1 research method and mythology
2 sample and population
3- data resources collection / primary and secondary / consideration of
using secondary data
4- types 1 and 2 errors alpha and beta
5- hypothesis and assumptions
6 – testing the hypothesis
7- Simple random sample and stratified sample
1.research method and mythology
Applied research and basic research
Both ask questions, collect information to answer these questions by
testing the hypotheses using empirical evidence instead of relying on
subjective opinion.
Basic research: generate universal knowledge; while
Applied research: apply this knowledge to solve specific problems.
Steps of applied research
► 1. Select the research design framework: experimental or descriptive
Experimental design concerning cause –effect relation , answer the questions
of why/ how.
Descriptive design answer the questions about what is or what was .. It is of
exploratory nature.
► 2. Identify the information needed to answer each research question.
► 3.Identify data resources for each piece of information
► 4. Sampling of data resources
Steps of applied research
► 5.Identify variables and measurement if doing a quantitative
study
► 6. Select data collection methods
► 7. Identify data analysis methods and tools for qualitative/
quantitative
► 8. Validity and reliability.
• Identification of research problem
• Review of related literature
Procedures • Formulation of research question & Hypotheses
and Steps for Identification of •Define population & select a sample
Research research problem
• Data Collection
Process Identification of
research problem
Data Collection
• Data Analysis & Interpretation
• Conclusion & Decision Making
2. sample and population
Sample: is a part or a portion of the population of
interest
Population: is all possible individuals or objects of
interest.
Population Versus Sample
Population of a study
It is the collection of all people or
items
that are of interest in a particular
investigation.
Sample: A sample is a portion or
a part of The population of interest.
Population of the study
• Population is defined as all elements or units (units of analysis)
with the characteristics that the researcher wishes to study.
Sample & Sample Size
• In many cases , sampling is more feasible than studying the
entire population.
• A carefully selected sample should produce a result that
reflects the characteristics of the studied population.
• On the other hand, sample size is the act of choosing the
number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical
sample.
3- data resources collection / primary and
secondary / consideration of using secondary
data
Procedure for Data Collection and Data Analysis
Meaning of Data: Data means observations or
evidences. Or data are the observed values of a variable.
• Classification of Data :data is classified into two broad categories,
these are
• Quantitative Data: This is a data in which numerical values can be
assigned e.g., scores of students in an examination, ages of students in
school, achievement, intelligent, attitude, height, weight etc.
• Qualitative Data: This is a data in which numerical values cannot be
assigned. In other words, these are observations that are nonnumerical
in nature. They are in alphabetical form e.g., marital status, sex,
religion, state of origin.
Source of Data
.•
Sources of Data :there are two main sources of data: primary
and secondary sources.
• Primary Source: First-hand data are generated internally by researcher
himself. Thus the data obtained from this source originated from the
investigator for the sole aim of meeting the research objectives.
• . Secondary Source: In secondary source, the data collected do not
originate from the researcher himself, but the researcher collects the
data from other sources or records. In essence, secondary source deals
with references, documents and bibliographies recorded by someone
else.
4- types 1 and 2 errors alpha and beta
Type I Error versus Type II Error
Type I Error :Defined as the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is actually true.
Type II Error β :The probability of not rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is actually false.
5. hypothesis and assumptions
Research Hypothesis
• Hypothesis is a statement about population parameter subject to
verification
• Hypothesis is a statement about relationships that exist between two
or more variables. Therefore, hypothesis is the testing and
measuring of the variables stated in the research questions at a
particular probability level using inferential statistics.
Assumption:
• A condition that must be met for a statistical test or model to be
valid.
• Not tested directly but verified before analysis.
• Example:
"Data must be normally distributed for a t-test."
Aspect Hypothesis Assumption
Predicts outcomes or Ensures validity of statistical
Purpose
relationships. methods.
Tested empirically Verified before analysis (met/not
Role in Research
(accepted/rejected). met).
"Observations are independent in
Example "Exercise reduces stress levels."
ANOVA."
6– testing the hypothesis
Step-by-Step Guide to Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is a structured process used to determine whether there is
enough statistical evidence to support a claim about a population parameter.
Here’s a clear breakdown of the steps:
Step 1: State the Hypotheses
Step 2: Choose the Significance Level (α)
Step 3: Select the Appropriate Test
Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic
Step 5: Determine the Critical Value or p-value
Step 6: Make a Decision
Step 7: Report the Results
7- Simple random sample and stratified sample
Sampling techniques
► 1. Probability Sampling :
► The likelihood of an element to be included in the sample is identified. For example:
► The simple random sample
► The stratified random sample
► The systematic sample.
► 2. Non-probability random sampling: the likelihood of an element to be included in the
sample is not identified.
► Purposive sample
► Quota sample.
1. Simple random sampling
► Each element in the population has equal chance( probability) of inclusion in
the sample.
► All choices are independent
► Each possible sample combination has equal chance to be chosen.
► Drawing simple random sample using either two ways:
A. lottery:
► 1. Write each of possible samples on a slip of paper.
► 2. Mix slips thoroughly in a container.
► 3. Draw as a lottery by rotating one by one blindly, successively without
replacement .
Stratified Random Sample
Elements must be most homogenous within each stratum
Most heterogenous between different strata.
• It is appropriate when the population from which the sample is drawn doesn’t
constitute a homogenous group; To have a more representative sample.
• The total population will be classified into sub-groups , each is homogenous
individually.
• The different sub-groups are called strata.
• We select a sample from each stratum to constitute the sample.
Sampling and Sampling Techniques
Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting elements from •
the population in such a way that the sample elements selected
will represent the population.
Types of Sampling Techniques
• Probability Sampling
• Non-Probability Sampling
• Probability Sampling (Random sampling) :
• Random sampling implies that chance enters the process of
selection. Random sampling assumes that different units in the
population have equal chance of being selected .
• Non-Probability sampling (Non-Random sampling ):
Members of nonrandom sample are not selected by chance.
For example, they might be selected because they are at the
right place at the right time or because they know the people
conducting the research.
• This method of sampling does not involve random selection as
it does not depend upon the rationale of probability theory.
1) Simple Random Sampling
• In this sampling method, every member in the population has the
same chance of being selected for the sample.
• Selection is carried out using a table of random numbers or a
computer random number generator.
• Widely used for small populations.
• Difficult to apply for large populations (The process of numbering
all the members of the population and selecting items will be
difficult).
Stratified Random Sampling
• A population is first divided into subgroups, called strata, and a
sample is selected from each stratum (containing homogeneous
elements).
• This is useful when a population can be clearly divided in groups
based on some characteristics.
• The main reason for using stratified random sampling is that it
has the potential for reducing sampling error. Sampling error
occurs when, by chance, the sample does not represent the
population.
• It is generally more costly than simple random sampling because
each unit of the population must be assigned to a stratum before
the random selection process begins.
