UNIT I-Introduction to C

C is a programming language developed at AT & T’s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It

was designed and written by a man named Dennis Ritchie. In the late seventies C began to
replace the more familiar languages of that time like PL/I, ALGOL, etc
ANSI C standard emerged in the early 1980s, this book was split into two titles: The
original was still called Programming in C, and the title that covered ANSI C was called
Programming in ANSI C. This was done because it took several years for the compiler vendors
to release their ANSI C compilers and for them to become ubiquitous. It was initially designed
for programming UNIX operating system. Now the software tool as well as the C compiler is
written in C. Major parts of popular operating systems like Windows, UNIX, Linux is still
written in C. This is because even today when it comes to performance (speed of execution)
nothing beats C. Moreover, if one is to extend the operating system to work with new devices
one needs to write device driver programs. These programs are exclusively written in C. C
seems so popular is because it is reliable, simple and easy to use. often heard today is – “C has
been already superceded by languages like C++, C# and Java.

Program
There is a close analogy between learning English language and learning C language. The
classical method of learning English is to first learn the alphabets used in the language, then
learn to combine these alphabets to form words, which in turn are combined to form sentences
and sentences are combined to form paragraphs. Learning C is similar and easier. Instead of
straight-away learning how to write programs, we must first know what alphabets, numbers and
special symbols are used in C, then how using them constants, variables and keywords are
constructed, and finally how are these combined to form an instruction. A group of instructions
would be combined later on to form a program. So

a computer program is just a collection of the instructions necessary to solve a specific

problem. The basic operations of a computer system form what is known as the computer’s
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instruction set. And the approach or method that is used to solve the problem is known as an
algorithm.

So for as programming language concern these are of two types.

1) Low level language

2) High level language

Low level language:
Low level languages are machine level and assembly level language. In machine level
language computer only understand digital numbers i.e. in the form of 0 and 1. So, instruction
given to the computer is in the form binary digit, which is difficult to implement instruction in
binary code. This type of program is not portable, difficult to maintain and also error prone.
The assembly language is on other hand modified version of machine level language. Where
instructions are given in English like word as ADD, SUM, MOV etc. It is easy to write and
understand but not understand by the machine. So the translator used here is assembler to
translate into machine level. Although language is bit easier, programmer has to know low
level details related to low level language. In the assembly level language the data are stored in
the computer register, which varies for different computer. Hence it is not portable.
High level language:

These languages are machine independent, means it is portable. The language in this category
is Pascal, Cobol, Fortran etc. High level languages are understood by the machine. So it need to
translate by the translator into machine level. A translator is software which is used to translate
high level language as well as low level language in to machine level language.
Three types of translator are there:

Compiler
Interpreter
Assembler
Compiler and interpreter are used to convert the high level language into machine level
language. The program written in high level language is known as source program and the
corresponding machine level language program is called as object program. Both compiler and
interpreter perform the same task but there working is different. Compiler read the program at-a-
time and searches the error and lists them. If the program is error free then it is converted into
object program. When program size is large then compiler is preferred. Whereas interpreter read
only one line of the source code and convert it to object code. If it check error, statement by
statement and hence of take more time.

Integrated Development Environments (IDE)

The process of editing, compiling, running, and debugging programs is often managed by a
single integrated application known as an Integrated Development Environment, or IDE for
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short. An IDE is a windows-based program that allows us to easily manage large software
programs, edit files in windows, and compile, link, run, and debug programs.
On Mac OS X, CodeWarrior and Xcode are two IDEs that are used by many programmers.
Under Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio is a good example of a popular IDE. Kylix is a
popular IDE for developing applications under Linux. Most IDEs also support program
development in several different programming languages in addition to C, such as C# and C++.

Structure of C Language program

1 ) Comment line

2) Preprocessor directive

3 ) Global variable declaration

4) main function( )
{

Local variables;
Statements;
}

User defined function

}
Comment line

It indicates the purpose of the program. It is represented as

/*……………………………..*/

Comment line is used for increasing the readability of the program. It is useful in explaining the
program and generally used for documentation. It is enclosed within the decimeters. Comment
line can be single or multiple line but should not be nested. It can be anywhere in the program
except inside string constant & character constant.

Preprocessor Directive:
#include<stdio.h> tells the compiler to include information about the standard input/output
library. It is also used in symbolic constant such as #define PI 3.14(value). The stdio.h (standard
input output header file) contains definition &declaration of system defined function such as
printf( ), scanf( ), pow( ) etc. Generally printf() function used to display and scanf() function
used to read value

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Global Declaration:

This is the section where variable are declared globally so that it can be access by all the
functions used in the program. And it is generally declared outside the function :

main()

It is the user defined function and every function has one main() function from where actually
program is started and it is encloses within the pair of curly braces.
The main( ) function can be anywhere in the program but in general practice it is placed in the
first position.
Syntax :
main()
{

……..

……..

……..

The main( ) function return value when it declared by data type as int main( )
{

return 0
}

The main function does not return any value when void (means null/empty) as void
main(void ) or void main()
{

printf (“C language”);

Output: C language

The program execution start with opening braces and end with closing brace.

And in between the two braces declaration part as well as executable part is mentioned. And
at the end of each line, the semi-colon is given which indicates statement termination.

/*First c program with return statement*/

#include <stdio.h> int

main (void)
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{

printf ("welcome to c Programming language.\n"); return 0;

}

Output: welcome to c programming language.

Steps for Compiling and executing the Programs

A compiler is a software program that analyzes a program developed in a particular computer language
and then translates it into a form that is suitable for execution
on a particular computer system. Figure below shows the steps that are involved in entering,
compiling, and executing a
computer program developed in the C programming language and the typical Unix commands that would
be entered from the command line.
Step 1: The program that is to be compiled is first typed into a file on the computer system.
There are various conventions that are used for naming files, typically be
any name provided the last two characters are “.c” or file with extension .c. So, the file name
prog1.c might be a valid filename for a C program. A text editor is usually used to enter the C
program into a file. For example, vi is a popular text editor used on Unix systems. The program
that is entered into the file is known as the source program because it represents the original
form of the program expressed in the C language.

Step 2: After the source program has been entered into a file, then proceed to have it compiled.
The compilation process is initiated by typing a special command on the system. When this
command is entered, the name of the file that contains the source program must also be
specified. For example, under Unix, the command to initiate program compilation is called cc. If
we are using the popular GNU C compiler, the command we use is gcc.
Typing the line

gcc prog1.c or cc prog1.c

In the first step of the compilation process, the compiler examines each program

statement contained in the source program and checks it to ensure that it conforms to the syntax
and semantics of the language. If any mistakes are discovered by the compiler during this phase,
they are reported to the user and the compilation process ends right there. The errors then have to
be corrected in the source program (with the use of an editor), and the compilation process must
be restarted. Typical errors reported during this phase of compilation might be due to an
expression that has unbalanced parentheses (syntactic error), or due to the use of a variable that
is not “defined” (semantic error).

Step 3: When all the syntactic and semantic errors have been removed from the program, the
compiler then proceeds to take each statement of the program and translate it into a “lower”

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form that is equivalent to assembly language program needed to perform the identical task.

Step 4: After the program has been translated the next step in the compilation process is to
translate the assembly language statements into actual machine instructions. The assembler takes
each assembly language statement and converts it into a binary format known as object code,
which is then written into another file on the system. This file has the same name as the source
file under Unix, with the last letter an “o” (for object) instead of a “c”.
Step 5: After the program has been translated into object code, it is ready to be linked. This
process is once again performed automatically whenever the cc or gcc command is issued under
Unix. The purpose of the linking phase is to get the program into a final form for execution on
the computer.
If the program uses other programs that were previously processed by the
compiler, then during this phase the programs are linked together. Programs that are used from
the system’s program library are also searched and linked together with the object program
during this phase.
The process of compiling and linking a program is often called building.

The final linked file, which is in an executable object code format, is stored in another file on
the system, ready to be run or executed. Under Unix, this file is called a.out by default. Under
Windows, the executable file usually has the same name as the source file, with the c extension
replaced by an exe extension.
Step 6: To subsequently execute the program, the command a.out has the effect of loading the
program called a.out into the computer’s memory and initiating its execution.
When the program is executed, each of the statements of the program is sequentially executed in
turn. If the program requests any data from the user, known as input, the program temporarily
suspends its execution so that the input can be entered. Or, the program might simply wait for an
event, such as a mouse being clicked, to occur. Results that are displayed by the program,
known as output, appear in a window, sometimes called the console. If the program does not
produce the desired results, it is necessary to go back and reanalyze the program’s logic. This is
known as the debugging phase, during which an attempt is made to remove all the known
problems or bugs from the program. To do this, it will most
likely be necessary to make changes to original source program.

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/* Simple program to add two numbers................................................*/
#include <stdio.h> int main (void)
{

int v1, v2, sum; //v1,v2,sum are variables and int is data type declared v1 =
150;
v2 = 25;

sum = v1 + v2;

printf ("The sum of %i and %i is= %i\n", v1, v2, sum); return 0;
}

Output:

The sum of 150 and 25 is=175

Character set

A character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent information.
Valid alphabets, numbers and special symbols allowed in C are

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The alphabets, numbers and special symbols when properly combined form constants,
variables and keywords.
Identifiers
Identifiers are user defined word used to name of entities like variables, arrays, functions,
structures etc. Rules for naming identifiers are:
1) name should only consists of alphabets (both upper and lower case), digits and
underscore (_) sign.
2) first characters should be alphabet or underscore
3) name should not be a keyword
4) since C is a case sensitive, the upper case and lower case considered differently,
for example code, Code, CODE etc. are different identifiers.
5) identifiers are generally given in some meaningful name such as value, net_salary,
age, data etc. An identifier name may be long, some implementation recognizes only first
eight characters, most recognize 31 characters. ANSI standard compiler recognize 31
characters. Some invalid identifiers are 5cb, int, res#, avg no etc.

Keyword
There are certain words reserved for doing specific task, these words are known
as reserved word or keywords. These words are predefined and always written in lower case or
small letter. These keywords cann’t be used as a variable name as it assigned with fixed
meaning. Some examples are int, short, signed, unsigned, default, volatile, float, long, double,
break, continue, typedef, static, do, for, union, return, while, do, extern, register, enum,

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 case, goto, struct, char, auto, const etc.

Data types

Data types refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions of different
types before its use. The type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage
and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted. The value of a variable can be changed any time.

C has the following 4 types of data types

basic built-in data types: int, float, double, char

Enumeration data type: enum

Derived data type: pointer, array, structure, union

Void data type: void

A variable declared to be of type int can be used to contain integral values only—that is,
values that do not contain decimal places. A variable declared to be of type float can be used for
storing floating- point numbers (values containing decimal places). The double type is the same
as type float, only with roughly twice the precision. The char data type can be used to store a
single character, such as the letter a, the digit character 6, or a semicolon similarly A variable
declared char can only store character type value.

There are two types of type qualifier in c

Size qualifier: short, long

Sign qualifier: signed, unsigned

When the qualifier unsigned is used the number is always positive, and when signed is used
number may be positive or negative. If the sign qualifier is not mentioned, then by default sign
qualifier is assumed. The range of values for signed data types is less than that of unsigned data
type. Because in signed type, the left most bit is used to represent sign, while in unsigned type
this bit is also used to represent the value. The size and range of the different data types on a 16
bit machine is given below:

Basic data type Data type with type Size Range

qualifier (byte)
char char or signed char 1 -128 to 127
Unsigned char 1 0 to 255
int int or signed int 2 -32768 to 32767
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535
short int or signed short int 1 -128 to 127
unsigned short int 1 0 to 255
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 long int or signed long int 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647
unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295
float float 4 -3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38
double double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308
Long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932

Constants

Constant is a any value that cannot be changed during program execution. In C, any number,
single character, or character string is known as a constant. A constant is an entity that doesn’t
change whereas a variable is an entity that may change. For example, the number 50 represents a
constant integer value. The character string "Programming in C is fun.\n" is an example of a
constant character string. C constants can be divided into two major categories:
Primary Constants
Secondary Constants

These constants are further categorized as

Numeric constant
Character constant
String constant

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 Numeric constant: Numeric constant consists of digits. It required minimum size of 2 bytes and
max 4 bytes. It may be positive or negative but by default sign is always positive. No comma or
space is allowed within the numeric constant and it must have at least 1 digit. The allowable
range for integer constants is -32768 to 32767. Truly speaking the range of an Integer constant
depends upon the compiler. For a 16-bit compiler like Turbo C or Turbo C++ the range is –
32768 to 32767.
For a 32-bit compiler the range would be even greater. Mean by a 16-bit or a 32- bit compiler,
what range of an Integer constant has to do with the type of compiler.

It is categorized a integer constant and real constant. An integer constants are whole number
which have no decimal point. Types of integer constants are:
Decimal constant: 0--------9(base 10)
Octal constant: 0--------7(base 8)
Hexa decimal constant: 0----9, A-------------F(base 16)

In decimal constant first digit should not be zero unlike octal constant first digit must be
zero(as 076, 0127) and in hexadecimal constant first two digit should be 0x/ 0X (such as 0x24,
0x87A). By default type of integer constant is integer but if the value of integer constant is
exceeds range then value represented by integer type is taken to be unsigned integer or long
integer. It can also be explicitly mention integer and unsigned integer type by suffix l/L and u/U.

Real constant is also called floating point constant. To construct real constant we must follow
the rule of ,
-real constant must have at least one digit.
-It must have a decimal point.
-It could be either positive or negative.
-Default sign is positive.
-No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant. Ex.: +325.34 426.0
-32.76

To express small/large real constant exponent(scientific) form is used where number is written in
mantissa and exponent form separated by e/E. Exponent can be positive or negative integer but
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mantissa can be real/integer type, for example 3.6*10 =3.6e+5. By default type of floating point
constant is double, it can also be explicitly defined it by suffix of f/F.

Character constant
:Character constant represented as a single character enclosed within a single quote. These can be single digit,
single special symbol or white spaces such as ‘9’,’c’,’$’, ‘ ’ etc. Every character constant has a unique integer
like value in machine’s character code as if machine using ASCII (American standard code for information
interchange). Some numeric value associated with each upper and lower case alphabets and decimal integers
are as:
A---------------Z ASCII value (65-90)

a---------------z ASCII value (97-122)

0-------------9 ASCII value (48-59)

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; ASCII value (59)

String constant

Set of characters are called string and when sequence of characters are enclosed within a
double quote (it may be combination of all kind of symbols) is a string constant. String constant
has zero, one or more than one character and at the end of the string null character(\0) is
automatically placed by compiler. Some examples are “,sarathina” , “908”, “3”,” ”, “A” etc. In
C although same characters are enclosed within single and double quotes it represents different
meaning such as “A” and ‘A’ are different because first one is string attached with null
character at the end but second one is character constant with its corresponding ASCII value is
65.

Symbolic constant
Symbolic constant is a name that substitute for a sequence of characters and, characters may be
numeric, character or string constant. These constant are generally defined at the beginning of
the program as
#define name value , here name generally written in
upper case for example

#define MAX 10
#define CH ‘b’
#define NAME “sony”

Variables

Variable is a data name which is used to store some data value or symbolic names for storing
program
computations and results. The value of the variable can be change during the execution. The rule
for naming the variables is same as the naming identifier. Before used in the program it must be
declared. Declaration of variables specify its name, data types and range of the value that
variables can store depends upon its data types.
Syntax:
int a;
char c;
float f;
Variable initialization

When we assign any initial value to variable during the declaration, is called initialization of
variables. When variable is declared but contain undefined value then it is called garbage
value. The variable is initialized with the assignment operator such as
Data type variable name=constant; Example: int
a=20;
Or int a;

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 a=20;
statements

Expressions

An expression is a combination of variables, constants, operators and function call. It can be

arithmetic, logical and relational for example:-
int z= x+y // arithmatic expression
a>b //relational
a==b // logical func(a,
b) // function call
Expressions consisting entirely of constant values are called constant expressions. So, the
expression
121 + 17 - 110
is a constant expression because each of the terms of the expression is a constant value. But if i
were declared to be an integer variable, the expression
180 + 2 – j
would not represent a constant expression.

Operator

This is a symbol use to perform some operation on variables, operands or with the constant.
Some operator required 2 operand to perform operation or Some required single operation.
Several operators are there those are, arithmetic operator, assignment, increment , decrement, logical,
conditional, comma, size of , bitwise and others.

1. Arithmatic Operator
This operator used for numeric calculation. These are of either Unary arithmetic operator,
Binary arithmetic operator. Where Unary arithmetic operator required only one operand such as
+,-, ++, --,!, tiled. And these operators are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. Binary
arithmetic operator on other hand required two operand and its operators are +(addition), -
(subtraction),
*(multiplication), /(division), %(modulus). But modulus cannot applied with floating
point operand as well as there are no exponent operator in c.

Unary (+) and Unary (-) is different from addition and subtraction.

When both the operand are integer then it is called integer arithmetic and the result is always
integer. When both the operand are floating point then it is called floating arithmetic and when
operand is of integer and floating point then it is called mix type or mixed mode arithmetic . And
the result is in float type.

2. Assignment Operator

A value can be stored in a variable with the use of assignment operator. The assignment
operator(=) is used in assignment statement and assignment expression. Operand on the left hand
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side should be variable and the operand on the right hand side should be variable or constant or
any expression. When variable on the left hand side is occur on the right hand side then we can
avoid by writing the compound statement. For example,

int x= y;

int Sum=x+y+z;
3. Increment and Decrement

The Unary operator ++, --, is used as increment and decrement which acts upon single operand.
Increment operator increases the value of variable by one
.Similarly decrement operator decrease the value of the variable by one. And these operator can
only used with the variable, but cann't use with expression and constant
as ++6 or ++(x+y+z).
st
It again categories into prefix post fix . In the prefix the value of the variable is incremented 1 ,
then the new value is used, where as in postfix the operator is written after the operand(such as
m++,m--).

EXAMPLE

let y=12;
z= ++y;
y= y+1;
z= y;
Similarly in the postfix increment and decrement operator is used in the operation . And then
increment and decrement is perform.

EXAMPLE

let x= 5;
y= x++;
y=x;
x= x+1;

4. Relational Operator

It is use to compared value of two expressions depending on their relation. Expression

that contain relational operator is called relational expression.
Here the value is assign according to true or false value. a.(a>=b)
|| (b>20)
b.(b>a) && (e>b)

c. 0(b!=7)

5. Conditional Operator

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 It sometimes called as ternary operator. Since it required three expressions as operand and it is
represented as (? , :).

SYNTAX

exp1 ? exp2 :exp3

Here exp1 is first evaluated. It is true then value return will be exp2 . If false then exp3.
EXAMPLE

void main()

int a=10, b=2

int s= (a>b) ? a:b;

printf(“value is:%d”);
}

Output:

Value is:10

6. Comma Operator

Comma operator is use to permit different expression to be appear in a situation where only
one expression would be used. All the expression are separator by comma and are evaluated
from left to right.

EXAMPLE

int i, j, k, l;
for(i=1,j=2;i<=5;j<=10;i++;j++)
7. Sizeof Operator

Size of operator is a Unary operator, which gives size of operand in terms of byte that
occupied in the memory. An operand may be variable, constant or data type qualifier.
Generally it is used make portable program(program that can be run on different machine) . It
determines the length of entities, arrays and structures when their size are not known to the
programmer. It is also use to allocate size of memory dynamically during execution of the
program.
EXAMPLE

main( )

{
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int sum;
float f;
printf( "%d%d" ,size of(f), size of (sum) );

printf("%d%d", size of(235 L), size of(A));

8. Bitwise Operator

Bitwise operator permit programmer to access and manipulate of data at bit level.
Various bitwise operator enlisted are one's
complement (~)
bitwise AND (&)

bitwise OR (|)

bitwise XOR (^)

left shift (<<)

right shift (>>)

These operator can operate on integer and character value but not on float and double. In
bitwise operator the function showbits( ) function is used to display the binary representation of
any integer or character value.
In one's complement all 0 changes to 1 and all 1 changes to 0. In the bitwise OR its value would
obtaining by 0 to 2 bits.
As the bitwise OR operator is used to set on a particular bit in a number. Bitwise AND the
logical AND.
It operate on 2operands and operands are compared on bit by bit basic. And hence both the
operands are of same type.

9. Logical or Boolean Operator

Operator used with one or more operand and return either value zero (for false) or one (for true).
The operand may be constant, variables or expressions. And the expression that combines two or
more expressions is termed as logical expression. C has three logical operators :
Operator Meaning

&& AND
|| OR
! NOT
Where logical NOT is a unary operator and other two are binary operator. Logical AND gives
result true if both the conditions are true, otherwise result is false. And logical OR gives result
false if both the condition false, otherwise result is true.
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 Precedence of an Operator

& Bitwise AND left-to-right

^ Bitwise exclusive OR left-to-right

| Bitwise inclusive OR left-to-right

&& Logical AND left-to-right

|| Logical OR left-to-right

?: Ternary conditional right-to-left

= Assignment

+= -= Addition/subtraction assignment

*= /= Multiplication/division assignment

%= &= Modulus/bitwise AND assignment

^= |= Bitwise exclusive/inclusive OR assignment

<<= >>= Bitwise shift left/right assignment right-to-left

Comma (separate expressions) left-to-right

,

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 Control Statement

Generally C program statement is executed in a order in which they appear in the

program. But sometimes we use decision making condition for execution only a part of
program, that is called control statement.

UNIT II
Strings and Arrays

The C language provides a capability that

enables the user to define a set of
ordered data items known
as an array.
Suppose we had a set of grades that we
wished to read into the computer and
suppose we wished to
perform some operations on these
grades, we will quickly realize that we
cannot perform such an
operation until each and every grade has
been entered since it would be quite a
tedious task to declare

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each and every student grade as a
variable especially since there may be a
very large number.
In C we can define a variable called
grade, which represents not a single
value of grade but a entire set
of grades. Each element of the set can
then be referenced by means of a
number called as index n

The C language provides a capability that

enables the user to define a set of
ordered data items known
as an array.
Suppose we had a set of grades that we
wished to read into the computer and
suppose we wished to
perform some operations on these
grades, we will quickly realize that we
cannot perform such an
19
operation until each and every grade has
been entered since it would be quite a
tedious task to declare
each and every student grade as a
variable especially since there may be a
very large number.
In C we can define a variable called
grade, which represents not a single
value of grade but a entire set
of grades. Each element of the set can
then be referenced by means of a
number called as index n

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how the control is transferred from one part to the other part of the program. There are several
control statement like if...else, switch, while, do...........while, for loop,
break, continue, goto etc.

Loops in C

Loop:-it is a block of statement that performs set of instructions. In loops

Repeating particular portion of the program either a specified number of time or until a
particular no of condition is being satisfied.
There are three types of loops in c

1.While loop 2.do

while loop 3.for
loop While loop
Syntax:-

while(condition)

Or while(test condition)
Statement;

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The test condition may be any expression .when we want to do something a fixed no of times
but not known about the number of iteration, in a program then while loop is used.

Here first condition is checked if, it is true body of the loop is executed else, If
condition is false control will be come out of loop.
Example:-

/* wap to print 5 times welcome to C”

*/ #include<stdio.h>
Output: Welcome to C
void main()
Welcome to C
Welcome to C
{ Welcome to C
Welcome to C
int p=1;

While(p<=

5)
{

printf(“Welcome to C\

n”); P=p+1;

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 So as long as condition remains true statements within the body of while loop will get executed
repeatedly.

do while loop

This (do while loop) statement is also used for looping. The body of this loop may contain single
statement or block of statement. The syntax for writing this statement is:

Syntax:-

Do

{
Example:-
#include<stdio.h>
Statement;
void main()
{
}
int X=4;
while(condition);
do
{

Printf(“%d”,X);
X=X+1;

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 }whie(X<=10);

Printf(“ ”);

Output: 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Here firstly statement inside body is executed then condition is checked. If the condition is
true again body of loop is executed and this process continue until the
condition becomes false. Unlike while loop semicolon is placed at the end of while.
There is minor difference between while and do while loop, while loop test the condition
before executing any of the statement of loop. Whereas do while loop test condition after
having executed the statement at least one within the loop.
If initial condition is false while loop would not executed it’s statement on other hand do while
loop executed it’s statement at least once even If condition fails for first time. It means do while
loop always executes at least once. Notes:
Do while loop used rarely when we want to execute a loop at least once.

for loop

In a program, for loop is generally used when number of iteration are known in advance. The
body of the loop can be single statement or multiple statements. Its syntax for writing is:

Syntax:-

for(exp1;exp2;exp3)
Or
{

Statement;

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for(initialized counter; test counter; update counter)

Statement;

Here exp1 is an initialization expression, exp2 is test expression or condition and exp3 is an
update expression. Expression 1 is executed only once when loop started and used to initialize
the loop variables. Condition expression generally uses relational and logical operators. And
updation part executed only when after body of the loop is executed.
Example:-
void main()
{

in i;

for(i=1;i<10;i++)
{
printf(“ %d ”, i);

Output:-1 2 3 456789

Nesting of loop

When a loop written inside the body of another loop then, it is known as nesting of loop. Any
type of loop can be nested in any type such as while, do while, for. For example nesting of for
loop can be represented as :
void main()

int i,j; for(i=0;i<2;i++)

25
for(j=0;j<5; j++)
printf(“%d %d”, i, j);
}

Output: i=0

j=0 1 2 3 4

i=1

j=0 1 2 3 4

Break statement(break)

Sometimes it becomes necessary to come out of the loop even before loop condition becomes
false then break statement is used. Break statement is used inside loop and switch statements. It
cause immediate exit from that loop in which it appears and it is generally written with
condition. It is written with the keyword as break. When break statement is encountered loop is
terminated and control is transferred to the statement, immediately after loop or situation where
we want to jump out of the loop instantly without waiting to get back to conditional state.
When break is encountered inside any loop, control automatically passes to the first
statement after the loop. This break statement is usually associated with if statement.
Example :

void main()

int j=0;
for(;j<6;j++)
if(j==4) break;
}

Output:

0123

Continue statement (key word continue)

Continue statement is used for continuing next iteration of loop after skipping some statement of
loop. When it encountered control automatically passes through the beginning of the loop. It is
usually associated with the if statement. It is useful when we want to continue the program
without executing any part of the program.
The difference between break and continue is, when the break encountered loop is terminated
and it transfer to the next statement and when continue is encounter control come back to the
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 beginning position.
In while and do while loop after continue statement control transfer to the test condition and
then loop continue where as in, for loop after continue control transferred to the updating
expression and condition is tested.
Example:-
void main()
{

int n;

for(n=2; n<=9; n++)

if(n==4) continue;
printf(“%d”, n);
}

Printf(“out of loop”);

Output: 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 out of loop

. Conditional statements helps you to make decision based on certain conditions. These conditions are
specified by a set of conditional statements having boolean expressions which are evaluated to a boolean
value true or false. There are following types of conditional statements in C.
1. If statement
2. If-Else statement
3. Nested If-else statement
4. If-Else If ladder
5. Switch statement
If statement

The single if statement in C language is used to execute the code if condition is true. It is also called one-
way selection statement.

Syntax

1.
if(expression)
2. {
3. //code to be executed

27
 How "if" statement works..


If the expression is evaluated to nonzero (true) then if block statement(s) are executed.
NoteIf the expression is evaluated to zero (false) then Control passes to next statement following it.


"Expression must be scalar type" i.e evaluated to a single value.

if Statement Example

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void
main() 4. {
5. int num=0;
6. printf("enter the number");
7. scanf("%d",&nu
m); 8. if(n%2==0)
9. {
10. printf("%d number in even",num);
11. }

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 12. getch();
13. }
If-else statement

The if-else
1 statement in C language is used to execute the code if condition is true or false. It is also called
two way
. selection statement.
Syntaxi
f
(
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
)

2
.

{
3. //Statements
4. }
5. else
6. {
7. //Statements
8. }

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