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 CHRISTOLOGY, HERMENEUTICS,
AND HEBREWS

Profiles from the History of Interpretation

edited by

Jon C. Laansma
and
Daniel J. Treier
Published by T&T Clark International
A Continuum imprint
The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX
80 Maiden Lane, New York, NY 10038

www.continuumbooks.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

© Jon C. Laansma, Daniel J. Treier, with contributors, 2012

Jon C. Laansma, Daniel J. Treier, and contributors have asserted their right under the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the Authors of this work.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

eISBN: 978 0 567 28847 9

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

Typeset and copy edited by Forthcoming Publications Ltd. (www.forthpub.com)

Ps. 39.10-11 (LXX):

¼Ĥ¾ºº¼ÂÀÊÚľŠ»ÀÁ¸ÀÇÊįžŠëÅ ëÁÁ¾Êĕß Ä¼ºÚÂþ֒

Ċ»Çİ ÌÛ Ï¼ĕ¾ ÄÇÍ ÇĤ Äü ÁÑÂįÊÑ֒
ÁįÉÀ¼բ Êİ ìºÅÑË.
ÌüÅ »ÀÁ¸ÀÇÊįžŠÊÇÍ ÇĤÁ ìÁÉÍи ëÅ Ìĉ Á¸É»ĕß ÄÇÍբ
ÌüÅ ÒÂû¿¼ÀÚÅ ÊÇÍ Á¸Ė Ìġ ÊÑÌûÉÀĠÅ ÊÇÍ ¼čȸբ
ÇĤÁ ìÁÉÍи Ìġ ì¼ĠË ÊÇÍ Á¸Ė ÌüÅ ÒÂû¿¼ÀÚÅ ÊÇÍ ÒÈġ ÊÍŸºÑºýË ÈÇÂÂýËե

Ps. 40.9-10 (NETS):

I told the glad news of righteousness in a great assembly;

look, my lips I will not restrain;
O Lord, you knew.
Your righteousness I did not hide in my heart;
of your truth and your deliverance I spoke;
I did not conceal your mercy
and your truth from a large gathering.
vi
 CONTENTS

Abbreviations ix
List of Contributors xi
Preface xv

HEBREWS: YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND FUTURE;

AN ILLUSTRATIVE SURVEY, DIAGNOSIS, PRESCRIPTION
Jon C. Laansma 1

CHRISTOLOGICAL IDEAS IN THE GREEK COMMENTARIES

ON THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS
Frances M. Young 33

IRENAEUS AND HEBREWS

D. Jeffrey Bingham 48

‘CLOTHED WITH SPIRITUAL FIRE’:

JOHN CHRYSOSTOM’S HOMILIES ON THE LETTER TO HEBREWS
Charles Kannengiesser 74

THOMAS AQUINAS AND THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS:

‘THE EXCELLENCE OF CHRIST’
Daniel Keating 84

CHRISTOLOGY IN MARTIN LUTHER’S LECTURES ON HEBREWS

Mickey L. Mattox 100

THE PERFECT PRIEST: CALVIN ON THE CHRIST OF HEBREWS

R. Michael Allen 120

TYPOLOGY, THE MESSIAH, AND JOHN OWEN’S THEOLOGICAL

READING OF HEBREWS
Kelly M. Kapic 135
viii Contents

THE IDENTITY OF THE SON:

KARL BARTH’S EXEGESIS OF HEBREWS 1.1–4
(AND SIMILAR PASSAGES)
Bruce L. McCormack 155

THE LIVING WORD VERSUS THE PROOF TEXT?

HEBREWS IN MODERN SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY
Daniel J. Treier and Christopher Atwood 173

HEBREWS AND THE HISTORY OF ITS INTERPRETATION:

A BIBLICAL SCHOLAR’S RESPONSE
Harold W. Attridge 202

HEBREWS: A BOOK FOR TODAY—

A BIBLICAL SCHOLAR’S RESPONSE
Donald A. Hagner 213

HEBREWS: YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND FUTURE—

A THEOLOGIAN’S RESPONSE
Kathryn Greene-McCreight 225

Bibliography 238
Index of References to Premodern Sources 254
Index of Authors 261
 ABBREVIATIONS

AB Anchor Bible
ACCS Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture
Adv. haer. Irenaeus, Adversus haereses
Adv. Jov. Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum
Adv. Marc. Tertullian, Adversus Marcionem
Adv. Val. Tertullian, Adversus Valentinianos
ANF Ante-Nicene Fathers
BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research
BibInt Biblical Interpretation: A Journal of Contemporary Approaches
BT The Bible Translator
BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Monograph Series
Comm Communio
CRBS Currents in Research: Biblical Studies
CurTM Currents in Theology and Mission
DBSup Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplément
De pudic. Tertullian, De pudicitia
EdF Erträge der Forschung
EKKNT Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament
Ep. Symp. Pacian, Epistula ad Sympronianum
ET English translation
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen
Testaments
HeyJ Heythrop Journal
Hist. Eccl. Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia ecclesiastica
HTR Harvard Theological Review
IBS Irish Biblical Studies
IJST International Journal of Systematic Theology
JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society
JSHJ Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
LNTS Library of New Testament Studies
LW Luther’s Works (ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut Lehmann;
Philadelphia and St. Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia
Publishing House, American Edition, 1955–86)
LXX Septuagint
Neot Neotestamentica
x Abbreviations

NETS New English Translation of the Septuagint

NovTSup Novum Testamentum, Supplements
NPNF Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
NTAbh Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen
NTM New Testament Monographs
NTS New Testament Studies
PG J.-P. Migne (ed.), Patrologia cursus completa…
Series graeca (166 vols.; Paris: Petit-Montrouge, 1857–83)
Presb Presbyterion
RevExp Review and Expositor
SBLABib Society of Biblical Literature Academia Biblica
SBT Studies in Biblical Theology
SC Sources chrétiennes
ScrB Scripture Bulletin
SJLA Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity
SNT Studien zum Neuen Testament
SNTSMS Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series
ST Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae
Syn. Haer. Germanus, De synodo et haeresibus
TRu Theologische Rundschau
WA M. Luther, Kritische Gesamtausgabe (= ‘Weimar’ edition)
WADB M. Luther, Kritische Gesamtausgabe (= ‘Weimar’ edition),
Deutsche Bibel
WJE Works of Jonathan Edwards
WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
 CONTRIBUTORS

R. Michael Allen is Assistant Professor of Systematic Theology at

Knox Theological Seminary. He is author of The Christ’s Faith: A
Dogmatic Account, Reformed Theology, and Karl Barth’s Church
Dogmatics: An Introduction and Reader. He has edited Theological
Commentary: Evangelical Essays. He serves as general editor for the
forthcoming T&T Clark International Theological Commentary
series and as book review editor for the International Journal of
Systematic Theology.
Harold W. Attridge is the Rev. Henry L. Slack Dean and Lillian Claus
Professor of New Testament at Yale Divinity School. His scholarly
interests range from the New Testament to the literature and history
of the early Church. His writings include Hebrews: A Commentary on
the Epistle to the Hebrews in the Hermeneia series and Essays on John
and Hebrews.
Christopher Atwood is a Ph.D. candidate in Theological Studies at
Wheaton College.
D. Jeffrey Bingham is Department Chair and Professor of Theological
Studies at Dallas Theological Seminary. His many publications on
early Christian exegesis include Irenaeus’ Use of Matthew’s Gospel and
‘Patristic Exegesis of the Books of the Bible’ in Handbook of Patristic
Exegesis (ed. Charles Kannengiesser; Brill, 2004). He has also edited
The Routledge Companion to Early Christian Thought.
Kathryn Greene-McCreight (Ph.D., Yale) is Associate Priest at St John’s
Episcopal Church in New Haven, Connecticut. She is author of
Ad Litteram: Understandings of the ‘Plain Sense’ of Scripture in
Augustine, Calvin, and Barth on Genesis 1–3, Feminist Reconstructions
of Christian Doctrine, and Darkness is My Only Companion: A
Christian Response to Mental Illness. She is also co-editor of Theo-
logical Exegesis: Essays in Honor of Brevard S. Childs.
xii Contributors

Donald A. Hagner is George Eldon Ladd Professor Emeritus of New

Testament and Senior Professor of New Testament at Fuller Theo-
logical Seminary. He is the author of the New International Biblical
Commentary volume on Hebrews as well as Encountering the Book of
Hebrews: An Exposition. He is co-editor of the New International
Greek Testament Commentary.
Charles Kannengiesser (Ph.D., Strasbourg) was successor of the late
Cardinal Jean Daniélou at the Institut Catholique, Paris, Catherine
Huisking Professor of Historical Theology at Notre Dame University,
Indiana (1982–92), and Fellow of the Institute for Advanced Study,
Princeton, N.J. Since 1992 he has been Professor at Concordia
University, Montreal. Perhaps most famous among his many books
and articles is the massive Handbook of Patristic Exegesis.
Kelly M. Kapic is Professor of Theological Studies at Covenant College.
He is the author of Communion with God: The Divine and the Human
in John Owen’s Theology and co-editor of Overcoming Sin and
Temptation: Three Classic Works by John Owen and Communion with
the Triune God: A Classic Work by John Owen, as well as The Ashgate
Research Companion to John Owen (forthcoming).
Daniel Keating is Associate Professor of Theology at Sacred Heart Major
Seminary in Detroit, Michigan. He is the author of The Appropriation
of Divine Life in Cyril of Alexandria, and co-editor of Aquinas on
Doctrine: A Critical Introduction and Aquinas on Scripture: An
Introduction to His Biblical Commentaries.
Jon C. Laansma is Associate Professor of Ancient Languages and New
Testament at Wheaton College and Graduate School. He is author or
co-author of two books, including I Will Give You Rest: The Rest
Motif in the New Testament with Special Reference to Mt 11 and Heb
3–4, and is co-editor, along with Grant Osborne and Ray Van Neste,
of New Testament Theology in Light of the Church’s Mission.
Mickey L. Mattox is Associate Professor of Theology at Marquette
University. He is the author of ‘Defender of the Most Holy Matriarchs’:
Martin Luther’s Interpretation of the Women of Genesis in the
Enarrationes in Genesin, 1535–1545. He is co-author of The Sub-
stance of Faith: Doctrinal Theology in the Tradition of Martin Luther
and Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran
Theological Conversation (forthcoming).
 Contributors xiii

Bruce L. McCormack is the Charles Hodge Professor of Systematic

Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary. He is the author of Karl
Barth’s Critically Realistic Dialectical Theology and Orthodox and
Modern: Studies in the Theology of Karl Barth. He was the recipient of
the Karl Barth Prize in 1998 and an honorary doctorate from the
Friedrich Schiller University (Jena) in 2004. He is also a member of
the Board of Directors of the Center for Barth Studies at Princeton
Theological Seminary and of the Advisory Board of the Karl Barth
Forschungsinstitut at the Reformed University, Debrecen, Hungary.
Daniel J. Treier is Associate Professor of Theology and Coordinator of
the Ph.D. in Theological Studies at Wheaton College and Graduate
School. He is the author of three books, including Proverbs and
Ecclesiastes in the Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible.
Among his editorial work is serving as Associate Editor of the award-
winning Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible.

Frances M. Young is Emeritus Professor of Theology at Birmingham

University and an ordained Methodist minister. She was elected a
Fellow of the British Academy in 2004. Her publications include From
Nicaea to Chalcedon: A Guide to the Literature and Its Background
(Baker Academic, 2nd edn, 2010) and The Making of the Creeds
(SCM, 1991). She is also co-editor of The Cambridge History of Early
Christian Literature (Cambridge University Press, 2004) and The
Cambridge History of Christianity Volume One: Origins to Constantine
(Cambridge University Press, 2006).
xiv
 PREFACE

The reasons for this volume are elucidated at length in Jon Laansma’s
essay on Hebrews interpretation in modern biblical scholarship. Put
succinctly, our hope is that these initial forays into the book’s reception
history will serve as a catalyst for fresh reading of a neglected epistle. We
promote theological interpretation of Hebrews as Scripture in this way,
not as a replacement for historical-critical work, but instead as an orient-
ing framework for a full panoply of exegetical tools. It will be obvious
that assent to theological interpretation of Scripture was not a require-
ment for our contributors, nor is any unified or advanced theoretical
understanding of such interpretation attempted here. Our more modest
goal is to move Hebrews closer to the front burner of contemporary
scriptural exegesis and to enrich understanding of its classic history; if
the book further warms readers to the pursuit of more robust accounts of
theological exegesis, then so much the better.
The initial occasion for many of these essays was a three-year grouping
of presentations to the Hebrews section of the Evangelical Theological
Society. We are thankful to other members of the steering committee,
Herbert W. Bateman IV and Gareth Lee Cockerill, for enabling and
encouraging this experiment, and to the Society for welcoming our
expert guests. We are also exceedingly grateful to Dominic Mattos and
T&T Clark International for seeing the value of this project at a time
when the publication of such efforts is increasingly difficult.
The final form of the essays as a collection reflects much labor and
cooperation on the part of our contributors. We regret that Charles
Kannengiesser and Pamela Bright both faced significant health problems,
to the extent that Pamela was unable to complete her chapter surveying
Hebrews’s patristic reception. For this reason we have reprinted an older
essay by Frances Young, with the kind permission of Oxford University
Press, publisher of the Journal of Theological Studies, although this
decision transpired after we already had response essays in hand. We also
regret the challenges faced by two African scholars who were unable to
complete our planned chapter on the book’s reception there.
xvi Preface

Several others deserve our gratitude for helping this collection to come
to fruition. Student assistants Stephanie Lowery and Drew Melton, and
especially Timothy Belcher and Drew Burlingame, did various kinds of
research, text editing, and formatting far better and more cheerfully than
we could. Meanwhile Wheaton College provided support in the form of a
sabbatical, an Aldeen Grant, and a Project Teacher Grant, while the Dead
Theologians Society provided support for this work in less tangible but
no less real ways. And we must surely mention our families, especially
our wives Lisa and Amy, and daughters Kiersten and Anna—who love
us, pray for us, and let us talk incomprehensibly at one end of the table
on so many occasions at Chili’s.
We close by expressing particular gratitude to our respondents, who
patiently waited to receive contributions at the eleventh hour or even
later and then achieved quick turnaround on these most unusual assign-
ments. Since they have given us additional thoughts to chew on, theirs
are the last words, in lieu of a conclusion. After all, if we take Hebrews
seriously, none of these words is ultimately more than another effort to
discern the fullness of the ultimate divine Word heard in Jesus Christ.
Any further conclusions to draw lie with the audience, of which we
ourselves are part.
 HEBREWS: YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND FUTURE;
AN ILLUSTRATIVE SURVEY, DIAGNOSIS, PRESCRIPTION*
Jon C. Laansma

I. Introduction
‘To characterize [John Bunyan’s] Pilgrim’s Progress as a classic of “devo-
tional” literature is to misunderstand it. There is nothing devotional
about it; in every intention it is a program for action and not for medita-
tion.’1 It might be better characterized as a political tract as revolutionary
in intent as would be Marx’s Das Kapital.2
One can understand, given the historical context, how in non-conformist
England of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, hundreds of work-
men, farmers, and merchants found nightly reinvigoration by reading
Bunyan, and went out in the morning refreshed with the assurance that
by making a shoe, or plowing a furrow, or raising the interest rate, they
were conquering Apollyon.3

Considering these effects along with the others for which Pilgrim’s
Progress has been responsible, we may certainly say that the wider literary
and cultural influence of Bunyan’s allegory has been enormous. It is
interesting to note, then, the argument of Brainerd P. Stranahan, to wit,
that the specific biblical source for Bunyan’s allegory was the book of
Hebrews, especially the eleventh and twelfth chapters.4 If this is correct,

* I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Mark Bowald, Dan Treier, and
Andrew Burlingame. Any remaining faults are my own responsibility.
1. Perry Miller, ‘John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress’, in Classics of Religious
Devotion (Boston: Beacon, 1950), pp. 67-86 (67).
2. I owe this line and awareness of Miller’s essay to Rosalie de Rosset in a
personal email dated May 24, 2010. She was recalling lectures delivered by David
Wells, some years earlier.
3. Miller, ‘Pilgrim’s Progress’, p. 67.
4. Brainerd P. Stranahan, ‘Bunyan and the Epistle to the Hebrews: His Source
for the Idea of Pilgrimage in The Pilgrim’s Progress’, Studies in Philology 79 (1982),
pp. 279-96.
2 Christology, Hermeneutics, and Hebrews

then about Hebrews we may say that this would afford just one more
indication—beyond what the following chapters will chronicle—of the
rich history of effects stemming directly and indirectly from this ‘brief
word of exhortation’.
What has been true in the wider world has not always been true of the
biblical guild, however. Though Hebrews has been hailed as the literary
product of one of the greatest theologians of the New Testament,5 aca-
demic interest in Hebrews during the modern period has lagged behind
research into the ‘Jesus of history’, the Gospels, and Paul. The tremen-
dous fruit of modern biblical studies for all of the writings of the New
Testament canon has richly benefited scholarship on Hebrews, to be sure,
and there is more to be learned from that program. In the case of
Hebrews, however, the fruits have not been as abundant as elsewhere.6

5. Barnabas Lindars, The Theology of the Letter to the Hebrews (New Testament
Theology; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 1, comments: ‘The
author of Hebrews ranks with Paul and the Fourth Evangelist as one of the three
great theologians of the New Testament’; likewise, E. Grässer, An die Hebräer
(EKKNT, 17/1; Zurich: Benziger/Neukirchener Verlag, 1990), p. 38. Speaking of a
specific aspect of Hebrews’ contribution, Graham Hughes, Hebrews and Herme-
neutics: The Epistle to the Hebrews as a New Testament Example of Biblical Inter-
pretation (SNTSMS, 36; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 3, argues
that ‘the writer of Hebrews is the theologian who, more diligently and successfully
than any other of the New Testament writers, has worked at what we now describe as
hermeneutics’. In the same vein, note Anthony Thiselton, ‘Hebrews’, in Eerdmans
Commentary on the Bible (ed. J. D. G. Dunn and J. W. Rogerson; Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2003), pp. 1451-82 (1451). B. F. Westcott, The Epistle to the Hebrews: The
Greek Text with Notes and Essays (New York: Macmillan, 2nd edn, 1892), pp. vi-vii,
wrote with deep appreciation for this book and in a spirit that represents well that
which this very article will commend: ‘I should not of course maintain that the
fulness of meaning which can be recognised in the phrases of a book like the Epistle
to the Hebrews was consciously apprehended by the author, though he seems to have
used the resources of literary art with more distinct design than any other of the
Apostles; but clearness of spiritual vision brings with it a corresponding precision
and force of expression through which the patient interpreter can attain little by little
to that which the prophet saw. No one would limit the meaning of a poet’s words to
that which was definitely present to his mind. Still less can we suppose that he who is
inspired to give a message of God to all ages sees himself the completeness of the
truth which all life serves to illuminate.’
6. Writing in 1994, Craig R. Koester, ‘The Epistle to the Hebrews in Recent
Study’, CRBS 2 (1994), pp. 123-45 (123), stated that ‘Research on Hebrews since the
publication of Feld’s extensive survey [1985]…has been marked by a steady evolu-
tion of discussion rather than radically new departures’. In a different context this
could indicate that there is a stable consensus; it would be a sign of steady progress
with assured results. In the light of what follows—the lack of a consensus on most
 LAANSMA Hebrews: Yesterday, Today, and Future 3

The fault, we submit, may not be so much with Hebrews as in the way we
have been reading it. In a global ecosystem of meaning, every approach,
every perspective, every aspect of meaning thrives only within the limits
of its own habitat; asking a species to spread beyond its habitat is against
nature, and introducing alien species into established ecosystems is often
destructive. The mistake is not in the cultivation of historical work
related to Hebrews, for it plays an essential part in the global ecosystem
of meaning;7 the mistake is in attempting to make historical analysis fill
the whole earth.
The essays collected in the present volume all in their own way
promise to stimulate and refresh our reading of Hebrews. The studies
represent a selective history of interpretation, if not, where possible, a
fuller Wirkungsgeschichte or Rezeptionsgeschichte.8 ‘Selective’, because of

historical questions—it would seem to indicate rather an impasse. There is a good

deal of creative work that is maturing and suggesting rich possibilities (e.g., relating
to literary and rhetorical aspects), but few if any solid answers to the book’s historical
riddles.
7. We may confidently predict, in fact, that the gates to a richer harvest of the
historical fruits will be opened precisely through a full integration of the theological
and historical. In a global ecosystem, all the habitats and all the species are mutually
sustaining.
8. Previously published surveys of this nature include the following works, which
are here numbered for convenience: (1) R. A. Greer, The Captain of Our Salvation:
A Study in the Patristic Exegesis of Hebrews (Tübingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1973);
(2) K. Hagen, A Theology of Testament in the Young Luther: The Lectures on Hebrews
(Leiden: Brill, 1974); (3) idem, Hebrews Commenting from Erasmus to Bèza, 1516–
1598 (Tübingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1981); (4) B. Demarest, A History of the Inter-
pretation of Hebrews 7,1-10 from the Reformation to the Present Day (Tübingen:
Mohr [Siebeck], 1976); (5) Robert Kitchen, ‘Making the Imperfect Perfect: The
Adaptation of Hebrews 11 in the 9th Memra of the Syriac Book of Steps’, in Recep-
tion and Interpretation of the Bible in Late Antiquity (ed. Lorenzo DiTommaso and
Lucian Turcescu; Leiden: Brill, 2008), pp. 227-51; (6) P. Stephens, ‘Bullinger’s
Commentaries on Hebrews: In Comparison with the Commentaries of Luther and
Calvin’, BT 55 (2004), pp. 60-70; (7) Frances Young, ‘Christological Ideas in the
Greek Commentaries on the Epistle to the Hebrews’, JTS 20 (1969), pp. 150-63;
(8) D. A. Hagner, The Use of the Old and New Testaments in Clement of Rome
(NovTSup, 34; Leiden: Brill, 1973); (9) E. M. Heen and P. D. W. Krey (eds.), Hebrews
(ACCS, 10; Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2005); (10) C. Kannengiesser,
Handbook of Patristic Exegesis: The Bible in Ancient Christianity, vol. 1 (Leiden: Brill,
2004), pp. 354-61; (11) C. Koester, Hebrews (AB, 36; New York: Doubleday, 2001);
(12) R. Bauckham, D. R. Driver, T. A. Hart, and N. MacDonald (eds.), The Epistle
to the Hebrews and Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009). The first
seven are all excellent studies but limited in scope, as their titles indicate. Among
others that could be added to those seven: Jody V. Lewis, ‘Digging for Buried
4 Christology, Hermeneutics, and Hebrews

course no one volume can canvass all that could be said in this vein,
because few would wish for something exhaustive, and because research
in this field has not yet fully ripened. A ‘history’, for the last centuries of
scholarship have brought us to the need of it.9
These chapters will take us through periods and figures from the end
of the first century C.E. to the present. Such an historical survey can serve
multiple ends. Modern historical critical work will profit from a review of
its predecessors, which illuminates not only the beginnings, driving
concerns, and principles of the historical critical program, but also the
continuing value of its own special contributions. There may even be the
remaining ‘historical critical’ fragment yet to be found in the furnace
room of an ancient monastery; we may uncover a forgotten interpretive
insight that would survive the acids of critical methods. Those of a more
‘postmodern’ bent might appreciate the different perspectives of other
cultures and eras, with their suggestiveness for associations and meanings
that are not yielded by strictly modern questions and methods. If one
adopts the sort of Wirkungsgeschichte program that Ulrich Luz has

Treasure: Origen’s Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture’, Comm 25 (1998), pp. 757-

75; Joseph M. Hallman, ‘The Communication of Idioms in Theodoret’s Commentary
on Hebrews’, in In Dominico Eloquio: In Lordly Eloquence: Essays on Patristic Exegesis
in Honor of Robert Louis Wilken (ed. P. M. Blowers; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002),
pp. 369-79; Brian Lee, Johannes Cocceius and the Exegetical Roots of Federal Theol-
ogy: Reformation Developments in the Interpretation of Hebrews 7–10 (Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009). The eighth in the above list is at once much
broader (encompassing the use of the entire canon) and narrower (the use of the
Scriptures by a single Church Father) than the present volume. The ninth is a help-
ful anthology of primary sources. The tenth is a study of patristic exegesis as such.
The eleventh, which is part of the introduction to Koester’s commentary on
Hebrews, is an excellent sketch but must cover the entire history up to 1750 C.E.
in twenty-two pages. Like Koester’s and with further bibliography: H. Feld, Der
Hebräerbrief (EdF, 228; Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1985),
pp. 54-59; Grässer, Hebräer, pp. 30-38. The twelfth in the above list addresses
dimensions of Hebrews vis-à-vis theology, but not necessarily from the standpoint of
theological interpretation of Scripture as such, and with almost no focused attention
on the history of interpretation or effects. The present volume will look at the recep-
tion history of the entire book of Hebrews over the entire history of the church,
albeit selectively.
9. Harold W. Attridge, in Gabriella Gelardini (ed.), Hebrews: Contemporary
Methods—New Insights (Biblical Interpretation Series, 75; Leiden: Brill, 2005),
p. viii, made the following comment on this need: ‘One area that I hope will be
further explored… is the history of reading Hebrews. There remain stories to be told
about how the text functioned in the ongoing shaping of Christian doctrine and
community identity.’
 LAANSMA Hebrews: Yesterday, Today, and Future 5

outlined for Matthew’s gospel,10 for example, then also in the case of
Hebrews we will wish to locate ourselves within (not on the banks of) the
stream of this very Wirkungsgeschichte. For Luz,
Historical-critical interpretation should have a twofold function. It should
distance the text from the interpreter and make it alien by putting it back
into its own period, and it should make the interpreters aware of their
own preunderstanding in the confrontation with the foreign texts and
teach them something about themselves… For a number of reasons,
historical-critical interpretation has, in my judgment, only inadequately
fulfilled the second aspect of its twofold task. This is where the history
of the text’s influence can help and can make clear to the interpreters
(1) who they are in their confrontation with the texts and (2) who they
might become in their confrontation with them.11
The following chapters should provide precisely the sorts of resources
that will aid in doing for Hebrews what Luz has so masterfully done for
Matthew. Finally, theologians, philosophers of religion, church historians,
and pastors will have an interest in such a survey, bearing as directly as
this one does on their own discourses and work.
Though it was not asked or expected of the authors of the following
essays that they agree with this proposal, the present chapter will suggest
that in fact the word of Hebrews will be heard more fully and faithfully
through the program of ‘theological interpretation’ than it has been
through the governing research program of the modern period. Here and
throughout, however, let it be understood that while ‘theological inter-
pretation’ raises in its own way the question of Wirkungsgeschichte, this
is only one aspect of its interpretive questioning. Moreover, as Kevin
Vanhoozer has rightly said, ‘one should not be too quick to equate
“effective history” with faithful continuation or with truth. The history of
the New Testament’s so-called effects include beatific as well as horrific
visions—slavery, the Inquisition, and the Holocaust, to name but a few’.12

10. Ulrich Luz, Matthew in History: Interpretation, Influence, and Effects

(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994); idem, Matthew 1–7 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2007), pp. 60-66; idem, Studies in Matthew (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
2005), pp. 265-369.
11. Matthew 1–7, p. 63. At this point we are merely noting the potential benefits
of our own volume’s history of interpretation for a variety of programs, including
Luz’s. There is much to be commended in what Luz has done, but we are not holding
his project up as Exhibit A of the sort of ‘theological interpretation’ for which we
advocate in the latter part of this chapter.
12. Kevin Vanhoozer, ‘The Apostolic Discourse and Its Developments’, in
Scripture’s Doctrine and Theology’s Bible: How the New Testament Shapes Christian
Dogmatics (ed. Markus Bockmuehl and Alan J. Torrance; Grand Rapids: Baker,
2008), pp. 191-207 (203).
6 Christology, Hermeneutics, and Hebrews

The present chapter—subtitled ‘an illustrative survey, diagnosis, and

prescription’—serves to introduce the following studies while chronicling
the modern period. It would seem logical to place a survey of the ‘mod-
ern period’ in its chronological place at the end of the line, of course, but
it is just that period that highlights the need for this volume; the decision
to deploy it as an introduction, in turn, favors a briefer, representative
survey. Several considerations reinforce this approach. First, the explo-
sion of publications on Hebrews, especially in recent years. Smaller than
is the case with Paul, for instance, still it would require several essays or a
whole volume of its own merely to survey it. Secondly, there are several
fairly recent, major commentaries, along with other studies, already
providing a fair representation of modern research through the present;
in addition to these, digital and print indices abound. Thirdly, one’s
home country (the modern period) does not need the introduction that a
foreign land (preceding eras) does. Related to this, the fruits of the
preceding eras have not so much been inherited as intentionally eclipsed,
superseded by the modern; thus there is a danger of forgetting what
should not be forgotten and studiously ignoring what must be noticed.
Lastly, a comprehensive survey of modern academic work would serve
the ends of the modern historical research program whereas it may be
argued that a realignment of programs is in fact a better course for the
study of Hebrews,13 particularly for those who recognize this writing as
canonical Scripture. The approach of this chapter will accordingly be
threefold. First, we will conduct a brief survey of the interpretation of
Hebrews in the modern period. Secondly, we will locate this scholarship
in the broader stream of historical critical work, emphasizing the
deleterious effects this has had on Hebrews scholarship. Lastly, we will
suggest a way forward that could retain its benefits while mitigating these
problems.

II. Survey: Hebrews in the Modern Period

Parts of the story of Hebrews from the second through the sixteenth
centuries will be told in the following chapters. The question of author-
ship loomed from the very beginning and persisted, albeit not with a view
to merely historical explanation but with a view to apostolicity, Scriptural
authority, and canon. Among other things, Christology, church discipline
and apostasy, election and perseverance, church leadership, devotional

13. Using the word ‘realignment’ rather than speaking of a ‘change’ of programs
is meant to avoid the mistaken impression that our intent is to abandon or diminish
the importance of historical-critical investigations.
 LAANSMA Hebrews: Yesterday, Today, and Future 7

practices, hermeneutics, and sacramental theology all featured heavily in

the concerns that revolved around the book. As things have moved
forward from the Reformation and Counter-Reformation to the present,
such theological effects have continued. C. Koester summarizes these:
Roman Catholic scholars often gave special emphasis to Christ’s priesthood
and sacrifice, which provided the basis for worship and ministry within the
Catholic Church. Protestants from the Lutheran and Reformed traditions
accented Hebrews’ emphasis on the Word of God that strengthens faith,
and noted the centrality of exhortations to hold fast to the confession…
Liberal scholars followed the humanist idea that Hebrews moves people
from lower to higher forms of religious life. They took Christ to be the sub-
ject of the most perfect personal religion, which is uniquely able to bring
people nearer to God, because his obedient self-offering affects people inter-
nally, satisfying the underlying religious need associated with sacrifice.14

In other chapters dealing with the modern time period there will be
discussions devoted to the reading and influences of Hebrews in John
Owen, Karl Barth, and Anglo-American systematic theology.15 If the
present summary limits itself to the field of biblical scholarship, this is
not out of disinterest in these other and wider currents. The concern for
the moment is merely to highlight the nature of the work that has
dominated the Continental European, British, and North American
biblical studies guild.
In 1939, Ernst Käsemann published Das wandernde Gottesvolk.16 With
that marking a turning point, in 1964 E. Grässer published a lengthy
survey of Hebrews scholarship during the period 1938–1963, in which
he noted the disproportionately high number of wissenschaftlich-liter-
arischer Untersuchungen relative to other kinds of studies. 17 The twenty

14. Koester, Hebrews, p. 41.

15. Also of interest would be the reading of Hebrews in current global theologies.
For instance, see P. Nyende, ‘Hebrews’ Christology and Its Contemporary
Apprehension in Africa’, Neot 41 (2007), pp. 361-81; Paul Inje, A Two-Dimensional
Approach: Christ’s Sacrifice in the Letter to the Hebrews and Sacrifice in Gandhian
Thought (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corp., 2007).
16. E. Käsemann, Der wandernde Gottesvolk: Eine Untersuchung zum Hebräer-
brief (FRLANT, 55; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1939); ET The Wander-
ing People of God: An Investigation of the Letter to the Hebrews (trans. of the 2nd
German edn [1957] by R. A. Harrisville and I. L. Sandberg; Minneapolis: Augsburg,
1984). C. Koester, Hebrews, p. 61, notes Käsemann’s later softening on the gnostic-
thesis of Wandering; cf. idem, ‘The Epistle to the Hebrews in Recent Study’, p. 136.
17. E. Grässer, ‘Der Hebräerbrief 1938–1963’, TRu 30 (1964), pp. 138-236 (236);
repr. E. Grässer, Aufbruch und Verheißung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Hebräerbrief:
Zum 65. Geburtstag mit einer Bibliographie des Verfassers (Festschrift E. Grässer;
8 Christology, Hermeneutics, and Hebrews

years following Grässer’s overview were covered in the book-length

survey of Helmut Feld, which also marked Käsemann’s book as a key
moment.18 We will mention below George Buchanan’s survey, published
in 1975, which argued that the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls signaled
a fresh departure for Hebrews scholarship. Clearly the first half of the
twentieth century, particularly with history of religions work and dis-
coveries of texts related to the Essenes and the Gnostics, transformed the
picture. It also remains clear, however, that work on Hebrews in the
1930s and after moved ahead on a trajectory that had already been
established; this will be the subject of the next section.
In the very outlines of these surveys19 a profile of Hebrews’ scholarship
emerges. For our purposes we will merely mention the areas typically
treated rather than catalogue names and projects diachronically; due to
space limits, we will note just a few works not in the earlier surveys.
In many respects, the book remains a ‘riddle’, though not for lack of
attempts to unlock it. The only consensus about authorship is the
negative one: it is not Paul.20 It seems likely that the author was male

ed. Martin Evang and Otto Merk; BZNW, 65; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1992), pp. 1-99;
Grässer dated the appearance of Wandering in 1938. Covering 1900–1960, see also
C. Spicq, ‘Paul: Épitre aux Hébreux’, DBSup 7 (1966), pp. 226-79.
18. Feld, Hebräerbrief.
19. Among other surveys (the following contain further references to earlier
surveys), see J. C. McCullough, ‘Some Recent Developments in Research on the
Epistle to the Hebrews’, IBS 2 (1980), pp. 141-65; idem, ‘Some Recent Developments
in Research on the Epistle to the Hebrews: II’, IBS 3 (1981), pp. 28-43; idem,
‘Hebrews in Recent Scholarship’, IBS 16 (1994), pp. 66-120; C. E. Carlston,
‘Commentaries on Hebrews: A Review Article’, Andover Newton Review 1 (1990),
pp. 27-45; E. Grässer, ‘Neue Kommentare zum Hebräerbrief’, TRu 56 (1991),
pp. 113-39; repr. E. Grässer, Aufbruch und Verheißung, pp. 265-94; Koester, ‘Recent
Study’; W. E. Mills, Hebrews (Bibliographies for Biblical Research, NT 21; Lewiston:
Mellen, 2001); G. H. Guthrie, ‘Hebrews’ Use of the Old Testament: Recent Trends
in Research’, Currents in Biblical Research 1 (2003), pp. 271-94; J. C. Pakala, ‘A
Librarian’s Comments on Commentaries: 15: Hebrews and an Excursus on the
Future of Book Publication’, Presb 29 (2003), pp. 42-48; S. E. Docherty, ‘The Use of
the Old Testament in the New Testament: Reflections on Current Trends and Future
Prospects with Reference to the Letter to the Hebrews’, ScrB 34 (2004), pp. 60-70;
S. Griffith, ‘The Epistle to the Hebrews in Modern Interpretation’, RevExp 102
(2005), pp. 235-54; D. J. Harrington, What Are They Saying About the Letter to the
Hebrews? (New York: Paulist, 2005); Andrew Lincoln, Hebrews: A Guide (London:
T&T Clark, 2006); R. Ounsworth, ‘What Are They Saying About the Letter to the
Hebrews?’, ScrB 39 (2009), pp. 79-90.
20. As an exception: Eta Linnemann, ‘A Call for a Retrial in the Case of the
Epistle to the Hebrews’, Faith and Mission 19, no. 2 (2002), pp. 19-59. Some allow
 LAANSMA Hebrews: Yesterday, Today, and Future 9

(11.32), however, and inferences regarding his profile have been drawn
from the intellectual sophistication, rhetorical skill, and historical hints of
the letter. As for the recipients, the traditional conviction that they were
Jewish continues to be defended, while some have argued for a Gentile
audience, and others for a mix. As with the author, inferences can be
drawn regarding the history, cultural background, and social setting of
the recipients. Given that nothing in the argument of the book disallows
a date after 70 C.E., arguments have dated the composition from 60 to
100 C.E. The location of the recipients was traditionally thought to be
Judea (a conclusion still defended), but it is now widely thought that
13.24 implies the destination was Italy, perhaps Rome; among other
possibilities, Corinth, Alexandria, and Asia Minor have also been sup-
ported as destinations. The question remains open. The occasion of the
letter has been thought (among other theories) to be a threatened return
of Jewish believers to the temple or synagogue or more generally to
Judaism;21 the failure of Jewish believers to have made a sufficient break
with their Jewish faith from the very beginning;22 believers (Jewish,
Gentile, or a mix) struggling with the guilt of post-baptismal sins, with
‘post-apostolic fatigue’ or the delay of the Parousia, with an over-realized
eschatology, with the idea of intermediary figures, or with the pressures
of social shaming. Koester suggests that ‘the first challenge facing the
author was not to address the problem but to define the problem in such
a way that he could speak to it.’23 Clearly enough, there is a mix of inter-
nal (theological, psychological, social-behavioral) and external (both
carrot and stick, temptation and persecution) issues, that may or may

that the final verses were penned by Paul; cf. J. Ramsey Michaels, ‘Hebrews’, in
1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Hebrews (ed. Philip Comfort; Cornerstone Biblical
Commentary, 17; Carol Stream: Tyndale House, 2009), pp. 303-478 (310-11). Clare
K. Rothschild, Hebrews as Pseudepigraphon (WUNT, 235; Tübingen: Mohr [Siebeck],
2009), p. 215, argues that Hebrews’ author ‘makes an audacious claim to Pauline
authorship in but not limited to the postscript and that the rest of Hebrews—its
elevated style, its numerous prophetic forms and its contradictory theological
positions—can only be fully understood in this light’.
21. For the last, see the various specific theories mentioned by Harold W.
Attridge, The Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1989), p. 11 (with further
bibliography): The ‘addressees are seen to have been rooted in or attracted to the safe
status of a religio licita enjoyed by Judaism, to certain kinds of Hellenistic Jewish
theology, to a more mystical or sectarian piety or belief, to halachic observances, or
to some combination of these ingredients’.
22. By way of analogy, it could be either the case of a married person separating
from his spouse to return home (so: ‘Don’t go back!’) or that of a married person
who failed to leave his parent’s home in the first place (so: ‘Move forward!’).
23. Koester, ‘Recent Study’, p. 130.
10 Christology, Hermeneutics, and Hebrews

not have something to do with larger events such as Nero’s persecutions

or the destruction of the temple in 70 C.E.
Given the dazzling variety of theories, and anticipating the additional
dimensions of speculation we are about to summarize, it might be salu-
tary to pause for the assessment of Nicholas Wolterstorff. Commenting
on the ways in which prior beliefs about historical possibilities and prob-
abilities shape the very questions that are asked, let alone the hypotheses
that emerge, Wolterstorff writes:
I have called this whole cluster of inquiries the ‘historical-critical method’
because that is what it is customarily called. But what impresses me, as
someone looking at the discipline from the outside, is how little there is of
the historical, how much of the critical. So far as I can see, discoveries in
the sand play quite a subordinate role; the discipline has been shaped
almost entirely by theological convictions, by epistemological convictions,
by convictions as to what does and does not happen in history, by assump-
tions of influence, and by literary and rhetorical convictions as to how
reasonable human beings would and would not compose texts.24

This is a sobering observation that appropriately calms the excited buzz

of theories that has hovered around Hebrews. Nor, as an historian, can
one recommend that wisdom will settle for the lowest common denomi-
nator among the theories, as if that is the safest approach. Being unable to
decide the matter does not mean that bland answers suffice. Theories are
necessary for history and if in fact all thirteen chapters of the letter were
composed (originally in Hebrew) by Paul before 70 C.E. for Jewish
believers in Judea who were returning to the temple, and if, in fact, its
world of thought is more apocalyptic than philonic or gnostic in charac-
ter, then as historians we want to read it accordingly. The point, to which
we will return, is simply the need to admit how great these historical
problems are in the case of Hebrews. In Wolterstorff’s terms, because we
lack essential points of ‘historical’ reference for Hebrews, the ‘critical’
side of work fills the vacuum, and this to a degree that is unique among
the writings of the New Testament.
To continue with our survey: Working with the earliest Christian
traditions, studies have explored apparent awareness of the Jesus tradi-
tions, as well as substantial parallels with Paul, 1 Peter, Luke, and John,
all the while probing for possibilities of influence, shared traditions, and
the like. A major concern of research, with no consensus as of yet, has

24. Nicholas Wolterstorff, ‘The Importance of Hermeneutics for a Christian

Worldview’, in Disciplining Hermeneutics: Interpretation in Christian Perspective
(ed. Roger Lundin; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), pp. 25-47 (35).
 LAANSMA Hebrews: Yesterday, Today, and Future 11

been locating the book on the developing religious-historical map of the

first century, whether in relation to Philo (or Alexandrian Judaism, or
broader currents of platonism), Gnosticism, Qumran, the Samaritans,
apocalypticism, or Jewish mysticism.25 It does seem that the attempts to
find the master key in Gnosticism, Philo, or Qumran have been refuted,26
though few would deny how much richer Hebrews scholarship is for the
work done in these fields, and it is striking that Hebrews has proven
amenable to quite different explanatory theories.
Hebrews’ use of the Old Testament has been and will continue to be a
major vein of investigative work. Most have concluded that the writer
made exclusive use of the Greek version of the Old Testament. That the
writer did not know Hebrew is possible but not provable.27 From there,
every dimension of the question has been explored: the scope of the
writer’s use and knowledge of texts (canonical and extra-canonical, if
those are not anachronisms); the form of the LXX he used (studied either
out of interest for the LXX’s history itself or out of exegetical interest in
Hebrews); any possible alterations of wording in citations, taking into
account text critical complications, along with possible rationales behind
hypothesized changes; the rhetorical deployment of the Old Testament
citations and allusions within his argument; the possible use of a ‘book of
testimonies’ or liturgical influence; exegetical methods compared to other

25. Among recent works, Patrick Gray, Godly Fear: The Epistle to the Hebrews
and Greco-Roman Critiques of Superstition (SBLABib, 16; Atlanta: SBL, 2003).
26. Though advocates for specific backgrounds remain. Kenneth L. Schenck,
‘Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews: Ronald Williamson’s Study After Thirty
Years’, Studia Philonica Annual 14 (2002), pp. 112-35 (135), argues that the writer of
Hebrews was ‘first and foremost a Christian whose thought often differed signi-
ficantly from Philo’, but that Williamson had overstated his case and Philo’s writings
remain the best religionsgeschichtlich material for Hebrews.
27. It is sometimes overlooked that even if the writer of Hebrews did not have
direct access to the Hebrew Old Testament he may (would likely!) have been in
conversation with many who did, and, in these and other ways, may have been
deeply (perhaps decisively) influenced by readings that were shaped by the Hebrew
form of the Scriptures. The Hebrew Old Testament may have shaped his reading
even if he could not read or did not refer to the Hebrew text. Exegesis of his use of
Pss. 8, 40, and 95, to name just three, can too easily ignore this possibility. Another
possibility sometimes overlooked is that it may be far from possible to work out the
exegetical method of the writer from his use of an Old Testament passage in this
letter; he could be relying on previous layers of Christian readings—whose warrant
we may or may not be able to discern—and deploying the results of these readings in
ways relevant to his present interests. Not being able to discern the warrant and
method, however, does not automatically make these readings less sound than
modern ones.
12 Christology, Hermeneutics, and Hebrews

Christian, Jewish, and Greco-Roman parallels; his readings as compared

with other New Testament and Jewish readings of a given Old Testament
passage; and the underlying hermeneutics.28 There has been a steady
stream of discussions of Melchizedek, along with Moses, Isaac, and the
‘heroes’ of ch. 11. The character of all this work has been intensely his-
torical and textual in nature, with varying conclusions reached at every
point.
More recently, very interesting textual critical, comparative, intertex-
tual, and sociological analyses have been carried out, with differing
emphases and conclusions.29 Kenneth Schenck has explored the narrative
substructure.30 Some of this work is provocative and has been hailed as
promising, particularly the sociological analyses, but given its newness we
should apply the proverb, ‘The one who first states a case seems right,
until the other comes and cross-examines’.
As to the genre, many have settled on calling Hebrews a homily or
sermon, though reservations have been expressed (in keeping with tradi-
tion we will regularly refer to it as an epistle in the present chapter). For
some it is rather a theological treatise, with no particular church in view.31
It has been the subject of numerous rhetorical32 and literary analyses,
whether from the viewpoint of the impact of specific passages on the
readers/listeners, its literary integrity, or the general structure and

28. A. Rascher, Schriftauslegung und Christologie im Hebräerbrief (BZNW, 153;

Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007); G. J. Steyn, ‘An Overview of the Extent and Diversity of
Methods Utilised by the Author of Hebrews When Using the Old Testament’, Neot
42 (2008), pp. 327-52; Susan E. Docherty, The Use of the Old Testament in Hebrews:
A Case Study in Early Jewish Bible Interpretation (Tübingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 2009).
29. See, e.g., Gelardini (ed.), Contemporary; M. J. Marohl, Faithfulness and the
Purpose of Hebrews: A Social Identity Approach (Princeton Theological Monograph
Series, 82; Eugene, Ore.: Pickwick, 2008); Jason A. Whitlark, Enabling Fidelity to
God: Perseverance in Hebrews in Light of the Reciprocity Systems of the Ancient
Mediterranean World (Paternoster Biblical Monographs; Milton Keynes: Pater-
noster, 2008).
30. Kenneth L. Schenck, Understanding the Book of Hebrews: The Story Behind
the Sermon (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003); cf. idem, Cosmology and
Eschatology in Hebrews: The Settings of the Sacrifice (SNTSMS, 143; Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2007).
31. Recently defended by, e.g., Jon M. Isaak, Situating the Letter to the Hebrews in
Early Christian History (Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity, 53; Lewiston:
Mellen, 2002), who argues that Hebrews is a literary as opposed to non-literary work,
‘a persuasive literary effort by an idiosyncratic author directed to a general Christian
audience’ (p. 158).
32. The letter, however, has resisted easy classification according to the ancient
categories of epideictic or deliberative rhetoric.
 LAANSMA Hebrews: Yesterday, Today, and Future 13

argument of the whole. Respecting the structure of the book, George

Guthrie classifies earlier models as structural agnosticism, conceptual
analysis, rhetorical criticism, literary analysis, and linguistic analysis; he
himself utilizes a text-linguistic approach.33 Gabriella Gelardini very help-
fully locates these structural analyses—beginning with the French School
in 1902 and in a steady stream since—within the modern history of ideas,
specifically within the ‘linguistic turn’ that took hold in Hebrews schol-
arship early in the twentieth century and continues into the present.34 It is
not yet possible to speak of a consensus on the book’s structure.
Lastly, theological studies have concentrated on the letter’s leading
theme (Grundgedanke), relationship to the Old Testament and Judaism,35
Christology (Son, Wisdom, Son of Man, High Priest, earthly Jesus), sacred
space, the heavenly cultus, priesthood and sacrifice, the new covenant,
perfection, rest, creation and eschatology, faith, apostasy, and community
life.36
The limits of our present context have permitted us only this syn-
chronic sampling of the present state of things; a diachronic perspective
would enrich this considerably. Nevertheless, it is possible to say that the
above snapshot faithfully represents where things were tending and were
bound to tend. The overwhelmingly scientific (wissenschaftlich) character
of this work captures the spirit of the entire modern period. As for
progress within that stream, looking back over the last decades, there is
no question that there has been an upturn in the amount of wissenschaft-
lich investigations of both a literary-historical and theological nature.37

33. With further references, George H. Guthrie, The Structure of Hebrews: A

Text-Linguistic Analysis (NovTSup, 73; Leiden: Brill, 1994). Reaching different
conclusions than Guthrie and with further literature, see C. L. Westfall, A Discourse
Analysis of the Letter to the Hebrews: The Relationship Between Form and Meaning
(LNTS, 297; London: T&T Clark, 2005); G. Gelardini, ‘From “Linguistic Turn” and
Hebrews Scholarship to Anadiplosis Iterata: The Enigma of a Structure’, HTR 102
(2009), pp. 51-73; cf. also Barry C. Joslin, ‘Can Hebrews Be Structured? An Assess-
ment of Eight Approaches’, Currents in Biblical Research 6 (2007), pp. 99-129.
34. Gelardini, ‘Enigma’.
35. E.g., L. Kim, Polemic in the Book of Hebrews: Anti-Semitism, Anti-Judaism,
Supersessionism? (Princeton Theological Monograph Series, 64; Eugene, Ore.:
Pickwick, 2006).
36. Among recent works: Kevin B. McCruden, Solidarity Perfected: Beneficient
Christology in the Epistle to the Hebrews (BZNW, 159; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008);
Bauckham, Driver, Hart, and MacDonald (eds.), The Epistle to the Hebrews and
Christian Theology.
37. Grässer, ‘Hebräerbrief 1938–1963’, p. 236 (= Aufbruch und Verheißung,
p. 99), noted progress in ‘wissenschaftlich-literarischer Untersuchungen’; by 1990,
14 Christology, Hermeneutics, and Hebrews

The amount, creativity, erudition, and ingenuity of all this are to be

welcomed. Whether there has been progress in ‘assured results’, however,
is questionable to say the least,38 and the signs are mixed as to whether
Hebrews has found a place at the heart of biblical scholarship.39

III. Diagnosis: Hebrews within the Modern Research Program40

Even some of those aware of the increase of Hebrews scholarship have
been inclined to refer to this letter as the ‘Cinderella of the New Testa-
ment’,41 particularly when observing the attention given it as compared to
other parts of the New Testament canon. Moreover, a broader look does
incline us to say that the motives and causes for the recent upturn in
publications are more extrinsic than intrinsic to Hebrews itself.42
It is important, then, to take into view the river on which the boat of
Hebrews scholarship rides, the larger research program that endeavors to

he broadened this to include studies in the book’s theology (An die Hebräer, 1:38).
In the latter study, almost every part of Grässer’s comment regarding Hebrews’ sig-
nificance for documenting the post-Pauline period of the Western church is
dependent on extremely thin evidence regarding authorship, date, and location.
Hebrews makes a brittle reed of support for the heavy work of historical recon-
struction, and the theological work to which Grässer alludes needs that historical
framework to be of use to the larger project we will outline in a moment.
38. John Dunnill, Covenant and Sacrifice in the Letter to the Hebrews (SNTSMS,
71; Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 2. Cf. Harrington, Saying,
pp. 38-39, whose evaluation is balanced.
39. Gelardini (ed.), Contemporary, p. 1.
40. This section and the following parallel at several points the discussion of
Markus Bockmuehl, Seeing the Word: Refocusing New Testament Study (Studies in
Theological Interpretation; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006). Thanks are due Dan Treier
for this reference.
41. George H. Guthrie, ‘Hebrews’, in Commentary on the New Testament Use of
the Old Testament (ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007),
pp. 919-95 (919). Writing in 1994, J. C. McCullough, ‘Hebrews in Recent Schol-
arship’, IBS 16 (1994), pp. 66-86 (66), could report a ‘mini revival in interest’ since he
had previously surveyed Hebrews scholarship in 1980, but it would be going too far
to say it was moving into the same league as Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels. In the same
vein is the comment of J. Ramsey Michaels, ‘Hebrews’, p. 305.
42. Besides the recent explosion of publications across the fields of human
knowledge, in which Hebrews naturally shares, Buchanan has pointed out that it was
the discovery of new sources—not least the Dead Sea Scrolls—that carried as a ‘fringe
benefit’ renewed interest in Hebrews; cf. G. W. Buchanan, ‘The Present State of
Scholarship on Hebrews’, in Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults:
Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty: Part One: New Testament (ed. Jacob Neusner;
SJLA, 12; Leiden: Brill, 1975), pp. 299-330 (299, 330).
 LAANSMA Hebrews: Yesterday, Today, and Future 15

explain the rise of Christianity as a world religion in terms of histo-

riographical principles that exclude the transcendent43 or are at best
neutral with respect to it.44 To this point, Hebrews has not promised or

43. In speaking of the Enlightenment broadly, Alistair McGrath, The Open Secret:
A New Vision for Natural Theology (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), p. 145, comments that
‘the idea of “the transcendent” was potentially subversive of the Enlightenment
mindset, which focused mainly on the power of human intelligence to grasp and
explain the natural world, and to discover causes of phenomena which had previ-
ously been considered supernatural’.
44. Two points need to be registered: (1) Michael C. Legaspi, The Death of
Scripture and the Rise of Biblical Studies (Oxford Studies in Biblical Theology;
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 7-9, 165-69, has argued strongly against
reducing the modern program to historical criticism and prefers to designate it more
simply as modern criticism, the effect of which is an ‘academic’ rather than
‘scriptural’ Bible. He argues compellingly that the modern research program ‘is best
understood as a cultural-political project shaped by the realities of the university’,
whose goal ‘was and is irenicism’, that it has been a ‘cultural enterprise aimed at
overcoming confessional loyalties while preserving Christian intellectual and
religious forms’, and that it should not be reduced either to forces of secularism or
historicism. Among some current scholars the historical concerns that came to the
fore in the nineteenth century are giving way to a return to the roots of modern
criticism in the eighteenth century, but the modern program remains the same. See
also Jonathan Sheehan, The Enlightenment Bible: Translation, Scholarship, Culture
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005). It is not in disagreement with (at least
the aforementioned arguments of) Legaspi that we focus nonetheless on the histori-
cal nature of Hebrews scholarship; we do so due to the shape of current studies as we
have outlined them. Our ‘prescription’ will speak equally to the wider modern
program of Legaspi’s narrative. (2) With the historical element in mind, it might be
possible to place all this under the heading of ‘the historical-critical research
program’, but for the different uses of that phrase. Here we have in mind the research
project that centers on a norming historical explanation of Christian origins. This is
distinct from but related to the definition of Richard N. Soulen, Handbook of Biblical
Criticism (Atlanta: John Knox, 2nd edn, 1981), pp. 87-88: ‘Strictly speaking, the term
HCM [historical critical method] refers to that underlying principle of historical
reasoning which came to full flower in the 19th cent., viz., that reality is uniform and
universal, that it is accessible to human reason and investigation, that all events
historical and natural occurring within it are in principle comparable by analogy,
and that man’s [sic] contemporary experience of reality can provide the objective
criteria by which what could or could not have happened in the past is to be deter-
mined’. Of course the phrase ‘historical critical/criticism’ can also be used for a set of
tools and exegetical methods that are in some measure separable from that research
program, and which can in principle serve more purely kerygmatic ends, or be
utilized by those holding to notions of biblical inspiration that Wrede and others
disavow; defined precisely, the designation would not include methodologies that are
not historical in nature, such as structuralism, though the phrase is often used in a
way that covers the whole of ‘biblical criticism’ (Soulen, Handbook, p. 87).
Exploring the Variety of Random
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Taming qf the Shrew, v. 2. 2. To move the body, face, or head in
another direction; to direct the face to a different quarter. " From the
one aide to the other turning.' Shakesp. : IticJutyd II., v. S. 3. To
change the posture or position of the body, as in bed ; to shift or roll
from one side to another. " As a maa in a fever turns often, although
without any hope of ease, so men in the extremest misery By to the
tiiTitaiipearance of relief, though uever so vaiu.^ —Suift :
Intelligeneer. 4. To retrace one's steps ; to go or come back ; to
return. " Ere from this war thou turn a conqueror." Sltakesp. :
Richard III., iv. 4. & Not to fly ; to lace or confront an enemy ; to
show fight. " Tuim, slave, and flgbt* £AaJkMp. .- TroiiMs
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(b) To avert ; to turn aside. ** A third iMrt of prayer Is

deprecation ; tluifc ta, vlian wo pray to Gh>a ■'" ' — " 1 to (wm
away Bouie eril from (c) To diaiuiss from service ; to discharge, feo
discard. " I miuteumnwair umeotmyfollowets.'^— £%aJfe«fph ;
Marry Ifritet of Wiiuitar, i. S. (3) Intransitive : 7, p. 4&^ 18. To turn
og: (1) Transitive: (a) To deflect, to divert ; to turn aside. "The
institution of sports was intended by all rovcriitneiitd to turn ) To
depend on ; to hinge on : aa. The whole point turns on this. 20. To
titi-n one's hand: To apply or adapt one's self. 21. To tv/m one's
head (or brain) ; (1) To make one giddy or dizzy. (2) To make one
insane, infatuated, wild, or the like , to deprive of reason or
judgment ; to infatuate. "There is not a more melAnchoTy object
than a man who bus Ilia head turnwi with leugluus euthusiaam." —
Addisoiu 22. To turn out : (1) Transitive: (a) To drive out ; to expeL
(Used with of belore an indirect object.) "I'll turn you out of my
kingdouL"— iSAaJttsp..* Tempest, iv. (&) To diive or put out of ofRce
or power. "[They] would Iinve trooped into the lobby, and snpiiorteu
them rather than let them be turned out." —•Utti/y ChroHtcle, Juua
26, 1886. (t.) To put out to pasture : as. He has turned out his cattle
and hurses. {d) To produce as the result of Inbour or any process of
manufai;ture ; to send out finished. i " Uessra. turn out Bometpbere
about B,OftB tons weekly.'— /"ieW, t*eb. 13. 1887. {€) To bring the
inside of to the outside ; to reverse ; henne, to bring to view, to
show, to expose, to j^roduce ; as. Turn your pockets out. (/) The
same as To turn off (1) (e) (q.v.X (2) Intransitive: (a) To bend, point,
or be directed outwards : as, His toes turn out, (&) To come abroad
; to leave one's residence ; to appear iii public. "0( the eigjtiL who
turned out for the Autumn Handica|}."— /J*pinniiig, calls upon the
name or nniulier of one of tiie circle, who, under penalty of a forfeit,
nmst prevent the trciiclier from falling. It then becomes lus turn to
twirl. 37. To turn to: (1) To be directed or move towards : a% The
needle turns to the pole, (2) To apply or betake one's pelf to; to
direct one's mind, attention, or energy to. 38. To turn to a right :
Law : A term u.sed when a person's possession of property cannot
be restored by entry, but can only be recovered by an action at law.
39. To turn turtle : To turn topsyturvy ; to turn coin[detely over.
(AmeUphortiiken from the usual method of taking turtle- turning
them over ou their bucks and rendering them iucaiiablc of moving.) "
We hiul u
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4874 tnm 42. To turn -upon : (1) Trails. : To eaase to

operate on or against ; to cast back ; to retort : as, To turn tlie
arguments uf an opponent upon himself. (2) Jntransitive ; (a) To
become or appear bostile, opposed, or unfriendly ; to turn on. (J))
To depend on ; to binge on ; to tarn on. tnm-agaiii gentleman, «.
Bot.: LiliumMaTtagon. (Britten d HoUand.) torn, * tonme, * tnme, s.
[Turn, «.) L Ordinary Language : 1. The act or state of turning ;
motion or movement about, or as about a centre or axis; revolution,
rotation. 2. Movement from a straight line; movement in an opposite
direction ; change of direction : as, tiie turn of the tide. 3. A iioint,
spot, or place of deviation from a Btiniglit line, liourse, or direction ;
a winding, a bend, a curve, an angle. " Fear misled tbe youngest
fTom Ilia way ; But MitiUiiliitthe turns." jyr^den : Virgil ; JBneiH Ix.
S22. 4. A winding or flexuous course. 6. A walk in a more or less
winding direction ; a walk to and fro ; a stroll ; a short Valk or
pi'omeiiade. 1 .... V -Hhitkap. : Benrt/ rlJl., t. 1. flw Alteration of
course or direction; new direction or tendency ; change of order,
position, or aspect of things ; hence, change generally; vicissitude. "
0 work), thy slipjiery tumtt' Shaktup. : CorioloTiut, iT. 4. 7.
Successive course; opportunity enjoyed in alternation witli anotiier or
others, or in due rotiition or order ; the time or occasion which
comes in succession to eacti of a number of persons, when nnytliing
is to be bad or done ; due chance, time, opportunity, or order. "
Would sing her sodk, nud dnncfi her turn." Sliakesp. ; Winter t Tola,
Iv. 4 8. Occasion ; incidental opportunity. "An old doe, fftUeu from
tiut speed, wu la»lcn at every turn with blows luid jeptOM;hba."—
L'£ttTang*: Vubit*. * 9. Occurrence, bap, chance. "All enve the
abepheArd. wiiu, fur fell dciplght Of Uiivt diBpltsuDuri:, Liuke tils
Lag-pipe quight, Aud iiuuie grsut muD« fur thrtt uiilmppy lur/iff."
Upmur: F. «.. VI. a. 18, 10. Inciilental or opportune act, deed, office,
or service ; an occauioual act of kindness or mabce. " Each doth
good turm now unto the other.' Sluikeap. : Sormtt 47. 11.
Convenience, purpose, requirement, use, ezigeiiue, advanlage. " it
yuu Imve occAsiou to use me for your own turn,' ithaketp. : JJ
ensure /trr AJeuauvu, it. 2. 12. Prcvatlmgiuclinatioii ;
tendency,fashion, 13. Poriii, cast, mould, shape, manner, cba* rai:Ltr,
temper. "Tiiii ver> )uceeiling ; change from original lutentiou or
diiection. "VVhllt: this flux prevaiU. the sweats nre much dliuiiiiohea :
while tlie uintter th.it led them takes aiiuthcr turn.' —ISlHvKniiiru. lb.
A jjitjce of woik requiring little time or executiuii ; a short spell ; a
job. (CuUoq.) 16. A ntervuus shock, such as may he caused by alanij
ui sudden excitement, (fiolloq.) 17. The manner of adjustment of tbe
words of a seniuiice. ' Tht; turn vf words. In wiilch Ovid excels all
poets, h» 8oiiii:t.iiije)i :t fault ur t»uiiictiui«B n be.iuty, as they are
Utttd piupeily i>iiiiipio|jeily.'— />r^ti«i. • 18. A (all oil a gallows
ladder; a hanging, exei-uLion , tioni tiie practice of making the
criminal stanu on a ladder, which was turned over at a sigiml, leaving
linn suspended. "And iiinke Iniii nUul lo lead liis lessou, Ul t.(kc d tain
fur t ut Llie aecisiuii." /SuCiar : UutHbrai, 19. A single round of a
rope or cord. XL 3'echnicaUy : 1. Law : The same as Tourn (q.v.). 2.
ided. iPL): Monthly courses; menses. 3. Mining : A pit sunk in a dnft.
4. Music : An ornament in music formet) by taking the ailjoining
notes above or below the princii>al note, according to the position
of that note in the diatonic scale. Thus the common tmm, which
takes a bigber note first in tbe change : ~r r f-B should be
performed -P^F ^ ^^ The back-turn taking a lower note first in tbe
chunge : ~P-^:r: j should be performed -p^^|*~F Tbe turn must
be performed in the time tbe note it altera would occupy without it.
^ 1, By iuTTis : (1) One after another ; alternately ; in succession. "
By tUTTit pnt OD the sappllaut and the lord." J*rior : tiolomon, il.
210. *(2) At intervals. " They feel 6^ turTta the bitter chaoRe Of
fierce extreiuei ; extremes by chauge more fierce." Milton: P. L., ii.
bdS. 2. DoTie to a turn : Said of meat cooked to ezuctness ; hence,
exactly. 3. In twHiy In turns : In due order of succession, 4. To serve
ont^s turn : To serve one's pm-pose ; to help or suit one. " I h»ive
enough to teraa mine own tunu'—Shakeap, : ifidaummer Hig.iCa
Dream, iii. L 5. To take turns : To tak£ each other's place alternately.
6. Turn and turn about ; Alternately, by turns, successively. 7. Turn
of life : Tlie period of life in women, between the ages of forty-flve
and fifty, when the menses cease naturally. * turu-agaio, a. & s. A.
As adj. ; Applied to a lane closed at one end ; a cul-de-sac. B. As
aubst. : A turning track ; change of course backwards. "The maaifold
water, so called, bicaiue of the ■mulrie eiiiickliiig rills that it recruietb,
and turnagaiii«s that it selfe sbeweth before it caiue at the Ilou."—
i/oJinifted; Oaacript. of Britaine, ch. xv. tnm-bencli, s. A small poi-
table lathe used upon a bench or desk by watcii, model, and
instrument makers. turn-bridge, «. A awing-bridge (q.v.). * tnm-
broacli, * tnm-broaclier, b. [Fr. touTTu&rocAtf.J A turnspit. "A tum-
broaKtu7^a place lu the kitchen."— ^dtrl. MiK»n.. xii. 80. torn-
buckle, s. 1. Mech. : A form of shatter-fastening having a gravitating
catch. 2. Ordn. : An analogous device used for secunng the free
ends of the mi piemen t-chai us in a gun-curriBge and the cover of
the ammunition-chest, 3. Naut. : A link used for setting up and
tightening the iron rods employed as stays for the sniuke-stack of a
steamer or for siuulur objects. turn-cap, 5. 1. Build.: A turning
cbimney-top or cowl, always preaeniiiig its mouth to leeward. 2. Bot.
: Lilium Martagon. tum-coat, 5. iTuitNCOAT.] turn-COCl£, s. The
ser\'ant of a watercompany who turns on or ott" tlie water in the
mams, attends lo tlie fire-plugs, &c. turn-down* «. Folded or
doubled down, wholly ur paniy. "A niiimj Uevciyjied ByrouJc ttim-
doum collar."— Ktii'jsiny ■■ jfiffo J'turt Jtyo, cti. 1. turn-file, s. A
burnisher used in throwing up alight burs on the edges of the
coinbniaker'o nles, tne teeth of wliich are originally made by the hie
and not by the chisel. Used by workers in hom, tortoiseshell, iron,
and bune, turn-out, s. 1. The ai-t of coming forth ; sfiecif., a quitting
of emplojiiient, as of workmen who come out on strike ; a strike, 2.
A number of persona who come out on some «iieiial occasitni, as to
see a spectacle, to witness a performam-e, to take part in a contest,
iiieetnig, or the like. "There was a good turn-out ol memberB."—
^ieitt, Oct. 3, 1085, 3. That which is brought promliMntly tat^ ward
or exhibited ; hence, a showy ar wettappointed equipage. "I rather
piqued myself on my fum-oiA'—n«wfln« Hook: Gilbert tiumey. 4. The
net quantity of produce yielded; the out-turn (q.v.). 5. A rail way-
siding for enabling one tratai to pass another, turn-over, 9. & a. A. As
s^ibstautivs : L Ordinary Language : 1. Tbe act or result of turning-
over; oD upset. 2. A kind of apple-tart in a semicirculBr form, made
by turning over one-half of a circular crust upon the other. * 3. A
piece of white linen formerly worn by cavalry soldiers over their
stocks. 4. An apprentice transferred from one master to another to
complete his apprenticeship. 5. The amount of business done or
money turned over or drawn in a business in a given time. "The
turn-over, however. Is generally very Il^ht."— Daily Chronicle, March
21, 1SS7. II. Print. : Sufficient copy to fill a column and a little more,
"Yet do the dally papera. with the r^ularlty of clockwork, anno in
anno, an tlie Ist of Outoher appenrt^ consider it their duty to their
rendei-s to treat tliem to what is teclmicaliy CAlted a tum-ooer—i.e.,
a cotuuiD and a hittock— ou the topic of pheaauuteoud the bat*
tue."— Field, Oct. 15, 1887. B. As adj. ; Admitting of being turned ot
folded over ; made to be turned or folded over ; as, a turn-over
collar. Turn-over boiler : A form of boiler in which the Hues were
turned over tbe fire-box or furnace. It was one form of the gradual
conversion of the old Cornish boiler into a more compact form. Turn-
over-gear : Saw-mill : An application of machinery foi hauling up
logs from the saw-mill to the lo^ carriage, or turning the log on tbe
carriage after slabbing one side. Tum-over-table : A table whose top
is 80 fitted to the supporting block or pedestal that it can be turned
up at pleasure ; and thus, when out ol use, it can be placed against
the wall of the room, so as to occupy leas space. turn-pln, a. A plug
for stopping the flow from the open end of a pipe ; a tube* ■topper.
turn-plate, a. A turn-table (q.v.). * turn - poke, s. A large game-cock.
(Arcliceologia, in. 142.) turn-screw, *. A screw-driver ; a
screwwrench. * turn-serving, ». Tlie act or practice of seiviug oue's
turn or promoting private interest. " Aud though now «l)ice choice
goeth better, both tu cliui'cli mid cuiiiiiiuitv>tinltb ; ytrt muiiey, mid
liii'rtteraniy, and ciuiiinig uuuiisca, and Imyurtuuity itr»Vuil tuu
iiiuclL"— ifuc-oft; Lettera, p. li. turn-table, s. 1. Railuay-eny. : A
platfonn which rotates in a liurizuiilal plane, and is used lor shifting
rolhng-stuek tium one lineoi' mils to another. Devices common to all
aie the platform, which has one or more tracks of rails on its upper
surface ; rollers on which it turns, gearing tor rotating it, a central
pivot on wliicli itrotatea, a circular track ou winch tlie rollers move,
and .solid foundations tur tliis trank and for tli6 central pivot. One
common foini consists of a platform, centrally supported on a series
of frusto-conical ruliers tnruing on anna radially projecting fioni a
collar, which revolves around the axis of tlie table. The apexes of the
cone would, if they were cmiiplete, meet at a point in their axis.
They are interposed between two annular eastings correspondingly
bevelled, the lower of whioli is lixed, and serves as a track, and the
upper is aLtaclied to and turns with the table, t'lanj^ea on the inner
ends ol the rollers prevent their being pushed outwardly by the
pressure. In a niudilied arrangement, small conical rollers, turiiing
between ihe large rollers and plates ou the ends of the arms which
carry tliein, are snbstituted for the flanges. Adams' turntable fioats in
a water-tank. &t0, f^t, f^re, ^midst, what, fall, fother ; we, wet,
here, camel, her, there ; pine, pit, sire, sir, marine ; go, po^ or.
wore, wol^ worls, who, son; mute, cub. cure, qnite, cur, rule, fall;
try, Syrian, ee, 09 = e; ey = a; qu = kwb
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turnabout— turnip 4575 2. Micros. : A device upon which a

elide is field and revolved for tracing the circular oement-cella in
which objects are placed for examination. • turn-tippet, 9. A
turncoat. "The piieats, for the moat part, were double-faced, turn-
tippets, and flnttereia."— Cramnw; Cor&atativn V Unvffitteii Veriliet.
tnm-tree, s. Mining : A part of the drawing-stowce or windlass. turn-
up, s. 1. An unexpected event or result, especially of a favourable
nature. {Slang.) "This doubtlesa caused the flelden to take a Arm
Btaiid on tlie chtuice of a tuni-up."— Daily Chronicle. Oct 19, 168S.
2. In cards, the trump-card which is turned &ce upwards on the.
table. " You ahould play the trump next in value to the turn-up."—
Pield, Dec. 12. 1885. turn-wrest plough, a. Husbandry : 1. An
English plough of large size, and Witliout a mould-board, adapted to
be drawn by four or more horses. 2. A plough having a reversible
share and coulter, so as to work botli baokwaid and forward, and lay
the furrows in the same direction. *tum'-a-l)6^t, s. [Eng. turn, and
about.] 1. An innovator. "Oar modern turnabouts."— Backet : Life <
fViiHanis, ii. 3C. 2. Giddiness. "The turnabout and murmin trouble
cattel." Sylvetter : The Furies, 610. Tum'-buU, 3 [See def.] The name
of the discoverer. TnmbuU's blue. s. Chem. : Ferrous feiTicyanide
prepared by precipitating a ferrous salt with potassium ferricyanide.
(Watts.) tum'-coat, s. [Eng. t^im, and coat] One who deserts liis
party or principles ; a renegade, im apostate. "The Chief Justice
himself stood aghast at the •fl^uutery nf this veuai
lumcoat."^Ma(MUia]/ : Bitt. £iig., ch. vlii. tfim'-diin, s. [Australian
name.] AiUhrop. : A small, fish-shaped piece of thin, flat wood, tied
to a thong, and whirled in the air to proOuce a hunl roaring noise,
whence it is sonu'tiines called a bull-roarer. This instrument is used
by the natives of Australia to call together the men, and to frighten
away the woin'jn from the religious mysteries. The turndun is
employed for similar purposes in New Mexico, South Afi-ica, and
New Zealand. In the Mysteries of Dionysos the ancient Greeks used
a kind of tnrudun, which they called p6p.^otinn in one diieetiou
ceases, aud motion in another, eitlier contrary or dillerent, bcgiu-s;
hence, applied figuratively to the point or state at which a deciding
change takes place as fnnn bad to gnmi, or from deciea^;e to iir
crease, or their opposite. "This ia the himr of your trial, the turning-
point at existence." LomjfcUow : QHldrcn of Ihe Lord's Supper.
turning-saw, s. A scrull-saw (q.v.). turning-up, s. Bookbind. : Taking
the round out of tha back, while the fuie edge is cut. turning-white,
a. [Albescent]. • tum'-ing-ness, s. [Eng. turning; -nes-s.] The quality
or state of turning; tergiversation. "So nature formed him, to all
tiimhiffnesa ol slelglita: timt thouj^h no man had le>B toudnesa, no
man could better liiid the iilaoea wlience argumunu mi^-ht grow of
goodness. "—.Sidne//. tur-nip, * tur'-nep, * tur- neppe, a [Etym.
doubtlul. The latter elemuut is evi 4>Sil» h^; pout, jo^l; cat, 9ell,
chorus, $hin, bengh; go, gem; thin, this; sin, as; expect, Xenophon,
exist, -ing, ■dan, -tian = Shan. -tion» -slon = shun; -fiou, -flon =
zhun. -clous, -tious, -sious = shus. -bio, -die, &c. = b^l, d9L
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M76 tnrnix— turpentine ^] dently A.S. nckp = a turnip,

from Lat. Tiapus ; cf. Irish & Gael, nevp = a turnip. The tormer
element is probably from Fr. tour = a wheel, to aisnify the round
shape, as if it had been turned, from tourner = to turn (q.v.).] Bot.,
Agric.f Hort., £c, : Brassica Bapa, or B. Bapa depressa, formally
made a distinct species of the genus, but reduced by Sir J. Hooker to
a sub-species of B. campestris. It is a biennial crucifer. The root is an
orbiculav or oblong, Hetthy tuber ; the radicle leaves lyrate, hispid,
not glaucous; the lower stern leaves incised ; the upper cordate,
ovate, acuminate, amplexicaut, smooth, more or less toothed; the
flowers yellow; the valves of the pod convex. In its undeveloped
state it is found wild in cornfields in various parts of Europe,
flowering from April to August It has been cultivated from the time
of the Greeks and Bomaus, and the great develop* meiit has been
towards increased size and fleshiuess. It has long been iutroduced
into the United States, aud is cultivated in fields atid kitchen
gariiens, but is not an important crop- It has run iuto several
varieties, one of the best being the early Dutch. It is used as an
ingredient in soups, biotlia, and stews, and is cut into figures for
garnishing. I'he early shoots may be boiled as greens, and are
antiscorbutic. Turuipa intended for feeding cattle, from December to
February, should be sown from the middle of May to tlie end of June
; if they are designed tn supply food till May, they are not sown
before the latter tart of July or the beginning of August. 'hey should
be sown by a drill machine, which method not merely economises
seed, but produces heavier crops. They succeed best in light soil,
consisting of a mixture of sand and loam. The rotation of crops
properly begins with turnips, which clear the aoil of weeiis aud
furnish it with manure for other agricultural plants. turnip-cutter, s. A
machine for slicing roots for animal feed. turnip-flea, turnip-jack, s.
Entom. : llaUlca (or Phyllotreta) mmorv/tn. It owes its populir name
to its leaping or skipping powers, but is really a very small beetle,
with long and strong hind legs and ample shining black wings, v/ith
two yellowish stripes down tlie wing oases, and ochreous legs. It
commits great ravages in turnipfields* by devouring the seed-leaves
as soun a*) they appear above ground. The female lajs her ej^ on
the uiuler-side of the leaf, in which the larva mines, aud makes a
tortuous gallery. turnip-fly, s. Entom. : A popular name for two
insects wliicb are quite distinct, and lielong to different orders, but
are lioth destructive to turnips. (1) Alhalia cejiti/nlia, a
hyinenopterous insecit, the larva of which is known by the popular
name of "nigger," on account of its black colour ; (2) A lUkomyia
radicum, a two-winged fty of the family Mnscidse. The larvai live
upon the roots of the turnip, often doing great damage. turnip-jack.
s. [Tuenip-flea.] turhip-moth, a. Entom.: A night-moth, Agrotis
segetum, the caterpillar of which feeds on the interior of tunii|ts.
The eggs are laid in June on or near the ground. '1 he cateriiillar,
when hatched, attacks not merely turnips, but other culinary veget-
xbies, sucli as carrots, cabliageplants, mangel wnrzel, ladi.shes, and
many other plants. It also eats garden flowers, as the China Aster.
The mature insect has the anteimae strongly ciliated in the male,
simple in the leinale; the fme wings are nearly square, in colour pale
gray-hrnwn in the male, darker in the female, tlie hind wings with
spots and shades of brown. tumip-radisk, s. Bot. : A variety ot
Baphanns sativtis. [Radish, Rafhanus.] turnip saw-fly. k. Entom. :
Athalia sidnarum, about a quarter of au inch long, of a reddish-
yellow colour. The larva; feed on leaves of turnips and other
cruciferous plants, to which they do great damage. tnmip-skaped, a.
Bot. : Having the figure of a depressed sphere ; napiform. turnip-
tops, «. pi. The young leaves and buds of the turuip, which are now
used in many places as greens. They were fonnerly held m slight
esteem. (See extract) " Drowned pupplea, stiukiiig aprata, all
dnached la mud. Dead cats, and turnip-t^pt, come tumblLug down
the fluod." Sw^: De8cript. qf a Citi/ Shaver, tur'-nix. s. [From Lat.
coturnix (q.v.).] Ornitk.: The type-genus of Turnicidaft (q.v.), with
twenty-three species, having the characteristics and range of the
family. They frequent open pl^ns, stony tracts covered with grass, or
mountain sides, and are exceedingly shy except at the breeding
season, when they become extremely pugnacious, the hens being as
jealous and comliative as their mates, and some of the Asiatic
species are trained, as fighting-cocks were formerly in England. They
nest on the ground under a tussock of grass, and the feiuale lays
four pear-shaped eggs. tiirn'-key, s. [Eng. turn, and key.] 1, A person
who has the charge of the keys of a prison ; a warder. "The mere
oath of n man who was well known to the turtikcys of twenty gaols
was not likely to injure anybody."— ^/ocautaff ; /iist. Eng„ ch, rviil.
*2. A tooth-key (q.v.). 3. A contrivance for drawing stumps of trees
Irum the ground. turn'-pike. s. [Eng. turn, and pike ; .so called
becau.se it took the place of the old horizontal turnstile, which was
made with four horizontal pikes or arms, revolving on the top of a
post.^ (5fceaf.)J L Ordinary Language : * 1. A frame consisting of
two bars crossing each other at right angles, and turning on a post
or pin, plated on a road or footpath to hinder the passage of beasts,
but admitting a person to pass between the aims ; a turnstile. " 1
move uiwn my axle like a turnpike."— Ben Jonton: Sta/jleqf News,
hi. l. 2. A gate set across a road to stop carnages, carts, &c., and
sometimes passengers, from passing till the toll for the repair of the
road is paid ; a toll-bar ; a toU-g ite. " By this time they had reached
the twm.'pVae -at i Mile find."— i)itAfln*.- Ptckutic/c, ch. xxiL S. A
turnpike-road (q.v.). *' The road is by this meana so continually torn
that It is one of the worst tiinipilees round LoudoiL"^ D^oe : Tuitr
thro' Great Britaiiu 4:, A winding stair; a turnpike-stair. II Mil. : A
beam filled with spikes to stop passage ; a cheval-de-frise. turnpike-
man, s. A man who collects the tuUs at a tui'npike. tumpike-road, s.
A road on which turnpikes, or toll-gates, were established by law,
and which are or were formerly made and kept in repair by the tolls
collected from carriages, carts, wagons, cattle, Ac, which travelled
on tliem. Many turnpike rozids in the vicinity of cities have been
converted into commou roads, and the tolls abolished. " In
contemplation of a tivrnpike-road."' Coaper: Jtetirement, hOti.
turnpike - Stair, s. A winding stair, constructed around a central
newel or pest. •turn'-pike, v.t. [Tv&t^pike, s.] To form, as a road, in
the manner of a tnrnpike-road ; to throw into a rounded form, as the
path of a road, tum'-sick, a. & 8. [Eng. turn, and sick.] * A, As adj. :
Giddy ; vertiginous ; dizzy. " If a man see another turn swiftly and
loni; ; or if he look upon wheels that turn, himsulf waxeth luni' aicfc"
— BacoiL B. ^5 subst.: A disease of sheep; gid or sturdy. tum'-sole,
turn -sol, * torn-sole, s. [Fr. tournesol, from tourner = to turn, and
soleil = tlie sun. Named because the plant was supposed to turn its
flowers towards the sun.] 1. Bntany : (1) Euphorbia Helioscopia. It is
an annual, gencially glabrous plant, with obovate leaves, sermte
upwards, an umbel of five principal bi-anches, trifid or bitid. and
reticulated and pitted seeds. Its milky juice is used to destroy warts.
(2) Crozophora tinctoria, and the purple dye made of its inspissated
juice. [Crozophora.] (3) The genus Heliotropiam. {London, &c.) (4)
The genus Hetiantbus (q.v.), spec. H. annuus. [Sunflowkr. 1 2. Art: A
blue pigment obtained from feh» lichen Roccella (BocceUa tinctoria),
also called ArchiL tiim'-Spit, a. [Eng. turn, and apit (1), a.) 1. A
person who turns a spit. "A place he will grow rich la, A turrupit iu
th* royal Icir^hen." Sw^.ifUeeJInntea. 3. A variety of dog, allied to
the terrier, ■ formerly employed to turn the spit for roasting meat in
a kitchen, for which purpose they were attached to or enclosed in a
kind of wheel. [Tread-whbbl.] The breed, wliicJi is now rare, arose
from a cross of the terrier with larger breeds ; the body long and
heavy, with disproportionately short, and generally crooked legs.
turn'-stile, s. [En^. turn, and stile (2).] A post siirmoiinteu with four
horizontal arms, which revolve as a person pushes by them.
Turnstiles are usually placed on roads, bridges, or the like, either to
prevent the passage of bea.sts, vehicles, or the like, while admitting
the passage of persons, or to bar a passage temporarily till toll is
paid; they are also frequently placed at the entrance to ])ublio
buildings, ' or places of anmsenient, where entrance money is to be
collected, or whuro it is desired to ascertain the number of persons
admitted. " A htmsttle Is more certain Thuu, iu events oC war, dame
Fortune." Butler : Uadibraa, i. 8. turnstile - register, s. A device for
registering the number of persons who pass through a turnstile at
the entrance to a toll* bridge or building, and serving as a check oo
the collector. turn'-stone, 5. [Eng. turn, v., and stone, s.) Ornitk.: A
popular name for any of the Strepsilatinse; specilically applied
toStrepsilas interpres, from its habit of turning over small stones on
the sea-shore in search of its insech food. It is, very widely
distributed, bein(» found in nearly every part of the globe, its
breeding places being the shores of tbo .\rctio Ocean, iu America,
Asia, and Europe. The total length is rather more tlnin eight inches }
upper parts chestnut-red, with black spots: lower parts white, part
of' neck aud breast black. turn' -tail, a. [Eng. turn, and tail] A
coward. Tu-ro'-ni-an, u. & «. [Fr. Turonien. (Sea def.)] A. As adj. : Of
or belonging to the Turones, an ancient people of Celtic Gaul ; of or
belonging U> Touraine, the modern name of their country. Tours, its
great city, or tha rocks tlieie developed. [B.J B, As substantive : Geol.
: The Frencli equivalent of part of the English Lower White Chalk
without Hints. tur'-pen-tine, s. fO. Fr. turbentiae = turpentine, from
Lot. terebinthinus ~ made from the terebinth- tree ; Gr.
Tcpe3tV0ii/os (lerebintkinos), froiUTepc)3n'0o?(/^re&t(U/K>s)=
terebinth (q.v,); Unt. tnrpentijiL; Dan., Sw., & Ger. terpeiUin; Low
Lat. terbentiiia.] Ord. [jing. £ Cliem. : The name applied to
turpentine-oil, aud to the crude oleo'-iesinous juice which exudes
from incisions in the baric o( pines, firs, aud other coniferous trees.
Tha 8j.Kicie3 which chiefly furnish conimmi turpentine are Pinus
palustris, P. 2'teda, and P. Pinaster. The oleo- resin flowing froia
them has the consistence of tieacle, is of a pale-yellow colour, with a
pungent odour and taste peculiar to itself. It alters much with heat
and exp()sure. Straslmig turpentine is from Abies pectlnata. [Chian-
turpentimb, Venice-turpentine.] turpentine-camphor, ir. Chem, : A
term apidied, sometimes to the solid monohydrochlorate, sometimes
to the solid hydrate of turpenfcino-oil. {IVatts.) turpentine-oil, s. 1.
Cliem. : CioHxe- The volatile oil distilled from (rrude turpentine, and
existing in the wood, bark, leaves, and other parts of coniferous
trees. These oils, according to the source from which tliey are
obtained, exhibit cottf&te. £3.t, f^e, amidst, -what, fall, father ; we,
wet, here, camel, her, there ; pine, pit, sire, sir, marine ; go, pSt. or.
wore, wgli; werk, who, son; mute, cub, ciire, ^nite, cur. rule, full;
try. Syrian, co, ce = e; ey = a; qa = kw.
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turpentine- turreted 4877 dderable diversities in their

physical as well as in their optical properties. The several varieties
when rectified are colourless mobile liquids, having a peculiar
aromatic but disagreenble odour. They are inst)hible in water, slightly
soluble in aqueous alcohol, niiscible in all proportions with absohite
alcohol, ether, and carbon disulphide. They dissolve iodine sulphur,
phosphorus, also fixed oils and resins. The two principal varieties are
French turpentine - oil, from Pinus mantiTruif and American
tuvpentiue-oil, from the turpeutiue collected from P.palusti-ie, of the
Southern States. The former has a upecific gravity of 0-864, boils at
161°, and turns the plane of polarization to the left. Americau
tuipentine-uil has the same specific gi avity and builiug poiut, but
turns the plane of polarization to the right. Both oils absorb oxygen
from the air, and acquire powerful oxidiziuf; properties from the
probable formation of an organic peroxide, CioHi404. Turpentine
abstirbs chlnrhie with such energy as somethues to set it on fire. It
belongs to a group of volatile oils to which the name of terpenes has
been given. They are derived from jdants of the coniferous and
aurantiaceous orders, yielding, for example, turpentine and lemon
oils respectively. Turpentine-oil is of great importance in the arts,
and Is specially employed for giving C(msistency to oil paints and
varnishes, coufeiTiug on them drying properties, 2. Pharm. : In small
doses it is absorbed and acts as a stimulant, antispasmodic, and
asti'ingeiit. It produces diuresis, and cnmmunicates to the urine
passed a smell like that of violets. It can airest hteniorrhtige in the
capillary vessels. It is generally administered as an enema to destroy
ticnia, asciirides, Ac, in the intRStines. Apjilied externally, it is a
powerful rubefacient. (Gurroci.) turpentine-slirub, s. Bot. : Silpkium
ttTehinthaceiim^ the Prairie Burdock, a t;ill herbaceous plant with
large, cordate, radical leaves, and bright yellow flowers. It is a native
of Ncirth America, whence it was introduced into Great Britain biir65.
turpentine-tree, s. Botany : L Pistacia Terebintkua. (Terebinth -tree.]
2. Barsera guvimi/era. [Bursera.] 3. TristanUt albicans. (Lo\idon.) It
is an Australian shrub of the Myitle order. turpentine-Tarnish, s.
Chem. . A solution of resin in oil of turpentine. tnrpentinc-vessels* s.
pi. Bot. : Tubes formed in the Interstices of tissue in the Conifers,
and into which turpentine or other secretions naturally drain dnring
the growth of these trees, (rreos. of Bot.) •tur'-peu-tine, v.t.
[Turpentine, b.] To rub with turpentine. ftiir'-petll, s. [Fr. turbith,
turhit ; Sp. tiirbit; Pers. turbe^/, turbid; Ai-ab. ttirbuiid; Hind.
tarbud; Beng. terri; Sansc. trivrit, tripat,] Bot. (& Pharvi. : The root
of Ipomcea Turpefkum, which is found wild tlirougliont India and
Cpylon to a heiglit of 3,000 feet. The Sanscrit writers mention two
varieties of the plant, a white and a bla';k one. Tlie first is
nnifleiitified ; the last is given by the natives of Imiiaas a drastic
purgative in rlieuniatic and paralytic attectiuns. {Calcutta Exkib.
Bep.) turpetb-mineral, s. 1. Chem. : H"gS04'2Hg20. Turbeth -
mineral. Bfisic mercui'ic sulphate. A lemon-yellow powtler obtained
by boiling mercuri
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4878 turribant— Tuscan •2. Formed like a turret; rising like

a tower. " Take & turr^ed lamp of tin, in the form of s square ; the
height of the turret being thrice aa much 08 this leuebh of the
lowerpatt, whereupon the lump ■taadeth. — fiocwj / JfaL Hiit. •t&T'-
ri-b&nt, «. [TDBBA.N.] tfir-ric'-a-late, tur-ric'-u-lat-€d, a. SLat.
turricuXa, ditnin. from tdrris^=^a. tower q.v.).] Beaerabling a turret
; having the urm of a turret : as, a turriculated shell. t&r-ri-lep-&s, «.
[Lat turns = a tower, and Mod. LaL lepas (q.v.).] Palceont. : A genus
of Lepadidse, from the Upper Silurian rocka. The peduncle was
furnished with intersecting rows of plates, which, when detached,
are not unlike the shells of certain Pteropoda. Barrande regarded the
fossil (to which he gave the name Flumulites) as the capitulum of a
Lepadoid, fu which the peduncle is wanting or rudimentary. ttir'-ri-
lite, s. [Tubrilites.] Any individual of the genus Turrilites (q.v.).
(Woodward : MoUusca, ed. Tate, p. 200.) ttir-rJ-U'-te§, s. (Lat turris
= a tower, and Gr. \i9o
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tuscor— tutiorist 4879 :or longer white hairs ; ears

moderate, projecting from tlie fur. Found in the extreme south of
Europe, from Fi-ance to the Black Sea, and iu the north of Africa.
tfis'-cor, s. (TosK.! A tusk or tush of a horae. tush, * twisb, iTiierJ.
[From the sound.] An exclamation indicating rebuke, contempt, or
impatience ; pshaw > pish I " Tush. Bay tliey, how should God
perceive it? la there knowledge iu the Moat High V— Psalm Ixxiil. IL
t&sh»s. [A softened form of ewsfc(q.v.).l A long pointed tooth ; a
tusk ; applied especially to certain of the teeth of liorses. " Stroug aa
ii aoa-beast's tusJiet. and as white." A. 0. Swiubut^e: Trutramqf
LyotiesMB, i. * tiished, «■. [Tusked.] tusk (1), * toscli« * tosche, *
tusch, * tux, s. [A.9. tusc, tux; cogn. with O. Fries, tiwfc, tosch;
prob. for (M)isc= with the notion of douhU tooth, or very strong
tooth, from A-S. iwis = double. (5fcea^.)] I, Ordinary Language : 1.
(PL): Two abnormally long teeth, protruding from the mouth, and
constituting offensive weapons. In the elephant, tiie narwhal, the
dugong, &c., these enlarged teeth are inci.sors, wliilst in the boar,
the walrus, the hippopotamus, &c., they are canines. " Thia beast
(when ranny a chief liis tusks had alain) Great Meleager stretclied
along tlie plain." Pope ■ Homer ; Iliad \x. 661. * 2. The share of a
plough ; the tooth of a harrow or the like. IL Teciinically : 1. Carp.:
The bevelled shoulder on the back of a tenon of a binding joist, to
strengthen it. 2. Locksmith. : A sharp projecting point or claw which
forms a means of engagement or attachment. Used iu the ysn'ts of
locks in which holts, tumblers, &c., are thus provided 80 as to be
touched, dropped, raised, &c., by the key directly or by iuteimediate
devices. *tUSk (2), S. [TORSK.] * tusk, v.i. [Tusk (1), 5.] To gnash
the teeth as a boar ; to show the tusks. *' N&f, now you puffe, tuek,
and draw up your chin, Twirle the poore chain you run a feasting iu."
Ben JoTison : Epigram 10}. t&S'-kar» «. [A corrupt, of Icel.
tor/sJceri, from ior/=. turf, and skera = to cut.] An iron instrument
with a wooden handle, used for cutting peats. (Scotch.) tiisked, a.
[£ng. tusk (1), s. ; -ed.] t, Ord. Lang. : Furaished with tusks. " The
tmk*d boar out of the wood UpturuB it by the roots." Milton:
PtaZmixTX. 2. HeT. : Having tusks of such or such a tincture. (Said
of boars, elephants, &c.) tUSk'-er, s. [Eng. tusk (1), B. ; -er.] L An
elephant that has its tusks developed ; one of the males of the
Asiatic species. " One of the finest tuskera any of those present had
ever Been."— Field,, Dec. 36, 1685. 2. A wild boar with well-
developed tusks. " A tutker who had, however, no idea of running
Vira,j."~-£cho, Nov. 26, 1887. tfiak'-T^, a. [Eng. tusk (1), b. ; -y.}
Having tusks ; tusked. "The scar indented by the tuskj/ boor." Pope :
Bamer ; Odyatejf xzlT. 835. tfis'-sac, 8. [Tussock.] ttis'-seli, «.
[Tdsser.] t^-ser, ttis'-sore, tus'-seb, 0. [Native I»dian name.] The silk
spun by the Tusser Silkwonn (q.v,). The centres of the traffic are in
Bengal, the Central Provinces, Berar, and the Nizam's country. There
are genei-ally two crops of the insect during the year. The cocoons
are purchased in May and June by the rearers from those who have
collected them from the jungle ; the female cocoons are the larger.
They are almost perfectly smooth, of a gray colour, with darker veins
across the outer sui-face. When mature, the largest are about two
inches long by one and a-quarter broad, those of average size aViout
kn inch and a-half long. The inner layer of the fibre is ' quite loose,
forming a soft cushion for the hiisect within. The silk, when
obtained, has a glossy or vitreous look. It is now manufactured in
Europe as well as in India, being largely used for cloaks and mantles
designed for winter wear. No kind of silk so closely imitates seal-skin
or is so durable. It is uaea in the manut'actui'e of Utrecht velvet, and
has the rigidity requisite to render it a valuable material for cai-pets.
(CcUcutta EaAifi. Report.) tosser-fiUkwoirxa, s. Eiitom. : Antherea
mylitta, a common Indian silkworm, which yields a rather coarse-
looking, but very durable silk. It is wild tliroughout the low hills of
the central tableland of India, l)eing absent from the Himalaya
mountains and fiom the alluvial plains. It feeds on many shrubs and
trees. • tus-sic'-u-lar, a. (Lat. tnssicuIaHs, from tussis = a c'oug'h.]
Of or pertaining to a cough. tiis-si-la-gin'-e-ee, s. pi [Mod. Lat.
tussilago, genit. tussilagin(is) ; Lat. fern. pi. adj. suff. -ecB.] Bot. : A
tribe of Tubuliflorae. Leaves alternate, all radial, broad ; outer flowei-
s female, very slender, and tubular or ligulate ; florets of the disk
tubular, usually bisexual; anther cells not tailed ; arms of the style
connate, pubescent, with bitid, couitai tips. (Sir J. Hooker. ) tus-si-
la'-gd, 8. [Lat. = coltsfoot (see def.), from tussis = a cough, from the
use of the plant as a cough medicine.] Bot. : Coltsfoot ; the typical
genns of Tussilagineae (q.v.). Heads yellow, solitary, manyflowered ;
receptacle naked ; involucre of a single row of equal, linear scales ;
florets of the ray long, narrow, in many rows, female; those of the
disk few, male, both yellow ; pappus pilose ; achenes terete. Closely
akin to PetasitfcS, but differs by the pistillate flowers having a
(sometimes minute) hgule. Only one known species, TussUago
Far/a/ra. [Coltsfoot.] • tus'-sis, ». [Lat.] PailwU : A cough, a catarrh.
tiis'-Ble. * tus -sel, * tus-tle, e. [TnasLs, v.] A struggle ; a contest ; a
scuffle. " Does he wear liis head? Because the last we saw here had
a ttasle.' Byrtn : Vigion qf Judgment, zvllL tils-slo, * tus-tle, *tu^-zle,
v.i. dt. [A variant of iousle (q.v.).J A* Intrans. : To struggle ; to
scuffle. "Did tuttle with red-ey'd pole-cat.' Percy : Religuei ; St
Q«arge/or England. B. Trans. : To struggle with. " Muzzle and tiuxla
and bug thee." — CmGivrn : Butia Body (1709), p. 44. ttis' - Bock,
tiis' - siick, tiia' - sac, s. [A dimin. from Dan. tusk = a tuft, a tassel ;
Sw. dial, tuss = a wisp of hay ; ct Welsh (u«w, tuswy = a wisp, a
bundle.] 1. A clump, a tuft or small hillock of growing grass. " Both
were constructed in thick tusioeka of coArsa grasa oi' rushes."— iSci-
iitner'i Magazine, De& 1878, p. l7l). 2. A tuft or lock, as of hair or the
like ; a tangled knot. " Such laying of the hair In tuttoeka and toftK.*
— tatimar, 3. The same as Tussockhsbass (q.v.). 4. The same as
Tussock-moth (q.v.). tnssock-grass. s. Bot., &c. : Dactylis c tu-ta'-ni-
a, «. [Etym. doubtful.] A white alloy for tableware, &c. German ;
copper, 1 ; tin, 48 ; antimony, 4. Spanish : steel, 1 S tin, 24 ;
antimony, 2. tu'-tSl-age (age as Sg), a. [Lat. tutelar protection, from
tutus — safe ; tucor = to protect] 1. Guardianship, protection.
(Applied to the person.) " He Bubtnitted without reluctance to the
ttUetaat of a. couucil of war iioniiuated by the lord-lleuteuaati* —
MacaiUay: liUt. Rug., ch. xvil. 2. The state of being under a guardian
Off protector ; care or protection enjoyed. tu'-te-lar, tu'-te-lar-^, a.
[Lat tutdarU, from tutejla = guardianship, tutelage (q.T.){ Fr.
tutelaire.] 1. Guarding, protecting ; having the chargo, care, or
protection of a person or thing; guardian. ** Where wnat thou then,
sweet Charity t vbeze ttun , Thou tui^ary friend of helpleas men T"
Cowper : Charity, US. , 2, Tending to guard or protect ; protective^ •
tu'-tele, s. [Lat. tutela.] Tutelage. " He was to have the ttttele and
ward of hia childrok* —Boieeil : Letters, L 2, U. tu'-ten-d.g, tu-ten-
age. * ta-tan-age» ib [Hind.] 1. A white alloy, of copper, 50 ; nickel,
19 } and zinc, 31, used for table-ware, &c. It resembles Packfong,
Chinese white copper, albata, and German silver. The al !oy has
v'ari* ous names and proportions of the ingredient* J a small
quantity of lead or iron is added ia some formulae. 2. Zinc or spelter.
tu'-ti-or-i^ (ti as Bht), i. [Eccles. Leti tiUiorismuSf from tutior,
compar, of Lat. tutvt = safe.] Church Hist. & TJi£ology : Mitigated
Rigorism ] the doctrine which, while holding that obedience to the
law is always the safer and better way, allows that an opinion of the
highestl intrinsic probability in favour of liberty may sometimes be
followed. [Rigorism.] "The urguinenta adduced by ita advocatea
reany tend to TutMris7tt."^Addis & Arnold : Cath. Diet,, pk ^ tu'-ti-
6r-ist (ti as 8hi), a. & a. C^ng. to* tior(ism); -isL] A. As adj. : Of,
pertaining to, or guided t^ the principles of Tutiorism (q.v.). S. As
substantive : Church Hist, & Thsolagy: A t2ioologlaa Of bdilt h6^;
po^t, j^^l; cat, (ell, cborus, fliin, ben^k; go, gem; thin, this; sin,
a^; es:peGrt» Xenophon, e^lst, ^i^ ^«iaii, -tian = shan. -tion, -sion
= shiin ; -tion, -^ion = zh&n. -clous* -tious. -sioas = shus, -ble, -
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4880 tutmouthed— twang oonfeesor who adopts, and is

guided by the principlos of Tutiovisin. " We may alBu diauiiss the
opiiiion of the Rlgortata or Tutioristtr—AddU A Amotd; Cath. Diet., p.
602. tilf -moiithed, a. [Mid. Eng. tete, toot ; A.S. ^li/iara =to project,
and Eng. mouth^.] Haviug a projecting under jaw. t&t'-nose, s.
[TuTMouTHED.] A snub nose. tu'-tor, * ta'-tour, s. [Ft. tuteur, from
Lat tutorem^ accu^. of tutor = & guardian, from tutus = safe, for
tuUus, la. par. of t'ueor= to look after, to guard ; yp. & Port, tutor;
ItaL tutore.] L Ordiiuvry Language : * 1. A guardian ; one who has
the care or charge of a person or tiling. 2. One who lias the chai-^e
of instructing another in vnrious branches or m any hianch of
learning; a teacher, an instructor ; espec, B private instructor. "Nu
Buieuce is bo speedily learned by the noblest genius Hitliont Atutor."
— Wititi. 3. In English Universities, one of a body attiiclied to tlie
Vitrious colleges or Imlls), by ■whom, a«sisted hy lecturers, the
education of the students is chiefly conducted. They are selected
from the fellows, and are also responsible lor tlie general discipline
of tiie students. 4. In American Universities, a teacher subordinate to
a fellow. II. Scots Law : The guardian of a boy or girl in pupilarity. By
uomnion law a father is tutor to his children. Failing hiin, there may
be three kinds of tutors : a tutoi'-nominate, a tutor-at-Iaw, or a
tutor-dative. A tutor-nominate is one nominated in a testament, &c.,
by the father of the ohild or children to lie placed under
guardianship. A father may nonunate any number of tutors. A tutor-
at-law is one who acquiies his right by the mere disposition of law, iu
cases where there is no tutor-nominate, or where the tutor-nominate
is dead, or cannot act, or has not accejited. A tutor-dative is one
named by the sovereign on the failure both of tutorsnominate and
tulors-at-law. tu'-tor, v.t. [Tutor, s.] * 1. To have the guardianship,
care, or (itarge of. 2. To instruct, to teach. ** 8fae tutored boiha iu
Doedalng's nrt, Aiid promised they Bhuuld net his wild gome pnrt.'*
Ci'tpper: Anti-Ttwlyphthora. 3. To train, to discipline, to coiTect,
"Give sorrow leave awhile to tutor me To tbifl BubiuisBiou." Shakttp.
: Itichard II. It. •tu'-tor -age (age as is\s. [Eng. tutor, 8. ; •age.'\
The office, occu]iation, or authority of a tutor or guardian ; tutelage,
guardianship. "Children care not for the conipnny of their parents or
tutoiu, ai-d men will care less tor theirs who would make Iheui
children byuBui:piiigatutora0&" — Oovarnment of tlm Tongue, •tu'-
tor -ess, s. [Eng. tutor, s. ; -ess.^ A female tutoi- ; an instructress, a
governess. "Fidelia shall be yoor fuCoreM." Hoore: Foundling. tn-tbr'-
i-al, o. [Lft. tutorius, from tutor = a guardian.] Peiiaming to or
exercised by a tutor or instmctor. "The head has no active
(utoritridutiefl.''—/'aBifaB Gazette, July 15, 1884 p. 3. • tu'-tdr-ism,
s. ^Eng. tutor, s. ; -isTn.^ The office, state, or duty of a tutor or
tutors; tutoi-ship. •tu'-tor-lj^, a. [Eng. tutor, s. ; -Zj/.] Pertaining tfl,
sidti'i^, or like a tutor ; pedagogic. "The Earl . . . was not a little
tutorly in hia Majesty's affain,*'^JVor(ft ; Examen, p, 451 tu'-tor-
ship^ s. [Eng. tutor, ». ; -sft.tp.] 1. Guardianship, charge, care,
tutelage. "He that Jhoultl grant a tutorship, restraining his grant to
tiTa^ one vertaine thi)if;e or cause, shimld doe but ideljF."— /7ooAer
; Eccles. Polity, bk. v.. § 80, 2. Tl'e office of a tutor or private
instructor ; the office of a college tutor. • tu'-tor-^, * tu-tor-ie, s.
[Eng. tutor, s. ; •yj\ Tulorage^ instruction, tutelage. "The
guardianship or tutorie of a ^^S e^tp'Ted Bonner than of another
priuate person.' — Bdlinthact: Silt. SeotlaTul (an. 1521). TUTSAN
AND FRUIT. • tu'-trSss. * tu'-trix, s. [Eng. tutor : -ess : Ft. tutritx,
from Lat. tutiiceai, accus. of tutrix = a female guardian.] 1, A female
guardian. 2. A female instractor ; & tutoress ; a governess. {Lit.
Afig.) " Rouen, Geneva, and Pisa huFe been tutrttam of aU I know.
—liutkint id jSt. Janu^'a Qaiaitt, Feb, 9, IBM, tiit'-san, s. [Ft.
(oiitesaii}^ =r ail lieal, from tout (Lat. toiva = whole) and rain (Lat.
saA-u3)=:t!0UDd.3 Botany : 1, Parfe leaves; Bypericum
Androsoemitm = Andro^srimm officinale. The stem, which is about
two feet high, is shrubby, com pressed ; the leaves large, sessile,
ovate, the cymes terminal with large flowers, the ft-uit fleshy, and
resembling a berry, esjiecially when unripe. Found in hetlges and
shiubby places, especially in Ireland and the west of Scotland ; not
so common In England. 2. iPl.) : The Hypericaceae. (Lindley.) " The
he&ling tutmn then, and plantano for a sore." JJruj/ton :
Polj/.Olbion, u. IS. tut-ta, a. [Ital., from Lat. to
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