote work
 Increased attention to managing data for its entire lifecycle
 Security as a business imperative, not an afterthought
 Prioritizing AI ethics and governance
 Increased use of maturing machine learning technologies

For more detail and advice on each of these items, read our related article, Digital transformation: 5 future
and 3 fading trends for 2022.

How can I measure ROI on digital transformation?

To prove the success of digital transformation efforts, leaders need to quantify the return on investment.
That's easier said than done with projects that cross functional and business boundaries, change how a
company goes to market, and often fundamentally reshape interactions with customers and employees.

A project such as revamping a mobile application may have a short-term payoff but other projects are
chasing longer-term business value.

Moreover, as we have reported, "Digital transformation efforts are ongoing and evolving, which can render
traditional business value calculations and financial governance approaches less effective."

Still, quantifying success is crucial to continued investment. "Just implementing the technology isn't
enough – the technology needs to be specifically tied to monitoring key performance indicators on
customer insights and business process effectiveness," says Brian Caplan, director with management
consultancy Pace Harmon.

First, ask if you're taking enough risks.

"When determining how well digital transformation investments are performing, it's best to take a portfolio
view and not a project level view," says Cecilia Edwards, partner with digital transformation consultancy
and research firm Everest Group. Just as a mutual fund manager or venture capital firm would look at
overall performance to determine how well things are going, digital transformation leaders must take a
holistic view of digital change efforts.
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This is particularly important so that the underperformance of one particular project doesn't reflect
negatively on the overarching efforts of IT. It also builds tolerance for the necessary risks that must be
undertaken to achieve real digital transformation.

Next, consider best practices regarding digital transformation metrics:

 Set initial metrics in advance

 Develop micro-metrics for agile experiments: The goal is to learn and adjust.
 Incorporate business outcomes: Look at strategic impact (e.g., revenue growth, lifetime customer value,
time to market), operational impact (e.g., productivity improvements, scale, operational efficiencies), and
cost impact.

Want more detail on ROI best practices? Read our related article: Digital transformation ROI: How to
check a project's payoff.

How can I get started on digital transformation or improve my strategy?

If all of this makes you feel woefully behind, fear not. One of the biggest misconceptions CIOs have about
digital transformation is that all of their competitors are much further ahead of the game than they are.
That's because "there's much admiration of (and popular press around) the fastest transformers, but little
critique of how hard transformation is or how long it may take for a typical Global 2,000 company," says
Tim Yeaton, former CMO of Red Hat.

As businesses formulate their own digital transformation strategies, there is much to be learned from your
IT leadership peers. Use this collection of digital transformation articles and case studies to explore further.

Que5 What is Decision Support System? Discuss the characteristics and process of DSS application?

Ans:-

A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that aids a business in decision-making
activities that require judgment, determination, and a sequence of actions. The information system
assists the mid- and high-level management of an organization by analyzing huge volumes of
unstructured data and accumulating information that can help to solve problems and help in
decision-making. A DSS is either human-powered, automated, or a combination of both.
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Purpose of a Decision Support System

A decision support system produces detailed information reports by gathering and analyzing data. Hence, a
DSS is different from a normal operations application, whose goal is to collect data and not analyze it.

In an organization, a DSS is used by the planning departments – such as the operations department – which
collects data and creates a report that can be used by managers for decision-making. Mainly, a DSS is used
in sales projection, for inventory and operations-related data, and to present information to customers in an
easy-to-understand manner.

Theoretically, a DSS can be employed in various knowledge domains from an organization to forest
management and the medical field. One of the main applications of a DSS in an organization is real-time
reporting. It can be very helpful for organizations that take part in just-in-time (JIT) inventory management.

In a JIT inventory system, the organization requires real-time data of their inventory levels to place orders
“just in time” to prevent delays in production and cause a negative domino effect. Therefore, a DSS is more
tailored to the individual or organization making the decision than a traditional system.

Components of a Decision Support System

The three main components of a DSS framework are:

1. Model Management System

The model management system S=stores models that managers can use in their decision-making. The
models are used in decision-making regarding the financial health of the organization and forecasting
demand for a good or service.

2. User Interface

The user interface includes tools that help the end-user of a DSS to navigate through the system.

3. Knowledge Base

The knowledge base includes information from internal sources (information collected in a transaction
process system) and external sources (newspapers and online databases).
 :

Types of Decision Support Systems

 Communication-driven: Allows companies to support tasks that require more than one person to
work on the task. It includes integrated tools such as Microsoft SharePoint Workspace and Google
Docs.
 Model-driven: Allows access to and the management of financial, organizational, and statistical
models. Data is collected, and parameters are determined using the information provided by users.
The information is created into a decision-making model to analyze situations. An example of a
model-driven DSS is Dicodess – an open-source model-driven DSS.
 Knowledge-driven: Provides factual and specialized solutions to situations using stored facts,
procedures, rules, or interactive decision-making structures like flowcharts.
 Document-driven: Manages unstructured information in different electronic formats.
 Data-driven: Helps companies to store and analyze internal and external data.

Advantages of a Decision Support System

 A decision support system increases the speed and efficiency of decision-making activities. It is
possible, as a DSS can collect and analyze real-time data.
 It promotes training within the organization, as specific skills must be developed to implement and
run a DSS within an organization.
 It automates monotonous managerial processes, which means more of the manager’s time can be
spent on decision-making.
 It improves interpersonal communication within the organization.
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Benefits of DSS

 Improves efficiency and speed of decision-making activities.

 Increases the control, competitiveness and capability of futuristic decision-making of the
organization.
 Facilitates interpersonal communication.
 Encourages learning or training.
 Since it is mostly used in non-programmed decisions, it reveals new approaches and sets up new
evidences for an unusual decision.
 Helps automate managerial processes.
 Components of a DSS

Unit III

Que 6 (a)What is difference between a transction processing system and analytical processing
system?

Ans:-

Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) is a category of software tools that analyze data stored in a
database, whereas Online transaction processing (OLTP) supports transaction-oriented applications
in a 3-tier architecture.

 OLAP creates a single platform for all types of business analysis needs which includes planning,
budgeting, forecasting, and analysis, while OLTP is useful for administering day-to-day
transactions of an organization.
 OLAP is characterized by a large volume of data, while OLTP is characterized by large numbers of
short online transactions.
 In OLAP, a data warehouse is created uniquely so that it can integrate different data sources for
building a consolidated database, whereas OLTP uses traditional DBMS. What is OLAP?
 Online Analytical Processing, a category of software tools which provide analysis of data for
business decisions. OLAP systems allow users to analyze database information from multiple
database systems at one time.
 The primary objective is data analysis and not data processing.
 What is OLTP?
 :

 Online transaction processing shortly known as OLTP supports transaction-oriented applications in

a 3-tier architecture. OLTP administers day to day transaction of an organization.
 The primary objective is data processing and not data analysis
 Example of OLAP
 Any Datawarehouse system is an OLAP system. Uses of OLAP are as follows
 A company might compare their mobile phone sales in September with sales in October, then
compare those results with another location which may be stored in a sperate database.
 Amazon analyzes purchases by its customers to come up with a personalized homepage with
products which likely interest to their customer.
 Example of OLTP system
 An example of OLTP system is ATM center. Assume that a couple has a joint account with a bank.
One day both simultaneously reach different ATM centers at precisely the same time and want to
withdraw total amount present in their bank account.
 However, the person that completes authentication process first will be able to get money. In this
case, OLTP system makes sure that withdrawn amount will be never more than the amount present
in the bank. The key to note here is that OLTP systems are optimized for transactional superiority
instead data analysis.
Other examples of OLTP applications are:
 Online banking
 Online airline ticket booking
 Sending a text message
 Order entry
 Add a book to shopping cart
 Difference between OLTP and OLAP
 Below is the difference between OLAP and OLTP in Data Warehouse:

 OLAP
 Parameters  OLTP

 OLAP is an online analysis

 It is an online transactional system. It
 Process and data retrieving process.
manages database modification.

 It is characterized by a large
 It is characterized by large numbers of
 Characteristic volume of data.
short online transactions.

 Functionality  OLTP is an online database modifying  OLAP is an online database

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 OLAP
 Parameters  OLTP

system. query management system.

 OLAP uses the data

 Method  OLTP uses traditional DBMS. warehouse.

 Insert, Update, and Delete information  Mostly select operations

 Query
from the database.
 Tables in OLAP database are
 Table  Tables in OLTP database are normalized. not normalized.

 Different OLTP databases

 OLTP and its transactions are the sources become the source of data for
 Source
of data. OLAP.

 OLAP database does not get

 OLTP database must maintain data frequently modified. Hence,
 Data Integrity
integrity constraint. data integrity is not an issue.

 Response time in seconds to

 Response time  It’s response time is in millisecond. minutes.

 The data in OLAP process

 The data in the OLTP database is always
 Data quality might not be organized.
detailed and organized.

 It helps with planning,

 It helps to control and run fundamental problem-solving, and decision
 Usefulness
business tasks. support.

 Only read and rarely write.

 Operation  Allow read/write operations.

 It is a customer orientated
 Audience  It is a market orientated process. process.

 Query Type  Queries in this process are standardized  Complex queries involving
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 OLAP
 Parameters  OLTP

and simple. aggregations.

 OLAP only need a backup

from time to time. Backup is
 Complete backup of the data combined
 Back-up not important compared to
with incremental backups.
OLTP

 DB design is subject oriented.

 DB design is application oriented. Example: Database design
Example: Database design changes with changes with subjects like
 Design
industry like Retail, Airline, Banking, sales, marketing, purchasing,
etc. etc.

 Used by Data knowledge users

 It is used by Data critical users like clerk, like workers, managers, and
 User type
DBA & Data Base professionals. CEO.

 Designed for analysis of

 Designed for real time business business measures by category
 Purpose
operations. and attributes.

 Query throughput is the

 Performance  Transaction throughput is the
performance metric.
metric performance metric

 This kind of Database allows

 This kind of Database users allows
 Number of users only hundreds of users.
thousands of users.

 Help to Increase productivity

 It helps to Increase user’s self-service
 Productivity of the business analysts.
and productivity

 An OLAP cube is not an open

 Data Warehouses historically have been
SQL server data warehouse.
 Challenge a development project which may prove
Therefore, technical
costly to build.
knowledge and experience is
 :

 OLAP
 Parameters  OLTP

essential to manage the OLAP

server.

 It ensures that response to the

 Process  It provides fast result for daily used data. query is quicker consistently.

 It lets the user create a view

 Characteristic  It is easy to create and maintain. with the help of a spreadsheet.

 A data warehouse is created

uniquely so that it can
 OLTP is designed to have fast response
integrate different data sources
 Style time, low data redundancy and is
for building a consolidated
normalized.
database

Benefits of using OLAP services

 OLAP creates a single platform for all types of business analytical needs which includes planning,
budgeting, forecasting, and analysis.
 The main benefit of OLAP is the consistency of information and calculations.
 Easily apply security restrictions on users and objects to comply with regulations and protect
sensitive data.
 Benefits of OLTP method
 It administers daily transactions of an organization.
 OLTP widens the customer base of an organization by simplifying individual processes.

Drawbacks of OLAP service

 Implementation and maintenance are dependent on IT professional because the traditional OLAP
tools require a complicated modeling procedure.
 OLAP tools need cooperation between people of various departments to be effective which might
always be not possible.
 Drawbacks of OLTP method
 If OLTP system faces hardware failures, then online transactions get severely affected.
 :

 OLTP systems allow multiple users to access and change the same data at the same time which
many times created unprecedented situation.

Que7 Draw the diagram of data life cycle and explain the way data travel through
organization?

Ans:

Data lifecycle management (DLM) is an approach to managing data throughout its lifecycle, from
data entry to data destruction. Data is separated into phases based on different criteria, and it moves
through these stages as it completes different tasks or meets certain requirements. A good DLM
process provides structure and organization to a business’s data, which in turn enables key goals
within the process, such as data security and data availability.

These goals are critical for business success and increase in importance with time. DLM policies
and processes allow businesses to prepare for the devastating consequences should an organization
experience data breaches, data loss, or system failure. A good DLM strategy prioritizes data
protection and disaster recovery, especially as more malicious actors enter the marketplace with the
rapid growth of data. This way, an effective data recovery plan is already in place in the event of a
disaster, curtailing some of the devastating effects to a brand’s bottom line and overall reputation.

Data lifecycle management vs. information lifecycle management

Information lifecycle management (ILM) is often used interchangeably with data lifecycle
management, and while it is also part of a data management practice, it is distinct from DLM.

Data lifecycle management oversees file-level data; that is, it manages files based on type, size, and
age. ILM, on the other hand, manages the individual pieces of data within a file, ensuring data
accuracy and timely refreshes. This is inclusive of user information, such as e-mail addresses or
account balances.

Phases of data lifecycle management

A data lifecycle consists of a series of phases over the course its useful life. Each phase is
governed by a set of policies that maximizes the data’s value during each stage of the lifecycle.
DLM becomes increasingly important as the volume of data that is incorporated into business
workstreams grows.
:

Phase 1: Data creation

A new data lifecycle starts with data collection, but the sources of data are abundant. They can vary
from web and mobile applications, internet of things (IoT) devices, forms, surveys, and more.
While data can be generated in a variety of ways, the collection of all available data isn’t necessary
for the success of your business. The incorporation of new data should be always be evaluated
based on its quality and relevancy to your business.

Phase 2: Data storage

Data can also differ in the way its structured, which has implications on the type of data storage that
a company uses. Structured data tends to leverage relational databases while unstructured data
typically makes use of NoSQL or non-relational databases. Once the type of storage is identified for
the dataset, the infrastructure can be evaluated for any security vulnerabilities and the data can
undergo different types of data processing, such as data encryption and data transformation, to
safeguard the business from malicious actors. This type of data munging also ensures sensitive data
meets the privacy and governmental requirements for governmental policies, like GDPR, allowing
businesses to avoid any costly fines from these types of regulations.

Another aspect of data protection is a focus on data redundancy. A copy of any stored data can act
as a backup in situations, such as data deletion or data corruption, protecting against accidental
alterations in data and more deliberate ones, like malware attacks.

Phase 3: Data sharing and usage

During this phase, data becomes available to business users. DLM enables organizations to define
who can use the data and the purpose for which it can be used. Once the data is made available it
can be leveraged for a range of analyses—from basic exploratory data analysis and data
visualizations to more advanced data mining and machine learning techniques. All of these methods
play a role in business decision-making and communication to various stakeholders.

Additionally, data usage isn’t necessarily restricted to internal use only. For example, external
service providers could use the data for purposes such as marketing analytics and advertising.
Internal uses include day-to-day business processes and workflows, such as dashboards and
presentations.

Phase 4: Data archival

:

After a certain amount of time, data is no longer useful for everyday operations. However, it is
important to maintain copies of the organization’s data that is not frequently accessed for potential
litigation and investigation needs. Then, if required, archived data can be restored to an active
production environment.

An organization’s DLM strategy should clearly define when, where, and for how long data should
be archived. In this stage, data undergoes an archival process that ensures redundancy.

Phase 5: Data Deletion

In this final stage of the lifecycle, data is purged from the records and destroyed securely.
Businesses will delete data that they no longer need to create more storage space for active data.
During this phase, data is removed from archives when it exceeds the required retention period or
no longer serves a meaningful purpose to the organization.

Benefits of data lifecycle management

Data lifecycle management has several important benefits which include:

• Process improvement: Data plays a crucial role in driving the strategic initiatives of an
organization. DLM helps maintain data quality throughout its lifecycle, which in turn enables
process improvement and increases efficiency. A good DLM strategy ensures that the data available
to users is accurate and reliable, enabling businesses to maximize the value of their data.

• Controlling costs: A DLM process places value on data at each stage of its lifecycle. Once data is
no longer useful for production environments, organizations can leverage a range of solutions to
reduce costs such as data backup, replication and archiving. For example, it can be moved to less-
costly storage located on-premises, in the cloud, or in network attached storage.

• Data usability: With a DLM strategy, IT teams can develop policies and procedures that ensure all
metadata is tagged consistently so it can improve accessibility when needed. Establishing
enforceable governance policies ensures the value of data for as long as it needs to be retained. The
availability of clean and useful data increases the agility and efficiency of company processes.

• Compliance and governance: Each industry sector has its own rules and regulations for data
retention, and a sound DLM strategy helps businesses remain compliant. DLM lets organizations
handle data with increased efficiency and security, while maintaining compliance with data privacy
 :

laws regarding personal data and organizational records.

Data lifecycle management and IBM

IBM offers business solutions that help organizations manage data from requirements through
retirement to improve business agility while reducing costs. IBM Cloud Pak for Data leverages
microservices and its leading data and AI capabilities to enable the intelligent integration of data
across distributed systems, providing companies with a holistic view of business performance. This
facilitates faster collection, organization, and insight into enterprise data, and it allows businesses to
make decisions at scale. Data management teams can also trust that their data is secure with IBM’s
competitive security frameworks, ensuring adherence to regulatory policies and reducing any
compliance risks.

Que 8 “Privacy of Organizational data has been increased in the network economy” Comment
Briefly describe the major threats to privacy and how privacy can be protect against unauthorized
access?

Ans:- Data privacy, also called information privacy, is an aspect of data protection that addresses the
proper storage, access, retention, immutability and security of sensitive data.

Data privacy is typically associated with the proper handling of personal data or personally identifiable
information (PII), such as names, addresses, Social Security numbers and credit card numbers. However, the
idea also extends to other valuable or confidential data, including financial data, intellectual property and
personal health information. Vertical industry guidelines often govern data privacy and data protection
initiatives, as well as regulatory requirements of various governing bodies and jurisdictions.

Data privacy is not a single concept or approach. Instead, it's a discipline involving rules, practices, guidelines
and tools to help organizations establish and maintain required levels of privacy compliance. Data privacy is
generally composed of the following six elements:

1. Legal framework. Prevailing legislation enacted and applied to data issues, such as data privacy
laws.

2. Policies. Established business rules and policies to protect employees and user data privacy.

3. Practices. Best-practices put in place to guide IT infrastructure, data privacy and protection.
 :

4. Third-party associations. Any third-party organizations, such as cloud service providers, that
interact with data.

5. Data governance. Standards and practices used to store, secure, retain and access data.

6. Global requirements. Any differences or variations of data privacy and compliance requirements
among legal jurisdictions around the world such as the U.S. and European Union (EU).

Data privacy is a subset of the broader data protection concept. It includes traditional data protection -
- such as data backups and disaster recovery considerations -- and data security. The goal of data
protection is to ensure the continued privacy and security of sensitive business data, while
maintaining the availability, consistency and immutability of that data.

 Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) gives parents control over what information websites
can collect from their kids.

 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) ensures patient confidentiality for all
healthcare-related data.

 Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) extends government restrictions on wire taps to include
transmission of electronic data.

 Video Privacy Protection Act (VPPA) prevents the wrongful disclosure of an individual's PII stemming from
their rental or purchase of audiovisual material.

 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA) mandates how financial institutions must deal with the individual's private
information.

 Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA) regulates the collection and use of credit information.

While some U.S. data protection laws are enacted at the federal level, states may also ratify and enact data
privacy laws. Examples of state-level data privacy laws include the following:

 California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)

 California Privacy Rights Act (CPRA)

 Virginia's Consumer Data Protection Act (VCDPA)

 Colorado Privacy Act (CPA)

 New York SHIELD Act

 Utah Consumer Privacy Act (UCPA)

 :

 Connecticut Personal Data Privacy and Online Monitoring Act (CPDPA)

The EU has the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which governs the collection, use, transmission
and security of data collected from residents of its 27-member countries. GDPR regulates areas such an
individual's ability to consent to provide data, how organizations must notify data subjects of breaches and
individual's rights over the use of their data.

Data privacy vs. data security

Data privacy and data security are closely related ideas, but they aren't interchangeable.

 Data privacy focuses on issues related to collecting, storing and retaining data, as well as data
transfers within applicable regulations and laws, such as GDPR and HIPAA.

 Data security is the protection of data against unauthorized access, loss or corruption throughout
the data lifecycle. Data security can involve processes and practices, along with a variety of tools
such as encryption, hashing and tokenization to guard data at rest and in motion.

Data privacy isn't easy or automatic, and many businesses struggle to meet requirements and counter threats
in an ever-changing regulatory and security landscape. Some of the biggest data privacy challenges include the
following:

 Privacy is an afterthought. Many businesses deal with data privacy long after implementing a business
model and IT infrastructure, leaving business and technology leaders scrambling to understand and address
complex requirements. Data privacy should be treated as a fundamental business goal, with policies,
training, tools and IT infrastructure designed to meet privacy needs from the ground up.

 Poor data visibility. The old axiom, "you can't manage what you can't see," applies to data privacy.
Organizations need a clear understanding what data is present, its level of sensitivity and where it's located.
Only then can a business make decisions about security and data privacy.

 Too much data. A business can be responsible for managing petabytes of data comprising various files,
databases and stores located across storage devices and cloud repositories. It's easy to lose track of data,
allowing sensitive content to elude security, privacy and retention guidance. A business must have the right
tools and policies to manage enormous and growing data volumes.

 More isn't always better. Businesses are starting to understand that data must have context and value --
retaining all data forever is expensive and presents storage, protection, attack and legal discovery risks.
Modern businesses must set balanced data retention policies about the amount of data collected, its value
to the business and what constitutes reasonable retention needs.
 :

 Too many devices. Modern businesses must embrace remote access, wireless, bring-your-own device,
IoT, smart device and other technologies. With all these moving pieces, it becomes harder to manage those
devices while controlling data storage and access. Data privacy in this complex environment demands
careful infrastructure management, strong access controls, comprehensive monitoring and well-considered
data governance policies.

 Too many regulations. Any given business may be subject to data privacy regulations at various levels,
including federal, state, province and industry. An enterprise that does business in another state, province or
country is then subject to those prevailing controls, as well. New controls appear regularly, and they can
change over time. This presents a vast, complex and fluid regulatory landscape.

Proper data privacy compliance can yield four major benefits for a business, including:

 Lower storage costs. Storing all data forever can be costly and risky. Companies that make rational decisions about
what data to collect and store, and implement the minimum retention time for that data, reduce costs for primary and
backup data storage.

 Better data use. Data is time-sensitive. A business making better data collection and retention decisions can benefit
from timely and better-quality data -- which translates into more accurate and relevant analytical results.

 Better business reputation and brand. The reputation of a business can be as important as its product or service. A
business that successfully adopts and adheres to data privacy practices can demonstrate care for customer data and data
privacy, leading to a better reputation and a stronger brand. Conversely, a business that experiences a major data breach
can suffer irreparable damage to its reputation and brand.

 Regulatory compliance. Proper data privacy compliance can protect a business from the litigation and fines that come
with data privacy breaches.

Tips to protect data privacy

There are countless guidelines and tips that can apply to data privacy. For individuals, data privacy can be reinforced with
safeguards and actions such as the following:

 select strong passwords and change them frequently;

 use multifactor authentication (MFA) or biometric identification for important accounts;

 don't click links and buttons within emails;

 avoid providing PII that's unnecessary or not required;

 use malware tools and keep those tools updated; and

 use only trusted apps and websites.

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For businesses, privacy principles and guidelines are more extensive and complex, but they can include the following
tactics:

 collect as little data as possible to accomplish a business task;

 require strong authentication and MFA, such as user passwords or app credentials for APIs;

 understand data sources, uses and storage locations;

 employ access monitoring and logging to track data access;

 use encryption and other security technologies to protect data at rest and in motion;

 back up data and test restoration;

 ensure any third-party storage providers, such as cloud storage providers, share data privacy requirements and
techniques; and

 regularly educate employees, partners and customers about data privacy guidelines.

A business must also contend with privacy legislation and regulatory issues related to data storage and retention. All data
privacy guidance should include a thorough understanding of regulatory requirements.

Data privacy is one of the most challenging areas of IT security many businesses have to contend with. Find out more
about the top three data privacy challenges.

Que 9 What are the basic structure elements of a HTML program ? Illustrate the caption of tables and
links with the help of a HTML program.

Ans: HTML is a web language. It is used to design web pages or to arrange a website's page
layouts. HTML stands for HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE, and as the name implies, it is a
markup language rather than a programming language. So, no such error can occur during the
execution of HTML code. HTML code was rendered by the browser. It was not compiled or
interpreted.

HTML uses specified tags and attributes to instruct browsers on how to display text, which
includes what format, style, font size, and pictures to display. HTML is a case-insensitive
language. Case insensitive means that there is no distinction between upper and lower case
(capital and small letters), which are both viewed as the same; for example, 'P' and 'p' are both
the same here. In HTML, tags are classified into two types:

 Paired tags: These tags come in pairs. They have both opening(< >) and closing(</ >) tags. For eg, <p> ...</p>
 Empty tags: These tags do not come in pairs and contain no information. For eg, <img src="" alt="">
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Basic Structure of HTML

An HTML document's basic structure consists of5 elements:

 <!DOCTYPE>
 <html>
 <head>
 <title>
 <body>

<!DOCTYPE>

The tag in HTML is used to inform the browser about the HTML version used in the web page. It is
referred as the document type declaration (DTD). It is not really a tag/element but rather an instruction to
the browser regarding the document type. It is a null element that does not have a closing tag and must not
contain any content.

Actually, there are various types of HTML e.g. HTML 4.01 Strict, HTML 4.01 Transitional, HTML
4.01 Frameset, XHTML 1.0 Strict, XHTML 1.0 Transitional, XHTML 1.0 Frameset, XHTML 1.1,
etc.

Since HTML 4.01 was based on SGML, the declaration relates to the Document Type Declaration (DTD)
in HTML 4.01. However, HTML 5 is not based on SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language).

<html>

The <html> tag in HTML is used to specify the root of HTML and XHTML pages. The <html> tag
informs the browser that this is an HTML document. It is the second outer container for
everything in an HTML document, followed by the tag. The <html> tag requires a beginning and
ending tag.

<head>

The <head> tag in HTML is used to contain metadata (data about data). It is used between
the<html> and <body> tags.

The head of an HTML document is a section of the document whose content is not displayed in
the browser when the page loads. It only contains HTML document metadata, which specifies
information about the HTML document.

Depending on our needs, an HTML head might contain a lot of metadata information or can
have very little or no metadata information. However, the head section of an HTML document
plays an essential role in the creation of a website.

The document title, character set, styles, links, scripts, and other meta information are defined by
metadata.

The following is a list of metadata tags:

 <title>
 <style>
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 <meta>
 <link>
 <script>
 <base>

<title>

This <title> tag in HTML displays the title of a web page and can help in higher rankings in search
results if appropriate keywords are included.

The most significant meta element to add to our webpage is the <title> element. It gives a
relevant title to the full HTML content. It appears at the top of the browser window and gives the
webpage a fitting name when saved as a favorite or bookmark. A solid web page title will
guarantee a higher rank in search results. Thus, we must constantly utilize relevant keywords.

It can be found in all HTML/XHTML documents. The <title> element must be positioned between
the <head> element, and there can only be one title element per document.

<body>

The <body> tag in HTML specifies the main content of an HTML document that appears on the
browser. It can contain headings, text, paragraphs, photos, tables, links, videos, etc.

The <body> tag must come after the <head> tag, or it must be inserted between
the </head> and </html> tags. This tag is essential for all HTML documents and should only be
used once throughout the document.

Table in HTML

A table is a representation of data arranged in rows and columns. Really, it's more like a
spreadsheet. In HTML, with the help of tables, you can arrange data like images, text, links
and so on into rows and columns of cells.

The use of tables in the web has become more popular recently because of the amazing
HTML table tags that make it easier to create and design them.

To create a table in HTML you will need to use tags. The most important one is
the <table> tag which is the main container of the table. It shows where the table will begin
and where it ends.
Common HTML Table tags
Other tags include:

 <tr> - represents rows

 <td> - used to create data cells
 <th> - used to add table headings
 <caption> - used to insert captions
 <thead> - adds a separate header to the table
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 <tbody> - shows the main body of the table

 <tfoot> - creates a separate footer for the table