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From Words to Discourse Volume 10 Trends in Spanish
Semantics and Pragmatics Current Research in the
Semantics Pragmatics Interface 1st Edition Javier
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Author(s): Javier Gutierrez-Rexach
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From Words to Discourse: Trends in
Spanish Semantics and Pragmatics
Current Research in the Semantics/Pragmatics Interfa
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FROM WORDS TO
DISCOURSE: TRENDS
IN SPANISH
SEMANTICS
AND PRAGMATICS
Edited by Javier Gutierrez-Rexach
The Ohio State University, USA

2002
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Current Research in the Semantics/Pragmatics Interface (CRiSPI)

Series Editors: K.M. Jaszczolt, University of Cambridge, UK and

K. Turner, University of Brighton, UK

Editoral Advisory Board:

N. Asher, USA
J. van der Auwera, USA
C. Casadio, Italy
M. Dascal, Israel
B. Fraser, USA
T. Fretheim, Norway
B. Gillon, Canada
P. Gochet, Belgium
J. Groenendijk, The Netherlands
YueguoGu, PRC
K. von Heusinger, Germany
A. Kasher, Israel
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Susumu Kubo, Japan
Chungmin Lee, Korea
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T. McEnery, UK
F. Nemo, France
P. Pelyvas, Hungary
J. Peregrin, Czech Republic
A. Ramsay, UK
R. van der Sandt, The Netherlands
R. Stalnaker, USA
M. Stokhof, The Netherlands
G. Ward, USA

The aim of this series is to focus upon the relationship between semantic and pragmatic
theories for a variety of natural language constructions. The boundary between semantics
and pragmatics can be drawn in many various ways and the relative benefits of each have
given rise to a vivid theoretical dispute in the literature in the last two decades. As a side-
effect, this variety has given rise to a certain amount of confusion and lack of purpose in the
extant publications on this topic.
This series will provide a forum where the confusion within existing literature can be removed
and the issues raised by different positions can be discussed with a renewed sense of
purpose. The editors intend contributions to this series to take further strides towards clarity
and cautious consensus.
This page intentionally left blank
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Contributors ix

1. Introduction 1
Javier Gutierrez-Rexach
2. Spanish Past and Future Tenses: Less (Semantics) is More 21
Silvia Gennari
3. Tensed Complements of Perception Verbs: Issues in their Temporal Interpretation 37
Alicia Cipria
4. Spanish 'Aspectual' Periphrases: Ordering Constraints and the Distinction Between
Situation and Viewpoint Aspect 61
Brenda Laca
5. Non-Declarative Sentences in Spanish: The Case of the Infinitive 95
Xose Rosales Sequeiros
6. Aspect and Situations: A Situation Semantics Account of the Semantic Variability of
Spanish'/^/-Clauses' 119
Luis Alonso-Ovalle
I. Mental Spaces and Epistemic Attitudes: On the Spanish Subjunctive/Indicative
Alternation 135
Francisco Aliaga and Eduardo de Bustos
8. Space Accessibility and the Pragmatic Status of Propositions 145
Errapel Mejias-Bikandi
9. Coercion and the Stage/Individual Distinction 159
Victoria Escandell- Vidal and Manuel Leonetti
10. Some Spanish Quantifier Modifiers 181
Richard Zuber
I1. Demonstratives in Context 195
Javier Gutierrez-Rexach
12. Prepositional NPIs and the Scalar Nature of Polarity 237
Javier Gutierrez-Rexach and Scott Schwenter
13. Degree Quantification and Modal Operators in Spanish 263
Ignacio Basque
viii From Words to Discourse

14. The Shifted Reading of the Spanish Simple Past as Dependent on

Presupposition Accommodation 289
Rosa J. Garcia Cordoba
15. On the Interaction of Syntax-Semantics-Pragmatics: A Case Study 307
Josep Macia
16. Clitic Doubling, Null Objects and Clitic Climbing in the Spanish of Corrientes 321
Laura Colantoni
17. Spanish no, s/: A Particle of Politeness 337
Robert Vann, Joan Busquets and Dale Koike

Name Index 351

Subject Index 355
CONTRIBUTORS
Francisco Aliaga, Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Luis Alonso-Ovalle, University of Massachusetts at Amherst
Ignacio Bosque, Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Joan Busquets, Universite de Bordeaux
Eduardo de Bustos, Universidad National de Education a Distancia, Madrid
Alicia Cipria, University of Alabama
Laura Colantoni, University of Minnesota/CONICET, Argentina
Victoria Escandell-Vidal, Universidad National de Education a Distancia, Madrid
Silvia Gennari, Brown University
Rosa J. Garcia Cordoba, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana, Mexico
Javier Gutierrez-Rexach, The Ohio State University
Dale Koike, University of Texas at Austin
Brenda Laca, Universite de Paris VIII
Manuel Leonetti, Universidad de Alcald, Madrid
Josep Macia, Universitat de Barcelona
Errapel Mejias-Bikandi, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Xose Resales Sequeiros, University of Greenwich
Scott Schwenter, The Ohio State University
Robert Vann, Western Michigan University
Richard Zuber, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris
This page intentionally left blank
1

INTRODUCTION

Javier Gutierrez-Rexach, The Ohio State University

1 MEANING AND ITS INTERFACES

An examination of the development of linguistic thought in the last fifty years shows that some
of the most fruitful linguistic theories and research programs have emerged from cross-
fertilization processes with other disciplines. Theories such as generative grammar, generalized
quantifier theory, dynamic semantics, or the theory of speech acts immediately come to mind as
paradigmatic examples of developments in neighboring disciplines (computer science, logic or
philosophy) that have had a lasting impact in linguistics. Additionally, linguistic theories may
have a broader influence in other realms of inquiry such as the relationship between language
and cognition, language an intentionality, or language and communication processes.
Nevertheless, the success of a linguistic theory is commonly measured not only by formal
criteria such as elegance, simplicity or internal coherence but most importantly by its ability to
explain empirical data and to bring to light new correspondences and patterns of data. This back
and forth movement between theory and data, or theoretical and empirical concerns, is central to
the discipline in more than one respect. The study of language as a faculty or an abstract
property is mirrored by the overwhelming reality of linguistic diversity. On the one hand, the
consideration of different languages, by themselves or from a comparative viewpoint, has to
enrich or probably even make more complex achieving valid generalizations. On the other hand,
language intermingles with and is influenced by other aspects of human behavior, including
social action and the dynamics of conceptual processes. If we accept this broader and
challenging perspective, there is an implicit consensus in the discipline that an area of linguistic
research can be considered mature when the validity of theoretical and empirical results is tested
2 From Words to Discourse

cross-linguistically and when predictions from different languages influence and modify the
course of theoretical developments.
The semantics/pragmatics interface poses a special challenge in this respect because of the
heterogeneous nature of its origins and its current interdisciplinary and multi-theoretical status.
Semantics and pragmatics are indeed neighboring areas that address several aspects of the
meaning of linguistic expressions and their use. From Charles Morris' initial distinction between
syntax, semantics and pragmatics to the current state of the art, the field has grown more
complex and interrelated and part if not all of that initial "innocence" has been lost. Even the
received view from the seventies, after the development of formal semantics and the emergence
of Searle's and Austin's proposals, that conceived of pragmatics as the study of meaning minus
truth-conditional content (Gazdar, 1979) would probably be considered now by most researchers
as an optimistic idealization. Neither semantics can currently be restricted to the study of truth
conditions, nor does pragmatics pertain only tc "meaning" in the traditional sense. The
development of possible worlds and intensional semantics, as well as the subtheories that took
into account higher order operators such as generalized quantifiers, considerably enriched the
predictive power and empirical coverage of formal semantics. During the nineties different
branches or garden varieties of the trend commonly denominated "dynamic semantics"
forcefully showed how the impact of context and context change, an aspect sometimes relegated
to pragmatics, reached beyond varieties of use and affected central aspects of semantics such as
the interpretation of indefinites and pronouns. Current developments in semantics embrace the
treatment of traditional pragmatic issues such as non-declaratives, deixis, the focus-topic
articulation, presupposition, metaphor, etc. In turn, pragmatics has also extended its reach
considerably. From the Searle-Austin core approach to the intersection points relating meaning,
use, action and intentionality, certain unifying proposals such as relevance theory emerged to
provide a more comprehensive account of language cognition and information exchange. Other
approaches have stressed the social components of the field, exploring more decisively the
relationship between saying and doing. In this direction, "micro" sociological approaches, such
as those represented by Garfinkel, Schegloff and collaborators, or even Bourdieu, explore the
social logic of conversation and discourse in relation to power, gender and various social
structures. All of the above seems indeed relevant to the semantics/pragmatics interface and
gives an idea of the difficulty or perhaps even the undesirability of the search for a single
unification theory of the field. Furthermore, research in the syntax/semantics interface has
gained new momentum in recent years, especially after Chomsky's (1995) proposals about the
centrality of conceptual and interface issues. The search for a syntax of language is now the
search for a Logical Form that captures not only structural facts but also semantic and pragmatic
aspects of meaning.
What can the study of individual languages contribute to this intriguing and challenging
landscape? First, it can help decide which theories have real predictive potential and can be
extended or revised to properly accommodate new empirical puzzles. Second, long-standing
issues in the grammar of a given language, often described with more or less accuracy in
 Introduction

traditional or reference grammars, can receive enlightening accounts when subject to analysis
within powerful theoretical frameworks. Finally, as pointed out above, the fine-grained analysis
of linguistic data can drive theoretical processes and function as a retro-feeding device vis-a-vis
scientific progress. With these issues in mind, Eduardo Bustos (UNED, Spain) and myself
decided that the time seemed to be adequate for a conference that explored new problems and
perspectives in the semantics and pragmatics of Spanish, from a wide and open variety of
theoretical viewpoints and including contributions from scholars at both sides of the Atlantic.
The majority of the papers included in this volume are a selection from those presented at the
International Conference "Semantics and Pragmatics of Spanish" (The Ohio State University,
November 1999) and others are special invited contributions. Among the topics covered are
several that have been the subject of intense debate, whereas others represent subtle data patterns
not considered so far. The topics include the proper characterization of tense and aspect, verbal
periphrases, stage/individual-level predication, the interpretation of infinitives in embedded and
adjunct clauses, the subjunctive mood, demonstratives, quantification of excess, exception
phrases, binding phenomena, prepositional negative polarity items, particles of politeness, and
pronominal doubling. Overall, the analysis of these subjects contributes new findings to
prominent theories in the field, such as possible world semantics, relevance theory, mental
spaces, type coercion, generalized quantifier theory, dynamic semantics, and the theory of the
Logical Form interface. The book will be of interest to students and scholars in the areas of
General Linguistics, Romance and Spanish Linguistics, and to all those interested in the cross-
linguistic repercussions of current theoretical trends in semantics, pragmatics, and the
syntax/semantics interface.
Summarizing, this volume attempts to bridge the gap between theory and empirical analysis
by focusing on several aspects of the semantics and the pragmatics of Spanish from a variety of
theoretical points of view. After a brief tour of the history, trends and directions in Spanish
semantics and pragmatics, the remainder of this introduction is devoted to presenting the sixteen
contributions to this volume, which have been organized around five major subjects. Not
surprisingly, this organization tends to reflect more the topics that have intrigued researchers in
Spanish grammar for decades than an organization based on external or theoretical
considerations. Thus, issues of tense, aspect and mood/modality concern at least six of the
papers, whereas topics such as quantification or the interpretation of pronouns also find
significant resonance in others.

2. A QUICK TOUR OF THE SPANISH LANDSCAPE

Research in the semantics and pragmatics of Spanish and in Spanish has been particularly lively
for decades. The most prominent works of the main analytic philosophers received highly
praised translations into Spanish both in Spain and in Latin America (especially in Mexico and
 From Words to Discourse

Argentina), and the path breaking works in philosophical semantics by Kaplan, Kripke, Quine,
etc. were also translated in a very influential compilation prepared by Tomas Moro Simpson
(1973). Sanchez de Zavala (1974) prepared a very useful compilation of the most important
studies in generative and interpretive semantics of the early seventies, which allowed Spanish
researchers to have access to materials originally published in technical reports and department
internal series. Also during the seventies and early eighties, a generation of young linguists at
both sides of the Atlantic explored semantic/pragmatic and structural aspects of Spanish
grammar. These included, for example, negation (Bosque, 1980), the semantics of the adjective
(Lujan, 1980), word order (Contreras, 1976), specificity and indefiniteness (Rivero, 1979), the
subjunctive (Manteca, 1981), and some aspects of plurality (Sufler, 1982).
In the area of formal semantics, the flourishing of Montague grammar sparked lively interest
among several research groups in Spain. The compilation of Montague's papers Formal
Philosophy was translated by Daniel Quesada and published in 1977 (Montague, 1977). Juan C.
Moreno Cabrera wrote a very insightful and comprehensive monograph on Montague semantics
(Moreno Cabrera, 1985), incorporating extensions and applications to Montague's original
proposals. Other well-known representatives of this interest in the mathematical analysis of
language, especially of the semantic component, are Serrano (1975), and Garrido Medina
(1988), a very clear and extensive introduction to the application of logical methods in the
semantics of Spanish (cf. also Acero, Bustos, and Quesada, 1982; Quesada, 1985; and Valdes,
1991, for philosophical perspectives). In this same vein, Moreno Cabrera (1994) develops
extensive analyses of the semantics of noun phrases and verb phrases incorporating recent trends
such as the theory of generalized quantifiers, plurality and event semantics. Ojeda (1991) is one
of the best studies of the semantics of plurals, with a pioneering study of the Spanish neuter.
Gutierrez-Rexach (1998) is the first introduction to generalized quantifier theory in Spanish.
During the nineties, the annual symposium on formal and natural languages (Lenguajes
Naturales y Lenguajes Formales) organized by Carlos Martin Vide (Martin Vide, 1986-1997)
contributed to a cross-fertilization of formal, computational and logical perspectives in the
analysis of natural language and Iberian languages in particular.
On the pragmatic front, the first applications of Searle's theory of speech acts and Austin's
logic of conversation, and of the debates on mood and presupposition to Spanish came from
philosophers interested in linguistic phenomena (cf. Bustos, 1986). During the nineties, a
renovated interest in relevance theory (Escandell, 1996) developed on a par with general
pragmatic approaches (cf. the excellent introductions by Reyes, 1990, 1995), the study of
discourse markers (Martin Zorraquino and Montolio, 1998; Portoles, 1998), colloquial usage
(Briz, 1998), metaphor (Bustos, 2000), presupposition (Garcia Murga, 1998), and general
pragmatic and praxiological approaches (Sanchez de Zavala, 1994, 1997). The connections
between pragmatics and sociolinguistics, i.e. the exploration of the relationships among language
use, context and diverse instances of social stratification or socially constructed groups (gender
or ethnically based) have also witnessed an incredible expansion, especially in the study of
Spanish in the United States (cf. the recent introductions by Moreno Fernandez, 1998 and Silva-
 Introduction 5

Corvalan, 2001 for detailed surveys).

From this glance at the field of Spanish semantics and pragmatics, it becomes obvious that a
selection of papers focused on grammar-centered topics will only offer the reader a partial look
at what is going on in the field as a whole. Nevertheless, it can also be taken as evidence of its
increasing sophistication, which precludes comprehensive anthologies, an also as a stimulus for
future endeavors.

3. TENSE AND ASPECT

The tense and aspectual properties of the Spanish verbal system have intrigued grammarians for
decades. It is a well-known fact that the Spanish verbal paradigm is a very complex system from
morphological viewpoint. Tense classifications that simply correlated morphological differences
with vague semantic notions have been deemed unsatisfactory for a long time. Traditional
grammarians, from Bello (1847) to Bull (1960, 1965), put forward very insightful proposals that
reduced the apparent complexity to more basic semantic correlations. In recent years, following
the ideas of Reichenbach (1947) and Hornstein (1977), several researchers (Acero, 1990; Garcia
Fernandez, 2000) have deconstructed the ingredients of the Spanish tense system, and a similar
impetus can be observed with respect to aspectual properties (cf. the articles in Bosque 1990a,
among others). The three chapters in this section take a step further and seek to examine how a
combination of insights from semantic/pragmatic theories is needed to explain even very basic
temporal and aspectual properties.
Silvia German's contribution, "Spanish Past and Future Tenses: Less (Semantics) is More",
addresses the issue of how semantic and pragmatic factors are relevant in the determination of
simple past/future tenses. Spanish grammarians typically propose a single semantic notion
underlying the multiple uses of tense morphemes such as simple future -re/-ra and preterito
(simple past). King (1992) and Gili Gaya (1961), for example, propose that -re/-rd invariably
conveys a future temporal perspective. However, Spanish simple future can receive both a future
reading, as in (la), or a modal non-future one as in (Ib):

(1) a. Juanvendrd.
"John will come"
b. Juan estard en casa.
"John will be at home now"

Similarly, the preterito or simple past is normally assumed to convey semantic perfect aspect,
which distinguishes it from the imperfecto (RAE, 1973), which is also a past tense. However,
its perfectivity varies depending on properties related to aktionsart. For example, preterito may
not imply the completion of the action, as in (2):
 From Words to Discourse

(2) Juan estuvo enfermo. Y todavia lo estd.

"John was sick. And he still is"

In these cases, the standard tense definitions fail, leading to the postulation of post-hoc
exceptions. Gennari argues that factors other than tense meanings, such as aktionsart and
pragmatics, influence temporal interpretation. A new approach to temporal semantics is needed,
where these factors combine with semantic definitions to predict tense interpretation and
acceptability.
Consider the simple future (-re/-rd). First, it refers to a time later than the speech time (ST).
The non-future reading of (Ib) follows from the independent fact that (Ib) denotes a state. Note
that present readings of -re/-rd only appear with stative sentences. In contrast, non-statives only
receive future readings. States have this temporal effect because they trigger the pragmatic
inference that they obtain at a larger interval containing the time specified by the tense. If the
state is located by -rd/-re at a future time t, its properties generate the inference of its truth at a
larger interval i containing t, which can overlap with the ST. The interval associated with (Ib),
but not (la), may thus overlap with the ST. Second, -re/-rd also requires that its temporal
proposition follow from the context or conversational background (CB) and imposes a pragmatic
felicity condition: the CB should be realistic. A realistic CB is a set of propositions true in the
actual world (actual facts are taken for granted). Thus, -re/-rd[Q] is true iff FUT[Q] follows
from the realistic CB. This definition predicts the reading of (Ib) and (la): the future proposition
Q follows from the assumed CB (but Q could overlap with ST in (Ib) due to aktionsart). This
also predicts why -rd/-re is not acceptable in non-realistic contexts, as in #57 fuera rica,
comprare un auto '#If I were rich, I will buy a car'.
As for preterito, Gennari argues that rather than convey perfectivity, it triggers a quantity
implicature. This is clear with atelic events (with telic events, telicity rather than preterito entails
completion). Because imperfecto, which entails the possible continuation of an event until the
ST, is always available, the use of preterito implicates the end of the event before the ST.
Preterito, the less informative form, implicates that the more informative imperfecto-reading
does not obtain. Note that this implicature is cancelled in (2), thus supporting a pragmatic
account.
Thus, by including aktionsart and pragmatics in her model of temporal interpretation,
Gennari advocates the idea that traditional lexical semantic definitions of tense can be
simplified, and it is also possible to consistently account for all possible readings of Spanish past
and future tenses. These data support an integrated semantic/pragmatic approach to Spanish
tenses, and to temporal semantics in general.
In "Tensed Complements of Perception Verbs: Issues in their Temporal Interpretation",
Alicia Cipria explores the semantics and pragmatics of past tense complements of perception
verbs, such as ver 'to see', oir 'to hear', palpar 'feel by touch', and oler 'to smell'.
Complements of perception verbs are particularly interesting due to the different interpretations
they receive. Traditional accounts of this class of verbs state that the complement verb must
 Introduction

have a simultaneous relationship with the main verb of perception. In cases where this does not
obtain, the main verb is interpreted as a cognitive rather than a sensory verb of perception (Gili
Gaya, 1961; RAE, 1973). Cipria argues that temporal relations across a complex clause with a
main perception verb are not as simple as claimed in some of the existing literature on the topic.
Rather, the interaction of aspect/aktionsart and pragmatics with the lexical requirement imposed
by the main verb plays a role in the resulting temporal interpretations. Since perception verbs
mostly take indicative complements, the issues discussed here bring interesting insights to the
general issue of "sequence of tense (s)", which in the Spanish literature has been dealt mostly
within the context of subjunctive complements.
In general, imperfecto always entails atelicity for its complement clause, regardless of
predicate type or other elements, while the preteriio can participate in telic or atelic situations.
The import of aktionsart effects in perception contexts lies in the fact that simultaneous readings
(be they sensory or cognitive) only arise when the aktionsart of the complement clause is atelic,
while there will be backward shifted readings when the complement clause displays telic
aktionsart. The fact that the preterito is compatible with both telic and atelic aktionsart gives rise
to important consequences in perception contexts. With complements that have no lexical
requirements on the temporal interpretation of their complements, the backshifting of the
preterite always takes place, regardless of the aktionsart of the complement clause. However,
under a verb of sensory perception, the options for the preterito are different: simultaneity is
necessary for the sensory interpretation to arise and, in turn, only atelic situations permit
simultaneous readings. Under perception verbs, the preterito backshifts when in a telic situation,
and it may describe a simultaneous (or seemingly simultaneous situation) when in an atelic
situation. Consequently, there is a clash between the lexical requirement of the main verb of
sensory perception (for simultaneity) and the preterito embedding effects. For the sensory
interpretation to be available, the main verb requires simultaneity of its complement and a
condition of "witnessing" or evidentiality also needs to be met. For the cognitive interpretation
to arise, however, there are no restrictions as to the type of temporal relationship between main
and complement tenses, and there are no restrictions arising from aktionsart effects either. This
seems a natural fact, since mental processes are more likely to be associated with any situation,
whatever their location in time, whereas a sensory situation requires direct experience. In sum,
Cipria claims that the alleged simultaneity requirement of perception verbs does not seem to
always work with preterito complements, which may yield a backward shifted reading when
embedded under another past. As for imperfecto complements to past main verbs of perception,
she concludes that the supposed simultaneity requirement can be overridden by the interaction of
aspect, aktionsart and pragmatics, and that the peculiarities of sensory contexts can be better
accounted for in terms of evidentiality and actual occurrence, independently of tense
specification and aktionsart effects.
The study of verbal periphrases is normally one of the topics that one expects to see treated
in more detail in traditional and pedagogical grammars, and indeed this is the case. Nevertheless,
it is surprising that to date there has been very little theoretical elaboration on the
 From Words to Discourse

morphosyntactic and semantic restrictions on the combination of verbs and auxiliaries that form
the periphrasis. The proper deconstruction of their linearization, tense/aspectual properties is
also mostly an open question. Brenda Laca acknowledges this point in her extensive and
detailed study of the semantic and structural properties of Spanish aspectual periphrases,
"Spanish 'Aspectual' Periphrases: Ordering Constraints and the Distinction Between Situation
and Viewpoint Aspect". In aspectual periphrases, which follow the pattern "finite verb +
infinitive/ gerund", the finite verb is either an "aspectualizer" denoting not a situation type but a
part of the temporal structure of any situation type, or a verb of motion or location. These
"superlexical" verbs express notions such as use (soler), beginning (empezar), or ending
(acabar/ terminar). Verbs of motion or location express notions such as (re)turn (tornar/ volver),
location (estar), motion (ir/andar), put (poner), leave (dejar), follow (seguir), and stop (parar).
Laca builds on current research by Cinque (1998, 1999), who has put forward a syntactic
proposal on the ordering constraints that can be observed in periphrastic constructions. More
specifically, for Cinque, the higher/finite verbs in such constructions are bona fide auxiliaries
that lexicalize a functional (aspectual) head. Cinque argues for a cross-linguistically invariant,
highly articulated structure of aspectual functional projections. Together with the rigid order of
adverbs and of aspectual particles and affixes, the purported rigid order of "aspectual"
periphrases in Romance is taken to provide evidence for the assumed hierarchy of functional
projections. Laca distances herself from this type of account and points out several empirical and
theoretical inadequacies of such type of syntactic approach. She correlates ordering possibilities
with a major distinction which is grounded in semantics, namely the distinction between
situation and viewpoint aspect (Smith, 1991). She furthermore argues that a unified account of
aspectual periphrases is neither possible nor desirable. Aspectual periphrases divide both
syntactically and semantically into two different categories based on the distinction between
extrinsic and intrinsic ordering principles, well known in the realm of morphology, where they
usually serve to distinguish inflectional from derivational affixes. She establishes two main
correlations: (a) between viewpoint aspect and periphrases that are both more peripheral (more
external) with respect to the lexical verb they apply to and exhibit extrinsic ordering properties
(being rigidly ordered or in complementary distribution among themselves); (b) between
situation aspect and periphrases that are both less peripheral, i.e. appear nearer the lexical verb
they apply to, and are more freely ordered among themselves. Laca concludes her study
examining Spanish periphrases in which semantics and ordering possibilities seem to diverge
and periphrases from other Romance languages that apparently exhibit the same semantics but
different ordering possibilities than the Spanish ones.
 Introduction

4. THE INFINITIVE AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE

While the alternations that can be observed between the preterito and the imperfecto, the past
and the future or periphrastic constructions are related to temporal, aspectual and aktionsart
properties of diverse semantic and pragmatic import, the interpretation of infinitives,
imperatives, and the subjunctive requires bringing in subtle considerations about modality and
the modal structure of propositions.
One of the most salient problems in the semantics and pragmatics of infinitives is how to
reduce the diversity of its apparent uses to a single core and how to explain some of its most
salient functions, such as the imperative use, in terms of a theory of mood and force. Xose
Rosales Sequeiros' chapter "Non-Declarative Sentences in Spanish: The Case of the Infinitive"
is concerned with the imperative use of the infinitive in Spanish. In particular, the author
examines both its semantics and pragmatics, and provides an account that brings together these
two aspects of the infinitive and its imperative use within the theoretical framework of relevance
theory. Traditionally, the imperative is seen as a mood in its own right. However, Wilson and
Sperber (1988) argue that they see no reason to assume that semantic moods exist. They further
argue that the characteristic linguistic features associated with declarative and non-declarative
sentences only encode an abstract property of the intended interpretation: the direction in which
the relevance of the utterance is to be sought. Wilson and Sperber (1988) claim that the
infinitive and the imperative differ semantically in that the latter encodes the property that the
state of affairs described is both potential and desirable, while the former encodes the property
that the state of affairs is only possible. The semantic meaning of Me encantaria vivir en el
campo ('I would love to live in the countryside'), for example, could be paraphrased as Me
encantaria tener la posibilidad de vivir en el campo ('I would love to have the possibility of
living in the countryside').
Wilson and Sperber (1988) also argue that this does not preclude the use of the infinitive as
an imperative when assumptions about achievability and desirability are available in the context.
Rosales Sequeiros criticizes this approach because it does not take into account a number of
issues:(a) does the imperative meaning become part of the prepositional form of the utterance or
is it just a pragmatic contextual assumption?; (b) what pragmatic processes, if any, are involved
in this imperative use?; and (c) why is the imperative use of the infinitive more common in
Spanish (and other Romance languages such as Galician) than in English?
The author argues that whereas the semantics of the infinitive is restricted to possibility, in an
imperative use its contribution to the prepositional form of the utterance is enriched via
pragmatic processing. This means that its contribution is to the explicit content of the utterance
and not to the implicit content, as Wilson and Sperber suggest. This also seems to provide an
answer to the third question raised above, namely the repeated use of the infinitive as imperative
in German, Spanish and other Romance languages, and its contribution to the explicit content of
the utterance has made it possible for this use to be more accessible and become semi-
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
bale of wool, and Xo. 5 was in the centre of a hand-packed " square
" of wool. Both bales were exposed to the treatment. I have found
that there is not the slightest indication of disinfection. Cultures from
each sample yielded numerous anthrax colonies, together with an
extremely abundant crop of other bacteria. The cultures produced
fatal and typical anthrax in guinea-pigs in two days. — (Sd.) Arthur
Eastwood. NOTES FROM HEATHFIELD— II By the Rector, Rev. B. V.
WHITE, M.A. Dear Mr. Editor. — A stagnant pond in the lower part of
my parish has furnished me and the members of my household with
a number of interesting problems. It is foul and slimy and has an
accumulation of dead leaves, sawdust and other vegetable matter in
a high state of decomposition. We have derived some pleasure from
viewing portions of the green sliine under the microscope, but the
bubbles of gas which arise from the decaying mass at the bottom of
the pond, especially when it is stirred with a stick, will form the
subject of a few observations. These bubbles may easily be collected
in a glass jam pot filled with water and held upside down with the
open end of the jar just under the surface of the water. Unless my
memory is at fault, there is a fresco in Manchester showing the great
John Dalton engaged in collecting such bubbles in the manner I
have described. The gas is largely composed of marsh gas or
methane, a compound of carbon and hydrogen with the formula
CH4. What other compounds are contained in the bubbles I do not
know, and I shall be grateful to any of your readers who will point
out to me some exact analysis of any such gases. It is by no means
easy for me to follow out in my mind exactly how the gas is
produced. H I am asked, I explain that it is made by some
putrefactive decomposition of decaying vegetable matter, probably
assisted by bacterial action. This usually suffices for my children or
my parishioners, but it has no merit except its sonorous and
imposing verbiage. How did the plant obtain its carbon and its
hydrogen, and how is the marsh gas made and permitted to escape
? These are the questions which I put to ruyself. It has been known
for a century that living plants absorb from the air a certain amount
of carbonic acid or C02 ; this they absorb through their leaves ; they
also absorb through their roots small quantities of water and
compounds of nitrogen. Water is a compound of hydrogen and
oxygen H„0, and the plant has the power of assisting the carbonic
acid and the water to combine to make formaldehyde. From the
formaldehyde the plants make cane sugar, and plants also contain
grape and fruit sugar which my chemical books term glucose and
fructose ; nobody seems to know which of these sugars is the first
to be formed. Professor Baly of Liverpool has in his own rooms made
from carbonic acid and water — not by the help of plants, but in
glass bottles and flasks kept in bright sunlight— formaldehyde and a
syrup which may be a sugar. This syrup may quite possibly be
formose, a name used to describe some sugary mixture whose
composition is not known. In any case Professor Baly considers his
syrup to be akin to formose. This discovery, a quite
 M:ir. 2, 1928 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY 203 recent one in
practice though old in theory, lias given us a greater insight into the
ways in which plants perform their chemical operations than perhaps
any other. The Rector of the adjoining parish of Burnsall, to whom I
recently explained this, sent me a few days ago some Latin
hexameters on this matter, of which I will only quote a small portion
: — " tu, Bali/, lent us in umbra Formosam resonate, doces
aldehydamque silvas " — which means, Thou, Baly, in the leafy
shade, teachest the woods to resound with " formose " and "
aldehyde." This is a pretty conceit, and the whole poem is full of
such. And other experiments made at Liverpool prove the
preparation of various alkaloids by somewhat similar methods, using
ammonia and carbonic acid. Some of my friends, who are more
sceptical than I am myself, tell me that, as the learned Mr. Stas once
showed, and as Mr. Ost and another confirmed later, it is very
difficult to free ammonia from alkaloids and other organic bases, and
that this fact may account for some of the bodies made at Liverpool
; but ever since I was a student at Cambridge, now some years ago,
I have been accustomed to accept, without criticism, facts
announced at the Royal Institution or the Royal Society. I am never
quite clear whether the pla,nt makes the chemicals or whether the
chemicals make the plant. Perhaps Sir Williarn Pope, who I am glad
to notice is a contributor to your columns, will explain this for our
benefit. As a Professor of Chemistry he will be more farniliar with
these matters than I am ; or, could you, Sir, persuade Professor Baly
to write a lucid explanation of the point. So far as I can understand
the matter the plant is continually absorbing its chemical reagents
from the air and the soil, provided the light is there and the weather
not too cold ; and these will, under suitable conditions of light and
heat, act together and make aldehydes and sugars, and from these
cellulose and ligno-celluloses, which are the principal constituents of
wood and cotton and some other substances. This means a growth
of the substance of the plant, which must steadily increase its
stature and its bulk so long as the conditions are favourable. So to
some extent it is true that chemicals make the plant ; yet, on the
other hand, the plant has certain qualities which it has inherited
from its ancestors and cannot be altered* The seed of the
mignonette has in it some substance which fixes the sort of plant
which will be made, the shape of its leaves, the colour of its flower,
and the peculiar scent which belongs to it. This quality is well
portrayed in the poem, " Progress of Man," written a hundred and
twenty years ago by Canning or Frere, and it is as true to-day as it
was then. Some plants have the inherited power of making very
peculiar chemical compounds, and the nature of these depends only
on the plant itself ; the quantity of the substance manufactured will
very likely depend on the warmth, the light, the richness of the soil
and the amount of rain. But the foxglove will make a complicated
substance called digit alin, the potato will make starch, and the
artichoke will makeinulin, and unless it is the nature of the plant to
do so, you cannot in any way compel the chemicals to unite and
form these compounds, no matter how you alter the temperature
and other conditions, which is indeed a curious instance of the
mysteries of Nature. Most plants contain cellulose and derivatives of
this substance ; it seems to be the decomposition of the cellulose
and the lignocelluloses which liberates .the marsh gas, especially the
ligno-celluloses. These each contain a CH3 group, and it is quite
possible that when they break up the CH3 groups unite with the
extra atoms of hydrogen and so make the CH4 which we can collect
in our jam jars. Your pages have been much occupied of late by a
controversy concerning the best method of burning fuel so as to
secure economy and the prevention of smoke. The late Dr. Benjamin
Franklin, an American philosopher, who was elected into the Royal
Society so long ago as 1756, paid close attention to this question,
and, in the second volume of his collected works, devoted nearly
one hundred pages to describing and depicting many elegant and
efficient devices for burning pitcoal in such manner as to combine
the greatest heating effect with the least smoke production. A
comparison of Dr. Franklin's disquisition with the discussion in your
columns suggests that matters are much as he left them one
hundred and fifty years ago. When your disputants peruse the work
of this long-departed philosopher they will note the following
injunction : — " And, indeed, all our knowledge is so imperfect, and
we are from a thousand causes so perpetually subject to mistake
and error, that positiveness can scarce ever become even the most
knowing ; and modesty in advancing any opinion, however plain and
true we may suppose it, is always decent, and generally more likely
to secure assent. Pope's rule, ' To speak, though sure, with seeming
diffidence,' is therefore a good one." Festina lente is a good rule, but
in this instance the precept has been used to excess. If you think my
letter worthy the notice of your respectable Society you are at liberty
to lay it before them ; they will consider it, I hope, as it was
intended, as an humble attempt to promote a more minute inquiry
into these intricate chemical processes. [Our valued contributor
seems to refer to Stas, CEuvres completes 1, 375 and Ost and
Bannow, Journ. f. prakt. Chemie, 1883 [2], 28. 271. — Editor.]
 204 CHEMISTRY AXD INDUSTRY OBSERVATIONS BY "EYE-
WITNESS" The Editor welcomes the comments and expressions of
opinion by his contributors, but it ■must be understood that he does
not necessarily agree with them. The Advertisements m this Journal
were the subject of a conversation which was taking place among a
number of members of the Society when I joined them the other
evening. The manner in which they were disp^ed was favourably
mentioned, but" -the number of pages which they occupied was the
source of much outspoken comment. It has often puzzled me why
advertisers advertise, and if they must, and I am told they must,
why they advertise in the way they do. I am aware that of recent
years a very clever and select body of men have arisen, who call
themselves " business builders " or some such name as that, and are
prepared to supply any sort of scheme required to advertise a
particular business. These must be exceptional people, but there is
in every business one person who has the spending of so much
money for the purpose of advertising the business. How are
Advertisements Allocated ? Presumably a certain sum of money is
decided upon which is the limit of the amount to be spent in a
particular year. On what principle is this money spent ? I wish
someone would tell me. The theory of the thing is that the
advertiser has something to say about his goods and wants to say it
at the cheapest possible rates to the largest number of prospective
buyers. So far, so good ; the size of a paper's circulation is
something, but it is not all. It is surely the number of prospective
buyers into whose hands the paper goes which is the measure of a
paper's usefulness as an advertising medium. In other words, the
paper must go into the counting-house and the secretary's offices if
it is to get to prospective buyers. The paper which has the news and
the kind of articles which the occupants of those offices read is the
paper which ought to get the advertisements. It is extraordinary
what a meeting-place the Chemical Section of the British Industries
Fair is becoming annually. On the opening day, when the King and
Queen were being conducted round the Chemical Hall, I noticed that
most of the directors of the firms represented by exhibits were in
attendance, and prior to the Royal visit were engaged in friendly
conversation. What a change ! Five years ago some of these
gentlemen hardly knew each other — to speak to. Later in the week
I observed Colonel Jos. I. McMullen of the U.S. Army, who is over
here from America on important business, filling in time between
two appointments by examining the exhibits, and not missing much.
Early this week Mr. Percy Ashley, the Assistant Secretary to the
Board of Trade, who is responsible for the Industries and
Manufactures Branch, was also there. Perhaps the schoolboys were
the most interesting visitors to watch. They seemed instinctively to
pick out the exhibits where the most longsuffering attendants were
on duty, and they acquired not only a wealth of information verbally,
but their acquisition of the printed word was even more voracious.
Some science masters are in for a bad time ! Broadcasting is very
much in the public eye at the moment. Critics complain that it is a
base use of the fruits of pure science — an argument which seems
strangely familiar — and that the transmissions are too short or too
high-class or not high-class enough. Some detect a reactionary
tendency in a sermon ; others declare that the British Broadcasting
Company has been " got at " by ecclesiastics and forced to begin not
earlier than 8.30 p.m. on Sundays. Speculation is rife as to the effect
which this " new art of broadcasting " will have on those who spend
much of their time listening to it. This last query is one which may
well be of some interest to scientists. To those who would look into
this I suggest a line of inquiry. It is well to remember that quite half
the amateur sets in the country are run on the technical, if not on
the financial side, by boys — principally those with some interest in
things scientific — many of whom will make some branch of science
their profession when they grow up. There is some value as a
scientific training to be found in the manipulation and repairs (no
light task) of wireless apparatus, and this must be balanced against
the tale of home-work neglected and interest diverted from ordinary
school-work. It is not broadcasting, however, which should cause us
the more immediate concern in this field. As has been pointed out
over and over again, we are deplorably short of high-power
commercial stations : it is a defect which must be remedied with the
least possible delay. The developments of wireless will no doubt be
enormous, and I was amused to read in the newspaper this
morning, in Sir J. J. Thomson's speech at the opening of the General
Electric Company's new laboratory, how Lord Kelvin wished to
restrict the capital of the first wireless company to £100,000,
because that seemed the utmost amount of capital that could find
useful employment in wireless telegraphy. If it is true that a process
will always take three or four times as long as is expected, it is
undoubted that it will always cost five or six times as much as the
pioneers estimate. Even while the first plant is being erected, fresh
possibilities and improvements become manifest. One should never
commit one's prophecies to paper or disclose them to a man who
keeps a diary.
 Mar. 2, 1923 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY FORTHCOMING
EVENTS Mar. 3. University of Liverpool. Adelphi Hotel, Liverpool, at
7.30 p.m. Dinner in connexion with the opening of the new Chemical
Laboratories. Mar. 3. The Royal Institution of Great Britain, 21,
Albemarle Street. W. 1, at 3 p.m. " Atomic Projectiles," by Sir E.
Rutherford. Mar. 5. Institution of Rubber Industry, Engineers' Club,
Coventry Street, Piccadilly, W. 1. " Telegraph Cable Manufacture,
Rubber and Gutta Percha," by H. Savage. Mar. 5. Society of Chemical
Industry, London Section. Engineers' Club, 39, Coventry Street, W. 1,
at 8 p.m. " Industrial Poisoning and the "Works Chemist," by Dr. T.
M. Legge. Mar. 6. Society of Chemical Industry, Edinburgh and East
of Scotland Section, Hall of the Pharmaceutical Society, 36, York
Place, Edinburgh, at 7.30 p.m. Annual Meeting. Mar. 6. Society of
Chemical Industry-, Birmingham and Midland Section, the University
Buildings, Edmund Street, Birmingham, at 7 p.m. " The Influence of
Protective Colloids upon the Velocities of Chemical Reactions," by J.
Newton Friend. Mar. 6. Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain,
35, Russell Square, W.C. 1, at 7 p.m. " An Electric Indicator for
Washing-troughs," by K. C. D. Hickman. Mar. 7. The Institution of
Sanitary Engineers, Caxton Hall. Westminster. S.W.I, at 7.30 p.m. "
The Mechanics of the Activated Sludge Process," by J. A. Coombs.
Mar. 7. The Institute of Metals, Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Storey's Gate, SAY. 1, at 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Annual General Meeting.
Also on March 8. Mar. 7. The Institute of Chemistry, Leeds Area
Section, The Queen's Hotel, Leeds, at 7 p.m. "Chemical
Jurisprudence," by Capt. J. A. Fester. Mar. 8. Society of Chemical
Industry, Ottawa Section, University Club, Elgin Street, Ottawa, at 8
p.m. "Chemistry in the Canadian Civil Service," hy Government
Chemists. Mar. S. Society of Dyers and Colourists, London Section,
Dyers' Hall, Dowgate Hill, E.G., at 7 p.m. " The Valuation of
Dyestuffs by Titration Methods," by R. B. Brown and H. Jordan. Mar.
B. Institute of Chemistry, Liverpool and North-Western Counties'
Section, Chemistry Lecture Theatre, Liverpool University, at 7.30
p.m. "Chemical Warfare," by Major V. Lefebure, O.B.E. Mar. 9.
Institute of Metals, Sheffield Local Section, Mappin Hall, The
University, St. George's Square, Sheffield, at 7.30 p.m. " Further
Notes on Britannia Metal," by Capt. F. Orme. NEWS FROM THE
SECTIONS MONTREAL SECTION The January meeting was held at
the Queen's Hotel, and was preceded by dinner. Dr. MacLean, the
Chairman, presided, and was supported by Dr. R. F. Ruttan. The
lecturer of the evening was Dr. H. E. Howe, editor of the Journal of
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Xew York. Chemistry as the
maker and breaker of nations was his theme, and Dr. Howe
emphasized the need of enlightening the general public, and
particularly business men, on the great debt owed to the chemist,
and, incidentally, of impressing upon the chemist himself the vital
importance of his profession, and the absolute dependence of the
world on his knowledge. The duty consequently devolved on the
chemist of asserting himself and forcing recognition of his profession
as one of paramount value to the world. Dr. Howe showed the power
which chemistry has wielded in several notable instances, and its
close relation to finance and prosperity. Chemistry developed the
purple hue used by the merchants of Tyre and Carthage, from the
fluid secreted in the tiny shell of a Mediterranean mollusc, and this
lent largely to the riches of the two ancient cities. By the use of the
deadly Greek fire, chemistry decreed that the siege of
Constantinople should come to naught. Chemistry discovered the art
of making weapons from metal, and thus moulded the destinies of
earlv warring mankind. In later times the same science gave birth to
margarine at the siege of Paris by the Germans in 1870, and during
the Napoleonic Wars, when the continent was blockaded by the
British Fleet, the art of deriving sugar from beets was utilised by the
French to circumvent the efforts of the British. Since that time both
France and Germany have steadily increased the amount of their
beetsugar production, and now, instead of being an importer of
sugar, France, only a few years ago, exported about 250,000 tons of
beet sugar annually. Without TNT the Germans would have had far
more difficulty in blowing up the foundations of the Belgian
fortresses, and without chemistry to fight disease, the Panama Canal
would never have been built. Dr. Howe referred also to the discovery
of gunpowder, which set the nations hunting for nitric acid, and
saltpetre from which the acid is obtained. By chemistry the West has
been able to break the camphor monopoly, held, not long ago, by
the Japanese. With its large deposits of sulphur, used for making
sulphuric acid, the United States has been able to obtain its share of
international safety. Chemistry is the key to international relations,
declared Dr. Howe, for it sometimes seems that the nations are all
striving for power and the right to exploit conquered peoples.
 206 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY Mar. 2, 1923 In the future
the ascendancy will lie not with that nation which has the most
natural resources, but with the nation which best knows how to use
its resources. The chemistry of the future will form the most fearful,
humane and efficient weapon yet wielded on this earth. It will put a
premium on intelligence, and it will be a leveller of nations, for a
small nation with a superior knowledge of the war-time operations of
chemistry Avill be able to outdistance her larger but slower
neighbour. The Germans once built a large part of their hopes for
world power on their mastery of the making of .dyes. At present
Germany is attempting to make liquid fuel from coal, and further, the
Germans believe they possess the key to tropical Africa in an
antidote which effectively combats sleeping sickness. Germany will
not give this secret to other peoples without exacting her price : the
restoration of her African colonies. Canada's debt to science is
mainly for its development of asbestos, nickel and the manufacture
of paper. Prof. R. F. Ruttan referred to Dr. Howe as the man who had
done more than any other to make known to industry the vast
importance of research. Prof. J. F. Snell, of Macdonald College, and
Messrs. C. F. Bardorf, of the St. Lawrence Sugar Refining Company,
and T. H. Wardleworth spoke briefly. NOTTINGHAM SECTION At the
meeting held on February 21, presided over by Mr. S. F. Burford,
F.I.C., a paper by Messrs. A. Brittain, M.Sc, and C. Elliott, B.Sc, on "
Plaster of Paris," was read by the former. In a brief survey of
previous work the authors referred to the papers of Davis (this J. 26,
727) in 1907 and of Keene in 1916, also -to one read last November
before the Ceramic Society. The order of changes on heating is from
the monosymmetric form of the dihydrate (gypsum) to the
orthorhombic then to orthorhombic half-hydrate, and to the soluble
or one of the insoluble forms of anhydrite. Slides were shown
illustrating the aqueous vapour-pressures of different systems at
100° C, and the temperatures of the transitions. According to the
authors' experiments the hemihydrate is formed between 109° and
130° C, and anhydrite between 160° and 200° C. It becomes dead
burnt at 200° C, but even then will rehydrate if ground sufficiently
finely. The design of the closed kettles used in America was then
explained. These include settlers in which large quantities of dust
carried away with the escaping steam are collected. In the Cummer
continuous rotary process, the furnace gases pass through the
material, the calcination is completed in three stages and the
material is ground after calcination. The two conversion or " boiling "
temperatures are at about 120° to 130° and 190° C., with loss of 12
to 16 per cent, and 6 per cent, of water, respectively. In the English
open pans stirred by chains, the " boiling " occurs at about 118° C.
The fuel consumption per ton of plaster produced is about 80 lb. of
coal in the rotary process, 95 to 200 lb. in the kettle and 400 to 480
lb. in the English open pan. The great inefficiency of the English
process is due to excessive surface radiation and poor
heattransmission through the thick iron or tile bottoms. Experiments
showed that a thinner plate and the use of producer-gas instead of
solid fuel improved the efficiency. Plaster always contains gypsum
even when it also contains much insoluble anhydrite. The presence
of the gypsum accelerates the setting, probably by providing nuclei
of crystallisation, but decreases the strength, since it does not enter
into the crystallisation, but acts like an inert material. A similar effect
is produced by overburnt anhydrite. The use of accelerators and the
effect of varying the amounts of water were also briefly described.
In the discussion which followed Mr. Pentecost referred to the
analogous advantage of fine grinding in the drying of starch, and Mr.
J. M. Wilkie expressed satisfaction that the section had at last heard
a paper on this typically local industry. Dr. Firth alluded to a German
patent in which it was claimed that the theoretical quantity of water
gave the hardest set product. Was there a possibility that on long
storage the anhydrite might dehydrate gypsum ? Dr. Prideaux wished
for information on the chemical changes associated with the first and
second setting. In gauging the plaster with water was it usual or
advisable to allow for the relative proportions of halfhydrate and
anhydrite ? Another speaker asked why commercial plaster
sometimes set quickly and then gave again, and the Chairman
wished to know whether there were critical temperatures in the
setting. Mr. Brittain, in reply, said that all the other constituents were
estimated and the gypsum obtained by difference. When heated
above 800° C, anhydrite was again capable of setting, and it gave a
basic sulphate above 1000° C. The term " first set " was a misnomer
; it merely meant the point at which the plaster became unworkable.
Plaster made from the sulphate of lime recovered in the manufacture
of phosphoric acid set slowly but gave a hard and dense product.
GLASGOW SECTION The Ramsay Chemical Dinner was held in the
Grosvenor Restaurant on February 23, and was attended by
members of the Society of Chemical Industry, the Institute of
Chemistry, the Society of Dyers and Colourists, the Glasgow
University Alchemists' Club, the Andersonian Chemical Society, and
the Ardeer Chemical Club. Professor G. G. Henderson, F.R.S.,
presided, and the guests included Sir Thomas Paxton,
 CHEMISTRY AXD INDUSTRY Bart., Lord Provost of Glasgow,
and Ladv Paxton ; Dr. E. F. Armstrong, F.R.S., President of the
Society of Chemical Industry : Mr. C. R. Gibson, President of the
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow ; and Mr. G. A. Mitchell,
President of the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce. Mr. C. R. Gibson, in
proposing the toast of " The Joint Chemical Societies," said that the
Society of Chemical Industry was the largest chemical society in the
country and had local sections throughout the world. They honoured
that evening the memory of Sir William Ramsay. a past president of
the Society, and they were happy to have in the chair another
distinguished past-president and to have with them the ruling
president, Dr. E. F. Armstrong. Of the other societies included in the
toast. the Institute of Chemistry was a body which looked after the
interests of the profession, and the Society of Dyers and Colourists
was devoted to the interests of the dyeing and allied industries. The
Students' Societies were represented by the University Alchemists'
Club and the Royal Technical College Andersonian Chemical Club.
These societies served a very useful purpose and afforded
opportunities for the discussion of problems of academic and
industrial importance. The Ardeer Chemical Club was composed of
members of the research staff of Messrs. Xobel Explosives Works at
Ardeer. It was a pleasure to think that this firm realised the
importance of chemical research. He welcomed the spirit of co-
operation which had brought the societies together, and he
suggested that a proposal to form a chemical section of the Royal
Philosophical Society of Glasgow would be welcomed by the Council.
The chairman responded to the toast and referred to the formation a
few years ago of the Federal Council of Pure and Applied Chemistry,
which was intended to be representative of all the chemists in the
country. They wished, he said, to impress upon the public that the
profession of chemistry was one of the most important, if not the
most important, in the country. The future prosperity of the country
depended largely on the development of chemistry, and it was very
necessary that the people should realise it. The importance of the
profession would be realised only by the co-operation of the
chemists themselves, and he was glad that a step in this direction
had been taken. Dr. E. F. Armstrong, F.R.S., in proposing the toast of
" The City of Glasgow," said that they all had pleasant memories of
Glasgow and of the meeting held there last July. The position which
Glasgow occupied in the commercial world was second to none. The
Lord Provost replied and appealed to chemists to assist the
movement for obtaining a purer atmosphere in Glasgow. The air was
polluted by burning raw coal and especially by burning it in the
domestic fireplace. He thought that chemists could help him and the
Corporation to ensure purer air for the citizens. Mr. W. E. Moodie,
chairman of the local section, proposed the toast of " The Guests."
Mr. G. A. Mitchell, in reply, referred to the appeal made by the Lord
Provost for a smokeless fuel and to the fact that chemists had been
able to produce a smokeless fuel from raw coal. Attention must now
be given to details so that a cheap product might be available.
BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND SECTION Dr. E. B. Maxted presided at
the special meeting, held on February 20, in co-operation with the
Chemical Society. Prof. G. T. Morgan and Mr. F. R. Jones read a paper
on the " Interaction of Formaldehyde and the Nitro-naphthylamines,"
in which they pointed out that the seven known nitronaphthylamines
have been condensed with formaldehyde under varying conditions:
— 4-Nitro-a naphthylamine and 2-nitro-a-naphthylaniine give
dinaphthylmethane bases ; l-nitro-/2naphthylamine furnishes the
hydrolysable methylenebis - 1 - nitro - /? - naphthylamine, which
exists in two differently coloured modifications ; 5-nitro-/3-
naphthylamine gives rise to two products, a dinaphthylmethane base
and a dinaphthacridine ; 8 - nitro - )3 - naphthylamine gives
methylenebis - 8 - nitro - /} - naphthylamine, which becomes
transformed into a dinaphthylmethane base ; 5-nitro-a-
naphthylamine resembles a - naphthylamine in yielding illdefined
products ; whereas 8-nitro-a-naphthylamine furnishes methylenebis-
8-nitro-a-naphthylaniine and a dinaphthylmethane base which has
the noteworthy property of separating in yellowish white tabular
crystals containing three molecular proportions of formaldehyde.
These results indicate that the nearer the nitrogroup is to the amino-
radicle in the nitronaphthylamine the more marked is the retarding
effect of this nitro-group on the condensation with formaldehyde. A "
Xote on the Preparation of /J-Naphthol4-sulphonic Acid," presented
by Prof. G. T. Morgan and Eveline Jones, described an attempt to
obtain /3-naphthol-4-sulphonic acid from the commercially available
naphthalene- 1diazo-2-oxide-4-sulphonic acid by boiling this diazo-
compound with alcohol, when elimination of the diazo-group occurs,
the resulting /?-naphthol-sulphonic acid being characterised by
means of its azo-derivatives with the diazonium salts of ^-toluidine,
p-nitroaniline and /Jnaphthylamine. A paper on " Hydrogen Ion
Determination," was read by Mr. S. R. Carter. The advantages of
reducing all degrees of acidity and alkalinity to one common scale
were demonstrated and the basis of Sorensen's hydrogen ion
experiment was explained. The constitution of indicators was
discussed and their application to the determination of pH values
was illustrated by
 208 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY Mar. 2, 1923 experiments.
The latter portion of the lecture ■was devoted to the electrometric
methods employed for hydrogen ion measurements, and to
electrometric titrations : the principles involved were illustrated by
potentiometers and electrodes lent by the Cambridge and Paul
Instrument Co. MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES BIOCHEMICAL
SOCIETY Dr. Dale presided over the meeting heldxhi the National
Institute for Medical Research, Hampstead. on February 12, and the
following communications were read : — (1) "A Comparison of the
ps Determined Electrically with the pK Calculated from the Carbon
Dioxide of Blood in Pathological Conditions ;" : T. R. Parsons and E.
P. Poulton. Two methods of calculation were employed : — (1)
Warburg's Method (Biochem. J., 16., 153, 1922) ; (2) from the
carbon dioxide of the plasma . using a relation established by
Campbell, Hunt and Poulton (Journ. Path, and Bact., in the press) for
the carbon dioxide of the blood and corresponding true plasma,
according to the formula j)H=6-l+log(combined C02) — log (free
C02). In the latter case the blood must not be anaemic or. with
certain reservations, polycythemic. Neither method should be used if
the blood contains excess of fixed acid. Under these circumstances
the carbon dioxide in true plasma must be determined directly. Out
of 39 observations on various pathological cases (without fixed acid),
82 per cent, (by Warburg) and 79-5 per cent. (Campbell, Hunt and
Poulton's method) were not further away than 0-05 pa from the
value actually determined with the hydrogen, electrode. (2) 'The
Blood'inPolvcvthaemia?:: J. M. H. Campbell, G. H. Hunt and'E. P.
Poulton. One case of ervthraemia and four cases of congenital heart
disease with polycythemia were investigated. The power of fixing
carbon dioxide was much diminished (average, 34 c.c. at 40 mm.) ;
this was not accounted for by the increase of red cells, so that fixed
acid must have been present. This was abolished in one case of
ervthraemia after five days in an oxygen chamber, though the blood
picture was not changed. In these cases the arterial carbondioxide
pressure was normal, so that the arterial pa was diminished. The
percentage oxygen saturation of the blood was diminished in &Y. the
cases, but especially in the congenital heart cases (pulmonary
stenosis and patent septum), so that there must have been a
mixture of the blood from the veins and from the lungs in the
arteries. It was also shown that polycythemia itself leads to faulty
aeration of the blood in the lungs. Want of oxygen leads to increased
ventilation, and in the congenital heart cases the alveolar carbon
dioxide is much lower than the arterial carbon-dioxide pressure.
Breathing oxygen in these cases does not lead to diminished
ventilation, and the explanation is that though the oxygen want is
relieved the arterial carbon-dioxide pressure is raised, whilst the
fixed acidity remains the same, so that the arterial pn is diminished.
These two factors probably neutralise each other in their effect on
the respiratory centre. (3) " On the Mode of Action of Vitamins " : W.
Cramer. On withholding the fat-soluble vitamin "" A " from the diet of
rats an atrophic condition of the intestinal mucous membrane
results. This is especially marked in the lower part of the small
intestine where the villi are necrosed. The same lesion occurs after
exposure to large doses of X-rays and radium. This is, therefore,
another instance of the fact that the tissue lesions produced by
radiations on the one hand and vitamin deficiencies on the other are
essentially similar. The intestinal lesion rapidly disappears under the
influence of cod-liver oil. It is specific for vitamin " A " deficiency and
does not appear when vitamin '" B "' is withheld, when a different
atrophic intestinal lesion is produced — namely, atrophy of the
lymphoid tissue (Peyer's patches). The intestinal lesion produced by
vitamin " A " deficiency accounts for most, if not all, the general
effects occurring in that condition : cessation of growth, infection,
thrombopenia. The intestinal mucous membrane of rats kept since
birth on a diet which, though adequate to maintain the animals in
apparent good health and enable them to grow and to breed, was
restricted in its vitamin content, differs in its appearance from that of
rats kept on the same diet supplemented amply with vitamins : in
the latter animals the villi are distinctly bigger. The observations
confirm the views expressed in previous papers concerning the
mode of action of vitamins. These food accessory substances have a
drug-like specific stimulating action on certain parts of the digestive
tract. These parts are, in fact, dependent for the full development of
their functional activity on an abundant supply of these vitamins in
the food, and undergo atrophy in the absence of these vitamins. In
this respect the vitamins resemble hormones, in the absence of
which atrophic changes occur in certain tissues (atrophy of the
uterus in the absence of the ovarian hormone, atrophy of the testes
in the absence of the pituitary hormone). The generalisation that all
cells require vitamins is incorrect and should be abandoned. The
same applies to the idea that vitamins contain " growth promoting "
faetors. INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY A crowded meeting of the
Huddersfield section was held on February 15, in the Technical
College, to hear a lecture by Prof. W. L. Bragg on '* X-rays and
Crystal Structure." The chairman, Dr. H. H. Hodgson, in welcoming
the distinguished lecturer, said that no chemist needed an
introduction to the work of Prof.
 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY Bragg, but that the chemists
of Huddersfield had been looking forward for some time to personal
contact with him. Prof. Bragg first described crystal structure and the
phenomena of crystallisation, remarking that all true solids were
crystals. He then proceeded to the analysis of crystals by X-rays, and
compared the results with those obtained by microscopical
investigation. Following this came a description of the light which the
analysis throws on chemical composition, revealing the beautiful
underlying architecture of crystals in its entirety. Particularly does the
method afford a means of finding the distances between the atoms
in the solid state. A wider aspect of the field was then reviewed,
including the nature of chemical combination and the forces of
chemical attraction, and an answer was given to the question of why
the properties of substances alter so completely when they are
combined, e.g., why common salt is so different from its
constituents, sodium and chlorine. The cognate problem of the seat
of atomic individuality was then considered. In discussing atomic and
molecular dimensions, many characteristics were explained from the
standpoint of electrostatics, e.g., the problems relating to heats of
solution and heats of formation of substances. The final section of
the lecture was devoted to the insight which X-ray analysis affords
for the study of chemistry. No longer can barriers be erected
between chemistry and physics, since recent work by the physicist
has broken the existing but always artificial boundary. ROYAL
INSTITUTION On February 8, Prof. I. M. Heilbron gave a lecture on
the " Photo-synthesis of Plant Products," devoted more especially to
the synthesis of organic nitrogen compounds. Pictet, he said,
believed that alkaloids were formed by the degradation of more
complex compounds such as protein or chlorophyll, but Gadamer
and Prof. Robinson considered that they were actually primary
products of assimilation. In general, it could be assumed that,
except in plants living in association with nitrogen- fixing bacteria,
nitrogen entered the plant through the roots in the form of some
soluble nitrogen compound. The work of Moore and his
collaborators, however, seemed to show that in the absence of
sources of nitrogen other than atmospheric, unicellular alga? could
fix nitrogen and form proteins hi presence of an abundance of
carbon dioxide. The key to the formation of alkaloids was to be
found in activated formaldehyde. Prof. 111. C. C. Baly and himself
had found that activated formaldehyde — i.e., formaldehyde
produced by photosynthetic action, reacted with nitrogen to form
formhydroxamic acid, which at once combined with more activated
formaldehyde, producing a variety of complex nitrogenous
compounds similar to those found in the living leaf. It was found that
if excess of nitrite were used, formhydroxamic acids and nitrogen
compounds alone were produced, but in the presence of excess of
formaldehyde, sugars were produced in addition to nitrogen
compounds. Activated formaldehyde could condense with
formhydroxamic acid in three ways, to form either amino-acids,
alkaloids orglyoxalines. On replacing the nitrite by ammonia it was
found that whether one started from carbon dioxide and ammonia or
from activated formaldehyde, on exposure to the light the same
compounds were attained. Evidence had been obtained of the
production of methylamine, pyridine, piperidine, and other
substances. INSTITUTION OF RUBBER INDUSTRY A paper on "
Technology in the Rubber Industry " was read by Mr. W. A. Williams
at the meeting held on February 5. Mr. Williams said that much that
is possible in the modern rubber factory is due to the labour of
chemists. But for the work of the chemist and the metallurgist we
should have been still struggling along with toy machines such as
those used by Hancock and Goodyear, possibly manufacturing
nothing better than waterproof coats and pencil erasers. Although
the rubber industry has been possible through the agency of the
chemist indirectly, it is only within recent years that the chemist has
come in direct touch with rubber manufacture. His inclusion in the
factory organisation has synchronised with the rapid development of
the industry during late years, and the problems that have presented
themselves could not have been handled by the strictly-practical
man. The success of a technical and scientific department in factory
organisation depends solely on the staff. What is wanted is not so
much the specialist as a man who has had a broad scientific training,
with chemistry as his special subject ; the factory and laboratory
training that follows after his engagement will make him an efficient
works chemist. The organisation I will outline is one to meet the
requirements of a large plant, but has the advantage that it can be
adapted to smaller factories. The laboratory sections and the full
organisation are as follows : (a) chemical research laboratory, (6)
physical research laboratory, (c) chemical routine laboratory, (d)
physical routine laboratory, (e) mixhigs control laboratory, (/)
experimental laboratory, (g) power, fuel and boilers laboratory, (h)
contracts and specifications laboratory, (i) specifications and supplies
link, (j) work-planning department. It is somewhat difficult to foretell
the character of the investigations that may be asked from the
chemical research laboratory, as the work of a rubber factory is very
varied. As examples of the work to be carried out, I would instance
investigation to obtain a clearer understanding of the nature of
crude rubber to ensure the supply of a uniform raw material ;
 210 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY Mar. 2, 1923 to evolve
suitable analytical methods for use by the laboratory sections which
control manufacture. Research work on the production of
accelerators has become very important of late, and investigations
on reclaiming should not be lost sight of. In the physical research
laboratory problems will be handled comprising physical work on
new methods and new manufactures, together with the investigation
of improvements on existing manufactures. Example of the class of
work undertaken by this section are the photo-micrographic
examination of pigments correlated with their stress-strain diagrams,
and the application of accelerators as distinct from their production
on a manufacturing scale. Through the chemical routine laboratory
passes all the chemical routine work of the factory, such as the
checking of deliveries of supplies against standard specifications,
and of samples of the factory products. This section carries out any
routine chemical testing required by the other laboratory sections.
The physical routine laboratory has duties similar to those of the
chemical routine laboratory in that it deals with the check testing of
supplies and of the manufacture at various stages of production up
to completion and draws the immediate attention of the department
concerned when the tests do not show adherence to the
manufacturing specification. The mixings control laboratory is
concerned with the adjustment of manufacturing difficulties arising
from mixing and vulcanisation ; the supply of new mixings to the
factory as may be required, and the control of the factory drug
departments. In the experimental laboratory work is carried on for
the improvement of current manufacture both in quality and build,
and the initiation of the manufacture of new articles. The power, fuel
and boilers laboratory deals with questions of boiler control,
inefficient firing, water softening and lubrication, and keeps a close
check on the calorific value of the fuel purchased. The duties of the
contracts and specification's laboratory are to assess qualities
against specifications which are furnished by prospective customers,
the detailed work being carried out either by the chemical or
physical routine laboratory. The specifications and supplies link drafts
working specifications for all standard manufactures and new
productions for the factory, giving necessary details of qualities,
weights and measurements, but not interfering with details of the
processes. In the work-planning department, consideration is given
to all labour and manufacturing operations to economise labour,
reduce fatigue and cut down waste. It should be the dut y of the
chemist in charge of his respective section to see that the work of
the section is properly recorded, and reports on all the work should
be filed, and copies sent daily to the works manager, who can then
adjust faults which, if not attended to, may later lead to complaint.
The reports of the respective departments are in turn circulated
through the whole of the laboratory sections, as it is essential that
the departments must not work on a water-tight plan. Each section
must be conversant with the work of the other section, for the
problems are interdependent and valuable suggestions and
assistance are obtained by bringing to bear on the subject the
different points of views of all the sections concerned. An outline has
thus been given of an organisation for scientific and technical control
which, in its complete form, would meet the requirements of a large
concern, but which can be started on a small scale and built up as
the factory grows. Naturally, large organisations were the first to
appreciate the advantages of scientific control and research, and it is
due to that appreciation that they have improved their factory
processes and costs of production at the expense of their smaller
rivals. Such an organisation, however, can only touch the fringe of
the subject of research and problems await the detached
investigator that are of interest to the whole industry and these can
best be carried out by pooling the costs and results of scientific
research, such as is done by the Research Association of the British
Rubber and Tyre Manufacturers' Association. The success of the
industry depends upon its ability to command the application of
improvements and reduced costs, which in these days can be
achieved by no rule-of-thumb methods. We must, therefore,
continue to advance, or be surpassed by other nations which are
using science in the struggle for world trade. THE ROYAL SOCIETY
The Council of the Royal Society, at the meeting held last week,
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