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Neuropsychology for Psychologists Health Care
Professionals and Attorneys Third Edition Robert J.
Sbordone Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Robert J. Sbordone, Ronald E. Saul, Arnold D. Purisch
ISBN(s): 9780849373091, 0849373093
Edition: 3
File Details: PDF, 3.48 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page i — #1
Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page ii — #2
Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page iii — #3
Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page iv — #4
 Dedication

This book is dedicated to the memories of D. Frank Benson, M.D.,

Nelson Butters, Ph.D., and Alexander Luria, M.D., Ph.D., for their
achievements in neuropsychology, which have greatly enhanced our
understanding of the brain and how it affects behavior.

Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page v — #5

Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page vi — #6
Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii

Chapter 1
Clinical Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Definition of a Clinical Neuropsychologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Practice of Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Assessment and Diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Assessment of Brain Damage and the Patient’s Behavioral, Cognitive, and
Emotional Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Determination of Cognitive and Behavioral Alterations Caused by Brain Insults . . . . 2
Psychological Treatment/Cognitive Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Types of Psychological Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Consultation with Other Professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Historical Development of Clinical Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
History of Neuropsychological Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Chapter 2
The Education and Training of the Neuropsychologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Experience in Clinical Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Theoretical Orientation of the Psychologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The Training Environment of the Psychologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Experience in Brain-Injury Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Consequences of Insufficient Experience with Brain-Damaged Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Limited Forensic Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Risk of Utilizing Experts Who Lack Expertise in Assessing Brain Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Competence in the Field of Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The American Board of Professional Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
“Vanity Boards” in Clinical Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page vii — #7

Chapter 3
Comparison of Roles and Training of Different Mental Health Specialists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Comparison of Clinical Neuropsychologists with Clinical Psychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Clinical Psychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Clinical Neuropsychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Comparison of Clinical Neuropsychologists with Clinical Psychiatrists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Psychiatrists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Clinical Neuropsychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Comparison of Clinical Neuropsychologists with Neurologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Neurologists and the Neurological Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Clinical Neuropsychologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Role of Behavioral Neurologists and Neuropsychiatrists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Chapter 4
Neuroanatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The Cerebral Lobes of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Primary and Secondary Cortical Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Tertiary Cortical Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Frontal Lobes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Left Hemisphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The Right Hemisphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The Limbic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Basal Ganglia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The Brain Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Cerebrovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Internal Carotid Artery System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Basilar Vertebral Artery System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Damage to the Cerebrovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
The Cerebroventricular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Brain Damage Caused by Hydrocephalus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Chapter 5
Neurobehavioral Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Amnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Anterograde Amnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Retrograde Amnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Confabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Memory Is Not a Unitary Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Transient Global Amnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Causes of Amnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Psychogenic Amnesia and Related Dissociative Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Dissociative Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Delirium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Dementia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Evaluation of Dementia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
The Dementia Spectrum — Normal Aging to Degenerative Dementia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Normal Aging and Mild Cognitive Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page viii — #8

 Major Cortical Degenerative Dementias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Alzheimer’s Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Vascular Dementia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Parkinson’s Dementia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Lewy Body Dementia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Frontotemporal Comportmental Dementias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Frontotemporal Degeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Other Acquired Neurobehavioral Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Dementia of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
AIDS Dementia Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Multiple Sclerosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Pseudodementia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
The Executive Functions of the Brain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Anatomy of the Executive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Disorders of Executive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Electrical Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Hypoxic Encephalopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Neurotoxic Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Toxic Leukoencephalopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Causes of Toxic Leukoencephalopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Neuropsychological Assessment of Neurotoxic Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Preexisting Neurobehavioral Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Diagnostic Criteria for ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Associated Features of ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
ADHD in Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Psychiatric Disorders in Individuals with ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Tourette’s Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Learning Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Dyslexia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Dyscalculia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Dysgraphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Nonverbal Learning Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Learning Disabilities in Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Chapter 6
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Acute Stress Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Role of Dissociation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Complex PTSD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Historical Background of PTSD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Epidemiology of PTSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Exposure to a Traumatic Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Incidence and Prevalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Risk Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Chronicity of Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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 Comorbidity of Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Clinical Assessment of PTSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
PTSD Questionnaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
PTSD Following MVAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Biological Basis of PTSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Physiological/Endocrinological Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Neurological/Brain Imaging Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Neuropsychological Investigations of PTSD Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Can PTSD Develop if the Patient Is Amnestic for the Traumatic Event or Sustains a
Traumatic Brain Injury? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Disability Following PTSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Psychological Treatment of PTSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Chapter 7
Mild Traumatic Brain Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Incidence and Risk Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Assessing the Severity of a TBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Duration of Posttraumatic Amnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Definition of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Problems with This Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Reliability of the Patient’s Estimate of the Duration of Their Loss of Consciousness. . . . . . . 104
Neurological Examination of MTBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Pathology of MTBIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Can Whiplash Injury Produce an MTBI? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Cerebral Concussion and the “Postconcussive Syndrome” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Cerebral Contusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
The DSM-IV Criteria for a Postconcussive Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Cognitive and Behavioral Symptoms of a Postconcussive Syndrome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Nonspecificity of Postconcussive Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Persistence of PCSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Influence of Premorbid Factors on the Persistence of Postconcussive Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Posttraumatic Factors That Influence the Persistence of Postconcussive Symptoms . . . . . . . . 109
Boxer’s Encephalopathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Concussions in Sporting Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Use of Neuropsychological Tests to Corroborate Postconcussive Symptoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Psychiatric Disorders That Can Mimic a PCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Conversion Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Somatoform Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Anxiety Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Panic Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Dissociative Symptoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Factitious Disorder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Detection of Malingering by a Mental Status Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Clinical Characteristics of Conversion Disorder and Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Medications That Can Mimic MTBI Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Consequences of Inaccurate Diagnosis of a Concussion or MTBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

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Chapter 8
Severe Traumatic Brain Injuries and Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Focal Brain Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
The Effects of Damage Caused by Contusions to the Prefrontal Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Understanding the Role of the Prefrontal Cortex on Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Contusions of the Lateral Orbital Frontal Lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Effects of Medial Frontal Contusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Effects of Dorsolateral Frontal Lobe Contusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Effects of Contusions of the Surface of the Temporal Lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Penetrating Brain Injuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Diffuse Axonal Brain Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Secondary Brain Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Intracranial Hematoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Brain Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Elevated Intracranial Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Cerebral Hypoxia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Arterial Hypoxemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Hydrocephalus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Intracranial Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Posttraumatic Epilepsy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Generalized Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Partial Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Incidence of Posttraumatic Epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Diagnosis of Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Behavioral and Psychological Manifestations of Temporal and Frontal
Lobe Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Epileptic Spectrum Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Intermittent Explosive Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
TBI in Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Neuropsychological Studies of Infants and Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Neurodiagnostic Studies of Patients with TBIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Evoked Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Quantitative EEG and Topographical Brain Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Magnetic Resonance Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
The Use of PET and SPECT in the Evaluation of TBIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Functional MRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Chapter 9
Reliability and Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Interrater Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
The Generalizability of Normative Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Validity of Neuropsychological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Ecological Validity: Critical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
The Ecological Validity of the Brain-Injured Patient’s Subjective Complaints. . . . . . . . . . . 143
Demand Characteristics of the Patient’s Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Conditionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Predicting Everyday Functioning from Neuropsychological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Outcome Measures of Everyday Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

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 Predicting Vocational Functioning from Neuropsychological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
A Vector Analysis Approach to Determine the Ecological Validity of the Test Data . . . . . 150
Current Uses of Neuropsychological Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Use of Psychological Assistants or Technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Chapter 10
Neuropsychological Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Clinical Interview with Patient and Significant Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Patient’s Description of the Accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Subjective Complaints of Patient during Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Patients with Numerous Subjective Complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Role of Confounding Factors on Patient’s Neuropsychological Test Performance . . . . . . . . . . 157
Prior Brain Injuries and Congenital Neurological Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Pain and Physical Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Medical Illnesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Alcohol/Drug Abuse and Medication Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Psychiatric Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Recent Psychosocial Stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Suboptimal Motivation and Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Demographic Discrepancies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Prior Experience and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Use of Clinical History to Detect Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Different Schools of Thought about the Importance of Obtaining Clinical History . . . . . . . . . 162
Necessity of Interviewing Significant Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
The Importance of Obtaining a Careful and Comprehensive Background History . . . . . . . . . . 163
Background Information to Be Obtained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Developmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Educational Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Cultural Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Occupational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Current Stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Marital Status and History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Sexual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Psychiatric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Legal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Lateral Dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Military Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
The Mental Status Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Behavioral Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Age and Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Attire and Grooming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Eye Contact and Physical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Level of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

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 Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Activity Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Review of Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Academic Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Vocational Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Medical Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Military Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Psychiatric/Psychological Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Chapter 11
Detection of Deception and Malingering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Critical Concepts in Our Understanding of Deception and Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Symptom Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Response Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Effort and Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Dissimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Manifestations of Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Convenient Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Distinguishing Features of Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
The Nature of Secondary Gain in Psychiatric Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Somatoform Disorders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Characteristics Associated with Unconscious and Conscious Secondary Gain . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Performance of Responsibilities and Leisure Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Need for Approval and Degree of Socialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
The Role of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Factitious Disorder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
DSM-IV-TR Suspicion Indices for Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Medical–Legal Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Antisocial Personality Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Noncompliance and Lack of Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Excessive Subjective Complaints vs. Objective Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Sensitivity and Specificity of the DSM-IV-TR Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Subtypes of Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Identification of Cognitive Malingering on Neuropsychological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Factors Associated with Poor Neuropsychological Test Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Limitations in Research Studies of Malingering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Uncertain Efficacy of Neuropsychological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Problems Detecting Malingerers for Use in Research Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Suspected Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Simulated or Analog Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Relationship of Litigation to Psychological and Neuropsychological
Test Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Relationship of Litigation to Motivation and Effort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
The Process of Evaluating Motivation and Effort During the Neuropsychological
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
The Power of a Comprehensive Neuropsychological Evaluation to
Identifying Malingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

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 Ethical and Clinical Issues in the Identification of Deception and Malingering . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Chapter 12
Neuropsychological Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Use of Psychological Assistants or Technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Neuropsychological Batteries and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Standardized Neuropsychological Test Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Training in the Use of a Standardized Neuropsychological Test Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Neuropsychological Test Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery and Its Allied Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Aphasia Screening Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Halstead Category Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Finger Oscillation (Tapping) Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Grip Strength (Hand Dynamometer) Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Seashore Rhythm Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Sensory–Perceptual Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Speech–Sounds Perception Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Tactual Perceptual Examination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Tactile Finger Localization and Fingertip Number Writing Perception Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Tactile Form Recognition Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Tactual Performance Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Trail Making Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Scoring Indices of the Halstead–Reitan Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Halstead Impairment Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Average Impairment Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
General Neuropsychological Deficits Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Alternative Impairment Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Interpretation of the Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Luria–Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Interpretation of the LNNB Test Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Neuropsychological Assessment Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
San Diego Neuropsychological Test Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Microcog Assessment of Cognitive Functioning Computerized Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Interpretation of the Microcog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Nepsy: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment Test to Assess Young and
Older Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Individual Neuropsychological Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Tests Used to Assess Intelligence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Kaufman Brief Test of Intelligence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Raven Progressive Matrices Tests (RPMT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Colored Matrices Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Advanced Progressive Matrices Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale — Revised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales — Fifth Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Test of Nonverbal Intelligence — III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

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Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence — Third Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale — Revised. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale — Third Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Tests to Assess Attention and Concentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Brief Test of Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Color Trails Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Children’s Color Trails Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Comprehensive Trail Making Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Continuous Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Conners’ Continuous Performance Test — II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Digit Span Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Ruff 2 and 7 Selective Attention Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Stroop Color and Word Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Symbol Digit Modalities Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Test of Everyday Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Test of Variables of Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Trail Making Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Tests to Assess Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
The Aphasia Screening Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination — Third Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Boston Naming Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Controlled Oral Word Association Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Multilingual Aphasia Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test — Third Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Token Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Tests to Assess Academic Achievement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Peabody Individual Achievement Test — Revised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test — Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Wide Range Achievement Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Tests to Assess Visuospatial and Perceptual Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Bender–Gestalt Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Benton Facial Recognition Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Benton Judgment of Line Orientation Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Block Design Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Hooper Visual Organization Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Object Assembly Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Seashore Rhythm Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Smell Identification Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Speech–Sounds Perception Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Tactual Performance Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Visual Form Discrimination Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Tests to Assess Motor Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Finger Tapping Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Grip Strength Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Grooved Pegboard Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Tests to Assess Learning and Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Auditory Consonant Trigrams Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

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 Benton Visual Retention Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Brief Visuospatial Memory Test — Revised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Buschke Selective Reminding Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
California Verbal Learning Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
California Verbal Learning Test — Children’s Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
California Verbal Learning Test — II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Children Memory Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Continuous Visual Memory Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Recognition Memory Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test — Second Edition (RBMT-II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Ruff-Light Trail Learning Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Wechsler Memory Scale — Revised. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Wechsler Memory Scale — III (WAIS-III) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning — Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Tests to Assess Abstract Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Proverbs Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Similarities Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Tests to Assess Conceptual Thinking/Problem-Solving Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Category Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Raven Progressive Matrices Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Ruff Figural Fluency Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Tests that Assess the Executive Functions of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Executive Functions of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Behavioral Rating Scales to Assess the Executive Functions of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Frontal Systems Behavioral Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Ruff Neurobehavioral Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Tests to Assess Personality/Emotional Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Beck Anxiety Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Beck Depression Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Detailed Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-I, MCMI-II, and MCMI-III) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI, MMPI-2, MMPI-A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Significance of the Clinical Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Personality Assessment Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Trauma Symptom Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Test Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Chapter 13
The Interpretation of Neuropsychological Test Data: Assessment Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Different Levels of Evaluating Neuropsychological Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Screening: Sensitivity and Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Description of Strengths and Weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

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 Identification of Underlying Factors Based Upon Pattern Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Comprehensive Integration of Historical, Qualitative, Quantitative,
and Collateral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Recognizing Biased Neuropsychological Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Setting Cutoff Scores: Sensitivity vs. Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Adjustments for Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Assumptions of Consistency in Abilities on Test Performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Assumption of Normal Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Chapter 14
The Limitations of Neuropsychological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Limitations of IQ Tests to Assess Brain-Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Limitations of Utilizing Psychological Assistants or Technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Limitations of Widely Used Neuropsychological Tests and Their Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Limitations of Neuropsychological Tests to Assess Brain-Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Limitations of Neuropsychological Testing to Assess Neurobehavioral Symptoms . . . . . . . . . 360
Limitations of Neuropsychological Tests to Assess the Frontal Lobes
of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Limitations of Neuropsychological Tests to Assess the Executive Functions
of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Chapter 15
Samples of Medicolegal Neuropsychological Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Sample #1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Chief Complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
History of Present Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Personal History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Review of Medical Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Tests Administered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Richard Crumb, Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Sample #2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Harvey Prince, Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Sample #3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Chief Complaints as Obtained from Mr. Cabrera via a Translator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Additional Complaints of His Sister-in-Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Current Medications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
History of Injury as Obtained from Mr. Cabrera via an Interpreter with the
Assistance of His Sister-in-Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Background as Obtained from Mr. Cabrera via a Translator with the
Assistance of His Sister-in-Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Developmental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Occupational History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

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 Hobbies/Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Military Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Legal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Family History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Marital History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Psychiatric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Substance Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Review of Medical Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Behavioral Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Neuropsychological Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Tests Administered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Impression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Diagnoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Raymond Roblowski, Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Sample #4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Chief Complaints as Obtained from Mr. Meredith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Current Medications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
History of Injury as Obtained from Mr. Meredith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Background as Obtained from Mr. Meredith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Developmental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Occupational History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Legal Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Family History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Siblings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Marital History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Sexual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Psychiatric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Substance Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Behavioral Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Neuropsychological Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Tests Administered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Attention–Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Speed of Cognitive Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Visual Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Learning and Memory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Higher Order Motor/Executive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Abstract Thinking/Conceptualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Personality/Emotional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
James Heaton, Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

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 Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Sample #5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Chief Complaints as Obtained from Mr. Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Additional Complaints from Patient’s Spouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
History of Injury as Obtained from the Patient and His Spouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Background as Obtained from Mr. Thomas, with the Assistance of
His Wife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Developmental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Hobbies/Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Legal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Family History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Siblings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Marital History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Sexual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Psychiatric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Substance Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Medical History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Review of Academic Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Review of Medical Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Deposition of Donald Sturgess, M.D.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Deposition of Marc C. Blumenthal, D.O.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Deposition of Anthony Derringer, M.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Deposition of Randy Nielsen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Behavioral Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Additional Information Obtained from the Patient’s Spouse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Neuropsychological Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Tests Administered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Attention–Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Visual Perception/Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Learning/Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Executive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Abstract Thinking/Conceptualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Personality/Emotional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Leyland Cassidy, Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Sample #6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Chief Complaints as Obtained from Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Additional Complaints from the Patient’s Mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
History of Injury as Obtained from the Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Interview with Patient’s Mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Developmental. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Family History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

Robert: “7309_c000” — 2007/5/22 — 20:26 — page xix — #19

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
nved them ; ia &ct the jndgea did not even come to a vote
reipectiag the Ibnner. At the expiration of the year a Boeotaxdi was
eligible to office a second time, and Pekipidaa waa repaOedlv
chosen. From the case if Ffsmpimmdaa and Pdopidas, who were
brought hefae Theban judges (SueootoQ, fiir tnnsgression of tke law
wfaidi limited the time of office, we may ooadade that etth
Boeofanch was responsible to ktt own state akHK, and not to the
genoal body of the fiwr eonnrna MfBtien is made of an dection of
Boeotarehs by livy (xxxiiL 27, zliL 44). He fnrthei inJbnns V tliat the
league (eomdUmm) was broken up by tlie&anaaa &a 171. (Compare
Polyb. xxviiL 2. ilO^ThBoisvrdrldref awrcX^.) Still it must kve been
partially revived, as we are told of a KCflod brealdxig up by the
Romans sfter the de■tnction of Corinth & a 146. (Pans, vil 16. §«.)
[R.W.J BOMBYCINUM. [Sbbkuh.] BONA. The word bona is
sometimes used to expRss the whole of a m8n'!B property (Panlus,
Bfttefi, StaiemL T. 6, 16 ; Dig. 37. tit 1. s. 3 ; 50.titl6« ib49); and in
the phiaset boi BONA. ^5 emtio, eessto, possessio, nsosfrnctus, the
woid ** bona ** is equivalent to property. It expresses all that a
man has, whether as owner or merely as possessor ; and every
thmg to which he has any right. Bat it is said (Dig. 50. tit 16. s.88):
** Pnprie bona did non possiAit quae plus inoommodi quam
oommodi habent" However, the use of the word in the care of
univetial saceession comprehended both the commodum and
inoommo* dum of that which passed to the univetial soecessor. But
the word bona is simply tlie property as an object ; it does not
express the nature of the relation between it and the pensn who has
the ownenhip or the enjoyment of it, any more th^g the words **all
that I have,** *" all that I am worth," ** all my property," m English
show the legal rehition of a man to that which he thus describes.
The legal expression m bomM, as opposed to dominium, or
Qmriiantm oumenk^ and the nature of the distinction will be easily
apprehended by any person who is slightly converMut with ^glish
law. ** There is,** says Gains (ii. 40), **among foreignen
(peng^rim) only one kmd of ownerdiip (dommium\ so that a man is
either the owner of a thing or he is not And this was fonnerly the
case among the Roman people ; for a man was either owner ex jure
Quiritium, or he was not But aflerwards the ownenhip was split, so
that now one man may be the owner (dtrntims) of a thing ex jure
Quiritium, and yet snother may have it in bonis. For instance, ij^ in
the case of a res mancipi, I do not transfer it to yon by mancipatio,
nor by the form in jure cession but merely deliver it to yon, the thing
in« deed becomes your thing (in batit)^ but it wilJ remain mine ex
jure Quirithun, until by possession you have it by usucapion. For
when tae usucapion is once complete, from that time it begins to be
yours absdutely ( plow .^tre), that i% it is yonn both in bonis and
also youn ex jure Quiritium, just as if it had been mancipated to you,
or tnmafecxed to you by the in jure cessio.** In this passage Gaius
refers to the three modes of acquiring property which were the
peculiar rights of Roman dtisens, mancipatio, in jure cessio^ and
usuaq>ioo, which are also particuhurly enumerated by him in
another passage (ii. 65). From this passage it appean that the
ownenhip of certain kinds cH things among the Romans, called res
mancipi [MANciPii7if ], oould only be transferred from one person to
another with certain feimalities, or acquired by usucapion. But if it
was dearly the intention of the owner to transfer the ownership, and
the neoessaiy forms only were wanting, the purchaser had the thing
in bonis, and he had the enjoyment of it, though the original owner
was legailjf the owner until the usuciq>ion was completed,
notwithstanding he had parted with the thing. It thus appean that
Qniritarian ownenhip of res mandpi originally and properiy signified
that ownenhip of a thing which the Roman law ns cognised as such ;
it did not express a compound but a simple notion, which was that
of absolute ownenhip. But when it was once establi^ed that one
man might have the Qniritarian ownership, and another the
enjoyment, and the sole right to the enjoyment of the same thing,
the com* plete notion of Qniritarian ownenhip became a notion
compounded of the strict legal notion of ownenhip, and that of the
right to enjoy, as united
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.82%
accurate

SOff BONA. in the aame pencm. And as a man mifflit lutTe

both the Qniritarian ownership and the right to the enjoyment of a
thing, so one might hare the Quiri> tarian ownership only, and
another might hare the enjoyment of it only. This hare ownership
was sometimes expressed' by the same terms (at jwn Qmritium) as
that ownership which was complete, bat sometimes it was
appcopriatdy called nudum Ju» Quintmm (Gains, iii. 100), and yet
the person who had snch bue right was still oiled dommus, and by
this term he is contrasted with the utu/ruetuarius and the bonae
fidei potteuor. The historical origin of this notion, of the separation of
the ownership from the right to enjoy a thing, is not known ; bnt it
may be easily conjectured. When nothing was wanting to the
transfer of ownership but a compliance with the strict legal form, we
can easily conoeiTe that the Roman jurists would soon get over this
difficulty. The strictness of the old legal institutions of Rome was
gradually relaxed to meet the wants of the people, and in the
instance already mentioned, the jurisdiction of the praetor supplied
the defects of the law. Thus, that interest which a man had acquired
in a tlung, and which only wanted certain forms to make it
Qniritarian ownership, was protected by the praetor. The praetor
could not give Qniritarian ownership, bnt he could protect a man in
the enjo3rmaat of a thing — he could maintain his possession: and
this is precisely what the praetor did with respect to those who were
possessors of public land ; they had no ownership, but only a
possession, in which they were protected by the praetor** interdict
[Aorariab Lboes, p. 38.] That which was in bonis, then, was that kind
of interest or ownership which was protected by the praetor, which
interest may be called bonitarian or beneficial ownership, as
opposed to Qniritarian or bare legal ownership. It does not appear
that the woid dominium is STer applied to such bonitarian ownenhip
except it may be in one passage of Ghiius (i. 54), the explanation of
which is not firee from difficulty. That interest called in bonis, which
arose from a bare tradition of a res mancipi, was protected by the
exceptio, and the actio utilis in rem. (Dig. 41. tit 1. s. 52.) Posseflsio
is the general name of the interest which was thus protected. The
person who had a thing in bonis and ex jnsta caosa was also entitled
to the actio Publiciana, in case he bet the possession of the thing
before he had gained the ownership by nsucapion. (Gains, ir. S6.)
The phrases bonorum poasessio, bonomm possessor, mi^t then
apply to him who has had a res mancipi transferred to him by
tradition only ; but the phrase applies also to other cases in which
the praetor by the help of fictions gave to persons the beneficial
interest to whom he could not give the ownership. When the praetor
gave the goods of the debtor to the creditor, the creditor was said M
potaemommm rerwuj or bonorum dMorU mUti. (Dig. 42. tit 5. 8. 14,
&c.) [Bonorum Emtio ; Bonorum Posssssio.] As to. things nee
mancipi, the ownenhip might be transferred by bare tradition or
delivery, and such ownership was Qniritarian, inaamnch as the
Roman law required no special form to be observed in the transfer of
the ownership of res nee sipi. Such tnuMfer was made according to
BONA CADUCA. the jos gentium (}n the Roman sense of that ten
(Gaius, iL 26, 41, 20 ; Ulpu Fraff. I 16.) (Zimmem, Uoberdm We$em
dettogenamUm la tariitAen Eufoitkumt, IUumi$ek, Mus./urJuruf iii 8.)
[G. L] BONACADU'CA. a»/aicma literally signiti that which fidls:
thus,^i2aiM enfueo, according Gains (Dig. 50. tit 16. & 30), ia the
mast whi falls from a tree. Cadncnni, in its general snu might be any
thing without an owne^ or what t person entitled to neglected to
take (Cic Dt C lii 31, PhiL x. 5) ; bnt the atrict legal sense of c dncum
and bona cadnca, is that stated by Ulps (F^, xviL De Oufucu), which
is as feUowi :If a thing is left by testament to a penoo. that he can
take it by the joa civile, bnt from mi cause has not taken it, that
thing is called etui atm, as if it had/ii&a fitim him ; for instance, a
legacy was left to an unmarried penoo,or Latinus Junianus ; and the
nmnanried peisao di not within a hundred days obey the law, or
within the same time the Latinns did not obtiu the Jus Quiritinm, or
had become a peregnm (see Cujadiis, ad Vlpkmi TUmloa XXIX. voL i
n NeapoL 1758), the legacy was cadncmn. Or if Asrw e» jMifito, or a
legatee, died befiire the openin of the will, the thing was oarfae— i.
The tbh^ which failed to come to a person in coDseqiieiio of
something happening in the life of the tettato was said to be m
oMtsa oadmei; that iriiich &De< of taking effect between the death
of the teitatoi and the opening of the will, was sunplycsllei eaducum.
(Comp. Dig. 28. tit 5. a. 62, and Dig 31.a.51; OxisCiMZ, Art 103d,
&c) The Uw above alluded to is the Lex Jdia e Papia Poppaea, which
is aometimea simply callM Julia, or Papia Poppaea. This law, whicli
vii passed in the time of Angnstus (a. d. 9), hsd the double object of
encouraging maniagea and enrich' ing the treasury — oeraniaii (Tadt
Ann. m. 25), and contained, with reference to these two objedi, a
great nnmbtf of provisions. Martial (v. Ep. 75) alludes to a penon
who married m order to eompl/ with the law. That which was
cadncnm came^ in the fint place, to those among the heredea who
had children ; and if the heredea had no children, it came among
thoae of the legateea who had children. The kw gave the jus
accreacendi, that ia, the right (o the caducnm as frur as the third
degree of consanguinity, both ascending and desoadmg (UlpFra^.
18), to those who wen made hendei l^tbe will Under the proviaians
of the kw, the cadncum, in case there was no prior daimaat,
beloiiged to the aerarium ; or, as Ulpian (xxviii. 7) expreaies it, if no
one waa entitled to the Hommm poMes»io, or if a peraon was
entitled, but did not aiaert hit right, tne bona became piblic property
{puf*^ d^enintur\ according to the Lex Julia caductfia; but by a
conatitution of the Emperor Antaarons Caracalla it was appropriated
to the fiscos: the joi accTCsoendi above mentioned was, however,
itiH retamed. The lawyers, however (oW ffudentunmt), by various
devices, such as snbstitotioni, often succeeded in making the law of
no etfeet A case is mentioned in the I>iffeBt (28. tit 4. i. 3), in which
bona caduca were daimod by the 6kbi in the time of Marcus
Antoninna, and another in which the fiacua is mentioned even under
Hadriso, where one would expect to find the term aeFunnn '
(SaWgny, Sj^stem^ &a u 273; note qq.)
The text on this page is estimated to be only 23.22%
accurate

BONA FIDES. He v^ taok tlie portion of a henB^ wlueh

becaae caducun, took it by uuTcnal BUceeHioii : m t^ateof
alen^ytlie cadnciim waa a nngiikr rirwinn, Baioe wlio took
anliereditaft cadua^ lock, it Willi tibe bequests of freedom, of
legacies, aoad fidei nrnnniMni witb whicb it was buithened : if itfeB
Icgata and fidd mmmissii became cadaca, all chaiiges with whidi tbej
were burtkened became cadaea aba. In the time of Constantiiie,
both tke caekbs,aad tke orbiis,orckildlees penon (wko was asdcr a
iiraited incapacity)* obtained tke full legal capacity of toking tkie
inkeritanoe. (Ood. viiL 58.) Jfwtinisn (Cod. tL 51) pat an end to tke
eadocmn, vitk all its k|gal eonseqaences. In tkis last-mentiooed title
(JM OadmeU iottemdU) it is stated botk tkat tke name and the tking
(aonea H mata eadmeenm) kad their origin in tke civil wan, tkat
SBnypnvisiaoa of tke law were evaded, and many kad becoiBe
obsolete. (Jnv. Sal, ix. 88; Gains, L 150, ii. 207, iii. 144, 286 ; Lipsios,
Ezcors. ad Tadt. ^aau iiL 25 ; Marezoll, Lekrimeh der Inaiittd, da
Roau BeekU.) As to tke Dos Cadoca, see Do& [O.L.] BONA FIDES.
Tkis term frequently ocean ia tke Latin writen, and porticolaily in tke
Roman jariita. It can only be defined witk reference to thiags
apposed to it, namely, mala fides, and dohis ■a^ botk of wkich
tenns, and especially tke hder, axa frequently nsed in a tecknical
sense. [DoLos Mai. 178.3 Ce&etaUy spfking, bona fides implies tke
abanee of aQ fiiind and aniair dealio^ or acting. In tkis saisa, bona
fides, tkat is, tke absence of all fraad, wketker tke frand consists in
simnlation or a necessaiy ingredient in all ooneitkcr kexfroa a Bma
fide pouiden a{qilies to kim wko has aoqaiied t)^ poaaeasioD of a
tking under a good title, u ke wippuaea. He who posmsed a tlung
bona ide, kad a capacity of acquiring tke ownenkip by BWfapinp, md
kad the protecdon of tke actio Pabfidaa^ Tkns a poaon wko receiTsd
a tkiog ' or nee mandpi, not from tkeowner, whom hs belieYed to be
tke acquire tke ownerskip by usucapion. (Gaiaa, n. 43 ; U^ Froff. six.
8.) Atkin^ wkick ves^^vtina or «• jwapiKi, or tke res manapi of a
kaale who was in tke ti^da of ker agnati, unless it was ddivcred by
ker under tke auctoritas of ker taior, was not sabject to usucapion,
and tkerefore ia tkese caaea tke presence or absence (^ bona fides
vas iMiBHlwial, (Gaiua, L 192, iL 45, Sue ; Cic JdJiLl&j Pro Plaeoo^ c
84.) A person wko boQgkt finom a popillns witkout tke auctoritas of
kia tutor, or with uie auctoritas of a person whom be knew not to be
the tutor, did not purckase boua fide ; tkat is, ke was guilty of a 1
 ?0B BONORUM EMTIO, from arrest Tbe Tablet of Heradea
(Mazocchi, pL 423) speaki of those ^m m jure bonam copiam
jwrabamt ; a phrase which appears to be equivjalent to the bonomm
oessio, and was a declaration on oath m jart^ that is, before the
praetor, bj the debtor that his property was sufficient to pay his
debts. But this was still accompanied with iniamia. So fiu as we can
learn firom Livy, no sach declaration of solvency was required from
the debtor by the Poetdia lex. The Julian law rendered the process of
the cessio bonorum more simple, by making it a procedure extra jus,
and giving fivther privileges to the insolvent. Like several other Julian
laws, it appears to have consolidated and extended the provisions of
previous enactments. The term bonorum cessio is used in the Scotch
law, and the early practice was derived from the Roman system.
(Oaius, iiL 28 ; Dig. 42. tit 3; Cod. vii. tit. 71.) [G.L.] BONO'RUM
COLLA'TIO. By the strict rules of the civil law an emancipated son
had no right to the inheritance of his father, whether he died testate
or intestate. But, in course of time, the praetor granted to
emancipated children the privilege of equal succession with those
who remained in the power of the fether at the time of his death ;
and this grant might be either contra ialmltu or ab intetktto. But this
favour was granted to emancipated children only on condition that
they should bring into one common stock with their father*s
property, and for the purpose of an equal division among all the
fiither*s children, what. ever property they had at the time of the
father's death, and which would have been acquired for the fiither in
case they had still remained in his power. This was called bonorum
oollatio. It resembles the old English hotchpot, upon the principle of
which is framed the provision in the statute 22 and 23 Charles II. &
10. s. 5, as to the distribution of an intestate^s estate. (Dig. 87. tit.
6 ; Cod. yi tit. 20 ; Thibaut, System det Pandehten Reehia^ §901,
&&, 9th ed., where the rules applicable to the bonorum collatio are
more particularly stated.) [G. L.] BONO'RUM E'MTIO ET EMTOR. The
expression bonorum emtio applies to a sale of the property either of
a living or of a dead person. It was in efiect, as to a living debtor, an
execution. In the case of a living person, his goods were liable to be
sold if he concealed himself for the purpose of defrauding his
creditors, and was not defended in his absence ; or if he made a
bonorum cessio according to the Julian law ; or if he did not pay any
sum of money which he was by judicial sentence ordered to pay,
within the time fixed by the kws of the Twelve Tables (Aul GelL xv.
13, XX. 1) or by the praetor^s edict In the case of a dead person,
his property was sold when it was ascertained that there was neither
heres nor bonorum possessor, nor any other person entitled to
succeed to it In this case the property belonged to the state aiier the
passing of the Lex Jidia et Papia Poppaea. If a person died in debt,
the praetor ordered a sale of his property on the application of the
creditors. (Gains, iL 154, 167.) In the case of the property of a living
person being sold, the praetor, on tue application of the creditors,
ordered it to be possessed (jponidmi) by the creditors for thirty
successive days, and notice to be given of the sale. This explains the
expression in Livy (ii: 24) : ** ne quis militii, donee in casttia esset.
BONORUM POSSfeSSIO. hoaaLpoetideret aut yenderet^ The
creditors wi*« said OT poemeaionem rerum debiione mitti ' wmM
times a single creditor obtuned the possessi When several crediton
obtained the poMcsaaio, I was usual to entrust the management of
tbe bQ«» ness to one of them, who was chosen by a majoriti of the
creditors. The creditors then met and cboai a roagistcr, that is, a
person to sell the property (Cic. AdAU.\.9^ vl 1 ; /V\> P. Qirmtio, c
\5% or a curator bonorum if no immediate sale -w-a^ intended. The
purchaser, emtor, obtained by tlM sale only the bonomm possessio :
the property waj his In bonis, until he acquired the Qoiritarram
ownership by usucapion. The foundation of this rule seems to be,
that the consent of the owner wasj considered necessary in order to
transfer the ownership. Both the bonorum possessores and the em*
tores had no legal rights {direefae aetioneai) ai^inst the debtors of
the person whose property was possessed or purchased, nor could
they be legally sued by them ; but the praetor allowed ntiU^ a
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BOONAE. « tfaoM vbo vcK nrt emawripated^ and adopthre

as veO M cUUien of the Uood ; Irat not children vbo bad hem
adopted mto another fiunflj. If a fieedmeB died intestate^ leaTing
oailj a infe (in Tsma) or an adopdre mi, the patran waa entitled to
tke boDonn poaeasio of one half of hie pnperty. Tie teMnm
poaeeaaio waa given either cmm re ami ft. It vaa giren cmm re,
when the peiacm IB vboa it vaa giren thereby obtained the profenj tt
aad be aned in respect of ihe property by a btpl fiction. He waa not
able to anatain a dincta •^; bat ia order to give hhn thia capacity, he
w bj a iietian of law aoppoaed to be what he «■ not, km; aad he
waa aaid fitio m herede <9n; « I'afraJon. The actiooa which he
oonld Btiaia or defend wera ae^MMt atiZM. (Cic. Ad ^«ak Til 21 ;
Oaina, iiL 25—^8, iv. 34 ; Ulp. /^r: tit. 28,29 ; Dig. 37. tit 4. & Id ;
tit 11 ; 1% 38. tit €; agood general view of the bonoram ' ' ia i^Tcn
by MaresoU, LeMtiek der InI dm Ham. nsOtB, §174;
Thibaut,^r»teiai>teddteAooik nh, aad imbanadort. 'flieir office ia
apoken of aa wnUe by Haipocmtion (8.v.) ; but Polliuc BOULE. 309 I
them among the ini or officea of acrvice
(i'niptoimijBSdthfPmU.jEeom, o/Jtiau, p. 316, 2d ed.) BOREASMI or
BOREASMUS (fiopHurptol or fioftuTfUs)^ a featival cdebrated by the
Atheniaaa in honoor of Boreaa (HeaycL a. v.), which, aa Herodotoa
(vii 189) aeema to thmk, waa inatituteddnringthe Penian war, when
the Atheniaaa, bdng commanded by aa orade to invoke their
yoiiMfAs hrUmfpat^ prayed to Boreaa. The fleet of Xerzea waa aoon
afterwarda deatnyed by a north wind, near Cape Sepiaa, aad the
grateAil Atheniana erected to hia honour a temple on the banka of
the Iliaaoa. Bat oonaidering that Boreaa waa intimatdy connected
with the early biatory of Atdoa, aince he ii aaid to have earned off
and married Oreithya, daughter of Erechthena (Herod. L e. ; Paua. L
19. § 6X and that he waa iiuniliar to them under the name of broAtr
m /om, we have reaaon to anpuMe that even previoua to the Penian
wana certain honoun were paid to him, which were perh^ia only
revived and increaaed after the event recorded by Herodotoa. The
featival, however, doea not aeem ever to have had any great
odebrity ; for Phto {Piaedr. p. 229) repreaenta Phaedrna aa
unanqnainted even with the aite of tbe temple of Boreaa. Particnlara
of thia featival are not known, except that it waa cdebrated with
banqueta. Pauaaniaa (viii 36. § 4) mentiona a featival celebrated
with annual aacrifioea at Megak^lia in honour of Boreaa, who waa
thought to have been their ddiverer from the LacedaeinonianiL
(Comn, Aelian, F.^.xii61.) Aelian ^ e.) aaya that the Thuriana alao
offered an annual aacnfice to Boreaa, becaaae he had deatroyed the
fleet with which Dionyaina of Syracuae attacked them ; and adda the
cnnona remark, that a decree waa made which beatowed upon him
the right of dtisenahip, and aaaigned to him a houae and a piece of
land. Thia, however, ia per* hapa merdy another way of ezpreaaing
the tact, that the Thuriana adopted the worahip of Boreaa, and
dedicated to him a temple^ with a piece of hmd. [LSL] BOULE'
(i8ovX4), a deUbemto aaaembly or council. In the heroic agea,
repreaented to ua by Homer, the 0ovK^ ia aimply an ariatocratical
council of the noblea, aitting under their king aa preaident, who,
however, did not poaaeaa any greater authority than the other
membeia, except wluit that poaition g»ve him. The noblea, thua
aaaembled, decided on public buaineM and judicial matterB,
frequently in connection with, but apparently not anlject to, nor of
neceaaity controlled hy^ an ieyopd^ or meeting of the freemen of
the atate. {IL u. 53, 143, xviii 603, Od. iL 239.) Thia form of
goverament, though it exiatod for aome time in the Ionian, Aeolxan,
and Achaean atatea, waa at laat wholly abolished. Amongat the
Doriana, however, eapecially with the Spartana, thia waa not the
caae ; for it ia well known that thf y retained the kingly power of the
Heradeidae, in conjunction with tiuaytpwiria [Gsbousia], or aaaembly
of ddera, of which the kings were members. At Athena^ there were
two oouncila, one usually called the Areiopoffut from ita meeting on
the hill of Area (4 ip *Apci4» m^Y fiovK^X which waa more of an
ariatocratical character, and ia apoken of under Akbiopaous, and the
other called TU Cotmea or SenaU
 mo BOULB. representatire, and in most retpects a popular
body {^fioTuc6¥), It is of the latter council that the following article
treats. Its first institution is generally attributed to Solon. There are,
however, strong reasons for supposing that, as in the case of the
areiopagus, he merely modified the constitution of a bcKly which he
found already existing. In the first place it is improbable, and in fiM:t
almost inconsistent with the existence of any goTenmient, except an
absolute monarchy, to suppose that there was no such council
Besides this, Herodotus (r.7i) tells us that in the time of Cylon (& a
620), Athens was under the direction of the presidents of the
Naucraries (vavKpapUu\ the number of which was forty-eight, twelve
out of each of the four tribes. Moreover, we read of the case of the
Alcmaeonidae being refened to an aristocratical tribunal of 300
persons, and that Isagoras, the leader of the aristocratic part^ at
Athens, endeavoured to suppress the councfl, or fiouKfi^ which
Cleisthenes hsucl laised to 600 in number, and to vest the
government in the hands of 300 of his ownjparty. (Herod, v. 72 ;
Plut Sol, 12.) This, as Tbirlwall {HisL of Cfreece, vol ii p. 41)
remarks, can hardly have been a chance coincidence : and he also
suggests that there may have been two councils, one a smaller
body, like the Spartan ytpowrla^ and the other a general assembly
of the Enpatrids ; thus corresponding, one to the senatns, the other
to the comitia curiata, or assembly of the burghers at Rome. But be
this as it may, it is admitted that Solon made the number of his
fiovKii 400, taking the members from the three first classes, 100
firom each of the four trib«L On the tribes being remodelled by
Cleisthenes (&a510), and laised to ten in number, the council also
was increased to 500, fifty being taken firom each of the ten tribes.
It is doubtfid whether the 3ovXcvrai, or councillors, were at first
appomted by lot, as they were afterwards ; but as it is stated to
have been Solon^ wish to make the fiovKfi a restraint upon the
people, and as he is, moreover, said to have chosen (hriKt^dfituos^
Plut SoL 19) 100 members firom each of the tribes, it seems
reasonable to suppose that they were electedy more especially when
there is no evidence to the contrary. (ThLrlwall, vol. il p. 42.) It is at
any rate certain that an election, where the enpatrids might have
used influence, would have been more fitvourable to Solon^s views,
than an appointment by lot But whatever was the practice originally,
it is well known that the appointment was in after times made by lot,
as is indicated by the title (oi iarh Tov levdfiov fiouK(vTal\ suggested
by the use of beans in drawing the lots. (Thuc viii. 69.) The
individuals thus appointed were required to submit to a scrutiny, or
Sofci/yuurfo, in which they gave evidence of being genuine dtixens
(yyfi
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accurate

BOULE. to tkii cflect was proposed to the people, Imt they

dedded tbattbe cavidiy were not wanted, sod the ezpeditifln was noit
andcctaken. Other instanoes of tkk kmd occur in Xenophon. {HelL I
7. g 9» Ti 1 I 2.) Inaddidan to the hflb which H was the dntf of the
Monle to pnpose of their own aceotd, there were ochen of a difiefent
chaiacter, n^ sueh as any {fivace hidmdaBl migfat wish to ha^e
sahmitted to the pespleL To aeeomplish this it was first necesaarr fat
the parQr to obtain, bj peCitkm, the pririlece cf access to the senate
(vprnSor Tpd^otfifcu), arad kaTo to pnpese his motion ; and if the
meaS9ie Bset widi their approbation, he ooold then leiiait it to the
sssennU j. (Dem. a. Timoor, p. 715.) Praposala of this kind, which
had the B^nsn of die aenate, were also called vpo^wKt^ av^B, and
freqoentl j related to the conferring of Kae paiticakr hoooor or
privilege vpon an indiTidaaL Thns the proposal of Ctenphon for
cxownk^ DeaoothcBea is so styled, as also that of Ari»> txiatea nr
confeim^ extrsMdmaiy pnTiI^[es on Charidenms, an Athenian
commander in Thiaoe. Asif sname of this sort, which was thus
approTed of by the senate, was then sabmitted to the people, «^ by
them simply adopted or rejected ; and ** it k in these and simOar
cases, that the statement of the giammaziana ia trae, that no law or
measure eoaU be piesented for ratification by the people vithoBt the
prerioos ap{8obation of the senate, by v^ach it aswimwl the fimn of
a decree passed by thrt body."* (SchJteann, De ComUu$, p^ 103,
tIBBsL) la die assembly the bill of the senate was first nai, jahmfB by
the crier, alter the introdoctory eereaisDies were over ; and then the
proedri put •ikt ^aeadon to the people, whether they approTed cf it,
or wnhed to giro the subject fiirther deliberatisa.
(Aristoph.71es.290.) The people dedared their wQl by a show of
hands (wpoxcifwrorta). Sometiao, however, the bill was not
proposed and ezpbiDcd by one of the proedri, hot by a private
indiTidnal — either the original apfdicant for leave to hang hnnrd the
measure, or a senator distinfaiibed fiir ontorical power. Examples of
this nc given by ^hamann (JM Cbm. p. 106, transL). If ths
spoMXev^ia of the senate were rejected l^ t^ peo^ it was of coarse
nnll and void. If it happened that it was neither confirmed nor
.rejected, h was #r#r«eer, that is, only remained in force dsni| the
year the senate was in office. (Dem. r. Arii, p. 651.) If it was
confinned it became a H^ifffm^ or decree of the people, binding
upon all cbsMt. The fann for drawiqg up such decrees varied ia
difEuent ages. Before the aichonship of Eadddes (& a 40^ they were
generally headed by the fonnola— "ESoet rp fiouX^ jcoi t^ S^/iy:
thea the tribe was mentioned in whose piytany de decree was
passed ; dien the names of the •ffafqutrw^ or scribe, apd chairman
; and hisdy that •f the antfaor of the resolntioo. Examples of this
hem occur in Andocides {De MjpL p. 1 3) : thus — "EBs^c rp ^^Af
irol r^ 9^^, Aioan-li ^vpvrdyfvc, Aiy^qw ow^ypu4>gy. (Omp. Thuc
It. 118.) Fnoi the arehonship of Eudeides till about & c ^ the decrees
eommenee with the name of the uthon ; then come the day of the
month, the tribe k ofice, and lasdy the name of the proposer. The
Bstive far pasKi^ the decree is next stated ; and then foOowi the
decree itself prefoeed widi the BOULE. 311 formula M^x^ rff fiovkff
jral rf H/a^ The reader b referred to Demosthenes, De Cbroao, for
examples. After bl c. 325, another form was used, which continued
unaltered till the latest times, (Schumann, p. 136, tiansL) Mention
has just been made of the 7pa^i^i«r«i^, whose name was sfBxed
to the if^^fiara, ss in the example given above^ He was a clerk
chosen by lot by the senate, in every prytany, for the purpose of
keepii^ the records, and resolutions passed during that period ; he
was called the derk acoording to the pryteny {6 uarii wpvrorelar),
and the name of the derk of the first prytany was sometimes used to
designate the year. (Pollux, viil 98 ; BSckh, I'mU, Eeom. of Atkema,
p. 186, 2nded.) With respect to the power of the senate, it must be
deariy understood that, except in cases of small importance, they
had only the right of originating, not of finally deciding on public
questaona, Since, however, the senators were conyened by the pry*
tanea every day, except on festivals or A^rrot ^/UpM (Pollux, viil
95), it is obvious that ther would be fit recipiente of any intelligence
aflTeciiog the intereste of the state, and it is admitted that they had
the right of proposing aop measure to meet the emergency ; for
example, we find that Demosthenes gives them an account of the
conduct of Aeschines and himself, when sent out as ambaa. sadors
to Philip, in consequence of which they propose a bfll to the people.
Again, when Philip seized on Elateia (bl c. 338), the senate was
immediately called together by the prytanes to determine what was
best to be done. (Dem. De FaL Leg. p. 346, De Cor. p. 284.) But,
besides possessing the initiatory power of which we have spoken,
the senate was sometimes delegated by the people to determine
absolutoly about particular matters, without reference to the
assembly. Thus we are told (Dem. De FaL Leg, p. 389) that the
people gave die senate power to decide about sending ambassadors
\o Philip ; and Andoddes (n«pl Mvonyp(W) informs us that the
senate was invested with absolute authority (^k TJkp oinoKpArwp\
to investigate the outrsges committed upon the statues of Hermes,
previoudy to the sailing of the Sicilian expedition. Sometimes also
the senate was empowered to act in conjunction with the
nomothetae (ovtfo/ioderciy), as on the revision of the laws after the
expulsion of the Thirty by Thrssybulus and his party, & c. 403.
(Andoc De MyeL p. 12 , Dem. e, Ttmoer. p. 708.) Moreover, it waa
the province of the senate to receive elaayyeXiai, or informations of
extraordinary crimes committed against the state, and for which
there was no special law provided. The senate in such cases either
dedded themselves, or referred the case to one of the oouzta cf die
heliaea, especially if they thought It required a higher penalty than it
was competent for them to impose, vis., 500 drachmae. It was also
their duty to dedde on the qualification of magistrates, and the
character of members of their own body. But besides the duties we
have enumerated, the senate discharged important fimctions in
cases of finance. All legislative authority, indeed, in such nmtters
rested with the people, the amount of expenditure and the sources
of revenue being determined by the decrees which they passed ; but
the administration was entrusted to the senate, as the executive
power of the state, p 2
 212 BOULE. / f and responsible (iv^Mvyos) to the people.
Thus Xenophon {De Rep, Ath. iii. 2) tells as that the senate was
occupied with providing money, with receiving the tribute, and with
the management of naval a^Surs and the temples ; and Lysias (e.
Nicom, p. 185) makes the following remark: — *^ When the senate
has sufficient money finr the administration of affiurs, it does
nothing wrong ; but when it is in want of funds, it reoeives
informations, and confiscates the property of the citizens.** The
letting of the duties (rcXdyoi) was also imder its superintendence,
and those who were in possession of any sacred or public moneys
(7cfM jcou lata) were bound to pay them into the senate-house ;
and in defiuilt of payment, the senate had the power of enforcing it,
in conformity with the laws for the fiiiming of the duties (m
TffXtfKucol K^/ioi). The accoonts of the moneys that had been
received, and of those still remaining due, were delivered to the
senate by the apodectae, or public treasurers. [Apodsctab.] ** The
seuate arranged also the application of the public money, even in
triflii^ matters, such as the sakuy of the poets ; the superintendence
of the cavalry maintained by the state, and the examination of the
infirm {hJH^vaeroi) supported by the state, are particularly
mentioned among its duties ; the public debts were also paid under
its direction. From this enuraeiation we are justified in infioring that
all questions of finance were confided to its supreme reguhition.**
(Bockh, PtilbL Eoom. of Athm$^ p. 15^ 2nd ed.) Another very
important duty of the senators was to take care that a certain
number of triremes was built every year, for which purpose they
were supplied with money by the state ; in defiuilt of so doing, they
were not allowed to claim the honour of wearing a crown, or chaplet
{irri^€»os\ at the expiration of their year of office. (Arg, OraL e.
Androt.) It has been already steted that there were two classes or
sets of proedri in the senate, one of which, amounting to ten in
number, belohged to the presiding tribe ; the other consisted of
nine, chosen by lot by the chairman of the presiding proedri £rom
the nine non-presiding tribes, one from each, as often as either the
senate or the people were convened. It must be remembered that
they were not elected as the other proedri, for seven days, but only
for as many hours as the session of the senate, or meeting of the
people, lasted. Now it has been a question what were the respective
duties of these two classes : but it appears clear to us that it was
the proedri of the pristdinff tribe who proposed to the people in
assembly, the subjects for discussion ; recited, or caused to be
recited, the previous bill (irpoioiKtvfta) of the senate ; officiated as
presidents in conjunction with their iinvrdrTis, or chairman, and
discharged, in fact, all the functions implied by the ' Words
xP^i^'^K'^^^ ^P^f 'v^*' ^fj/ioy. For ample arguments in support
of this opinion the reader is referred to Schomann. (De Chm, p. 83L
transl.) It does indeed appear from decrees furnished by inscriptions,
and other authorities, that in later time the proedri of the nine tribes
exercised some of those functions which the orations of
Demosthenes, and his contemporaries, justify us in assigning to the
proedri of the presiding tribe. It must, however, be remarked that all
such decrees were passed after b. a 308, when there were twelve
tribes ; and that we cannot, from the practice of BOULE. those days,
arrive at any condurions relative €o t customs of former ages. If it is
asked what, then, were the duties oF tb^i proedri in earlier times,
the answer mnat be ixi great measure conjectural ; but the
opiiucKXX Schumann on this point seems very plaoaible. JF observes
that the prytanes had extenaive and ix portant duties entrusted to
them ; that they ^mrc all of one tribe, and therefore dosely conxics-
tc^ that they officiated for 35 days as presidents o^ tl
representatives of the other tribes ; and that -Ibe had ample
opportunities of combining far the \^co€ fit of their own tribe at the
expense of the oonunc nity. To prevent this, and watch their oandnc
whenever any business was brought before t-h senate and assemUy,
may have been the leaeon £o appointing by lot, nine other quasi -
presidrn ts» ro presentatives of the non-presidii^ tribes, who wool ^
protest and interfere, or approve and sanction 9i they might think fit
Supposing this to have been the object of their iqipomtmcnt in the
first instanoe. it is easy to see how they might at last have b«en
united with the proper proedn, in the perfonnance of duties
originally appropriate to the lattec In connection with the proedri we
meet -mrith the expression 4 vpoeB/M^iwa ^vA^. Our information
on this subject is derived from the apeeeh of Aeschines against
Timarchus, who inibnna ua, that in consequence of the unseemly
conduct of Timarchus, on one occasion, before ^e assembly, a new
law was passed, in virtue of which, a tribe was chosen by lot to keep
ordeiv and sit as presidents under the /S^fto, or pUtfonn on whicb
the oraton stood. No remark is made on the aubject to warrant us in
su{^wsing that senators onlj- 'were elected to this office ; it seems
more probable that a certain number of persons was chosen firom
the tribe on which the lot had fiillen, and eommisaiooed to sit along
with the prytanes and the proedri, and that they assisted in keeping
order. We may here remaric that if any of the speaken (p^opts)
misconducted themselves either in the senate or the assembly, or
were guilty of an^ act of violence to the iwurrdrris, after the
breakmg up of either, the proedri had the power to inflict a srnnnwiy
fine, or bruog the matter before the senate and assembly at Ue next
meeting, if they thonght the case required it The ineetings of the
senate were, as we learn from various passages of the Attic orators,
open to strangers ; thus Demosthenes {DeFaL Leg. p. S46) says that
the senate-house was, on a pardcolar occasion, full of strangers
(juffrhv jjy mmitw) z in Aeschines (e. CUe. p. 71. 20) we read of a
motion ** that strangers do withdraw ^ (jJLeraaryiadfjbetHts Tohs
Vii^asy Dobree, Adeen. vol. L p. 542). Nay, private individuals were
sometimes, by a special decree, authorised to come forward and
give advice to the senate. The senate-house was called th
fiovKtvHiptoy, and contained two chapels, one of Zfbs fiouXatos,
another of *A99»w /BouXcUo, in which it was customary for the
senators to oiler up certain prayers before proceeding to business.
(Antiph. De Omt, p. 787.) The prytanes alw> had a building to hold
their meetings in, where they were entertained at the public expense
during their prytany. This was called the wfnnayetoy^ and was used
fi>r a variety of purposes. [Prttanxion.] Thucydides (ii. 15), indeed,
tells us that before the time of Theseus every city of Attica had its
fiouXtwrriptay and
The text on this page is estimated to be only 27.48%
accurate

BRACAE. a Btetement whidi gives additional lappofft to the

ofunion tliat Solan did not originate tfie senate at Athena The
mnnhfT of tribes at Athens yna not always tRi ; an altecatian took
place in bl & S06, when Deaetria Poliorcetes had liberated the city
from tbe Bsoqiatiaii of Casnnder. Two were then added, sad called
Demetrias, and Antigeois, in haosm of DemetriBS and his €sther. It
is evident that this change, and the consequent addition of 100
memben to the senate, most hare varied the erda sad lesigtb of ^e
prytanes. The tribes just B^aitiaoed vcte aftcrwaids called Ptolemais
and Acfalis ; and. in the time of Hadrian, who beanti£.^ and
improred Athens (Pons. L 18. § 6X a t&inecoth waa added, called
from him Hadrianis. An edict of this emperor has been preserved,
which psores that even in his time the Athenians kq>t up the show
of their fbtmer institutions. (Hermann, GrweL StaatmUttrtk. § 125,
&c ; Schtfmann, De GmJtHrAHkmimn'mm.) [R. W.] BOULEU'SEOS
GRAPHE' (/SouXc^cwr T^o^), an impeaehmcBt for conspirscy.
Bov\c^ rears, being in this case the abbreviated form of iwiimAMwtj
is tbe nameof two widely different actkMM at Attic lav. The first was
the accosation •f coospiraey against life, and might be instituted by
the penga thexeby attacked, if competent to Wing aa actioo ; if
otherwise, by his or her legal pstno (cipies). In case of the plot
having succeeded, the deceased might be represented in the
praecatian by near kinsmen (ol irrhs iaff^i6rrrros\ or, if they vrere
incompetent, by the ir^pcos, as shore raefttianed. (Meier, AtLProe.
p. 164.) The criminality of the aocosed was independent of the nsok
of the conspiracy (HarpocratX and the pesslty, upon conviction, was
the same as that Bcaned by the actual murderers. (Andoc De Ifjat
pw 46. 5.) The presidency of the court upon a tral of thia kind, as in
most Scjceu ^wtKol^ beks^fid to the king aichon (Meier, Att, Proe.
PL 31*2), and the court itself was composed of the cphetae, sitting
at the Palladium, according to Ijaess and Aristotle, as cited by
Harpocration, witt,bowevex^ also mentions that the areiopogus if
itated by Deinarchns to have been the proper trifaonaL Tht other
action, fiauXtiaet^, was available ^n a person finding himself
wrongfully inscribed M a state debtor in the registers, or rolls, which
voe kept by the diflerent financial officers. Meier {AtL Froc pu 339X
however, suggests that a msr fistnte that had so offended, would
probably be proceeded against at the tii$6inL, or hrix^ipvrovUu^ the
two occauons upon which the public conduct of iBsgiitEBtes was
examined; so that generally the defendant in this action would be a
private citizen that had directed such an insertion at his own peril
From the passage in Demosthenes, it seems doabtfiil whether the
disenfranchisement (&ti^) 4^ the plaintiff as a state-debtor was in
abeyance vhUe this action vras pending. Demosthenes at fint asserts
(c AriMiog, L p. 778. 19), but aftcrvaids (p. 792. 1) orjpes that it was
not (See, kwem, Meier, Att. Proe, p. 340, and Biickh'S note.) The
distinction between this action and the KBilar one i^cvSeyTpo^s, is
ezpUined under the ktter title. [J- S. M.] BOULEUTEHION. [Bouli, p.
212, b.] BRACAE or BRACCAE (Airo^iipiJcf), trowsm, psBtsloons^
These, as well as various other BHASIDEIA. 213 articles of armour
and of dress [Acinacbs, Abcto, AaMltLA], were common to all the
nations which encircled the Greek and Roman popuUtion, extending
from the Indian to tbe Atlantic ocean. Hence Aristagoras^ king of
Miletns, in his inter* view with Cleomenes, king of Sparta, described
the attire of a large portion of them in these tenns: — '*They carry
bows and a short spear, and go to battle in trowsers and with hats
upon their heads.** (Herod, v. 49.) Hence also the phrase BraeoaH
wtiUtii oroHS, signifying that those who wore trowseis wers in
general armed with the bow. (Propert iii. S. 17.) In particular, we an
informed of the use of trowsen or pantaloons among the fidlowing
nations: — the Modes and Persians; the Parthians; the Phrygians;
the Sacae ; the Sarmatae ; the Dacians and Oetae ; the Tentones ;
the B^gae ; the Britons ; and the Gauls. The Latin word braeea§ b
the same as the Scottish *^breeks** and the English **
breeches.** Cocresponding terms are used in all the northern
languages. Also the Cossack and Persian trowsers of the present day
differ m no material respect from those which were andentiy worn in
the same countries. In sndent monuments we find the above-
mentioned people constantly exhibited in trowsers, thus clearly
distinguishing them fivm Greeks and Romans. An example is seen in
the annexed group of Sarmatians, taken firarn the column of Trajan.
Trowsers were principally woollen ; but Agathias states {Hi$L il 5)
that in Europe they were also made of linen and of leather ;
probably Uie Asiatics made them of cotton and of silk. Sometimes
they were striped {virgataey Propert. iv. 11. 43), and ornamented
with a woof of various colours (roacf Aoi, Xen. Anab. L 5. § 8). The
Greeks seem never to have worn them. They were also unknown at
Rome during the republican period ; and in a. d. 69 Caecina gave
great offence on his march into Italy, because he wore Arooooe,
which were regarded as tegmen barbarum. (Tac. Hi$t. iL 20.) In the
next century, however, they gradually came into use at Rome ; but
they would appear never to have been generally worn. It is recorded
of Alexander ^verus that he wore white braocac, and not crimson
ones (cocoiaeew), as had been the custom with preceding emperors.
The use of them in the city was forbidden by Honorius. (Lomprid.
Alest. Sever, 40.) [J. Y.] BRASIDEIA {fifa4rlBtM\ a festival celebrated
p 3 '^
 214 BRAURONIA. at Sparta in honour of their great general
Bnuidai, who, after hit death, in && 422, receireA the honours of a
hero. (Pana. iii. 14. § 1 ; Ariatot. EtlL Nie, T. 7.) It waa held every
year with orations and contests, in which none hut Spartans were
allowed to partake. Bmsideia were also celebrated at Amphipolis,
which, though a colony of Athens, transferred the honour of itrlarris
from Hagnon to Brasidas, who was buried there, and paid him heroic
honoun by an annual festival with sacrifices and contests. (Thucyd.T.
11.) [L. S.] BRAURO'NIA {$pau(H&yta\ a festiyal celebrated in
honour of Artemis Branronia, in the Attic town of Braunn (Herod. tL
138), where, according to Pansanias (I 23. § 9, 83. § 1, ill 16. § 6,
viii 46. § 2), Orestes and Iphigeneia, on their return from Tanris,
were supposed by the Athenians to hare landed, and left the statue
of the Taurian goddess. (See Miiller, Dor, i. 9. § 5 and 6.) It was held
every fifth year, under the superintendence of ten Upovoioi (Pollux,
viii 9, 31 ) ; and the chief solenmity consisted in the circumstance
that the Attic girls between the ages of five and ten years, dressed
in crocus-ooloured garments, went in solemn procession to the
sanctuary (Suidas, t. «. "ApKToi ; SchoL on Arutopk, l^ftidr. 646),
where they were consecrated to the goddess. During this act the
Upowotol sacrificed a goat and the girls performed a propitiatory rite
in which they imitated bears. This rite may have arisen simply from
the circumstance that the bear was sacred to Artemis, especially In
Arcadia (MUller, Dor. ii. 9. § 3); but a tradition preserved in Suidas
(sle. ^ApKTos) relates its origin as follows: — In the Attic town of
Phanidae a bear was kept, which was so tame that it was aUowed to
go about quite freely, and received its food fix>m and among men.
One day a girl ventured to play with it, and, on treating the animal
rather harshly, it turned round and tore her to pieces. Her brothers,
enraged at this, went out and killed the bear. The Athenians now
were visited by a plague ; and, when they consulted the oracle, the
answer was given that they would get rid of the evil which had
befallen them if they would compel some of their citizens to make
their daughters propitiate Artemis by a rite called ^rr«^iy, for the
crime committed against the animal sacred to the goddess. The
command was more than obeyed ; for the Athenians decreed that
from thenceforth all women, before they could marry, should have
taken part once in this festival, and have been consecnted to the
goddess. Hence the girls themselves were called ipicToi, the
consecration AfMcrcco, the act of consecrating iipicTt6^ip, and to
celebrate the festival ^jcrc^ctf^ou. ( Hesych. and HarpocraL «. v. ;
SchoL on ArittcjA. Le.) But as the girls when they celebrated this
festival were nearly ten years old, the verb 8cicarcfBni vd rteipi
praetmmaimr). The signature of Anianus was for the jMorpooe of
giving authenticity to the official copies of the code ; a cireumstance
which has been so &r mJannHf^ratoud that he has sometimes been
considered aa the compile of the code, and it has been called
Breviariinn AnianL This code has no peculiar name, ao far as we
know: it was called Lex Romana Viaigothorum, and at a later period,
frequently Lex Theodosii, from the title of the first and moat
important part of its contents. The name BreviariaiiL, or Breviarium
Alaricianum, does not i^pear befiue the sixteenth century. The
following are the contents of the Breriariiuii, with their order in the
code: — 1. Codex Theodosianus, xvi books. 2. Novelbie of
Theodoaiua ii, Valentinian iii, Mardan, Hajorian, Sevema. 3. The
Institutions of Oaius, ii books. 4. Pauli Receptae Sentendae, v hooka.
5. Codex Qregorianus, v books. 6. Codex Hermogeniaana^ i book. 7.
Papinianus, lib. L Respoosonim. The code was thus composed of two
kinda of materials, imperial constitutions, which, both in the code
itself and the commonitorium or notke prefixed to it, are called Lepet
; and the writinga of Roman jurists, which are called Jus. Both the
Codex Or^gorianus and Hemuwenianiia, being compilations made
without any legal authority, are included under the head of Jus. The
aeleetions are extracts, which are accompanied with an
interpretation, except in the case of the Institutions of Gaius ; as a
general rule, the text, ao fiiras it was adopted, was not altered. The
Inatitutions of Gains, however, are abridged or epito> mised, and
such alterations as were considered necessary fior the time are
introduoed into the text : this part of the work required no
interptetation, and accordingly it has none. There are passages in
the epitome which are not taken from GaiuiL (Gaius, iii 127, ed.
Goeschen.) This code is of considerable value fi>r the hlstotj of
Roman Uw, as it contains several souroea of the Roman law which
are otherwise unknown, especially Paulus and the five first books of
the Thcodosian code. Since the discoveiy of the Institutions of Gaius,
that part of this code is of less value. The author of the Epitome of
Gaius in the I Breviarium paid little attention to retaining the '
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