Iron Age/Megalithic Remains in Kollam District, Kerala:

Fresh Investigations and Inferences on Distribution

Pattern
Arun Kumar K. S.1, Abhayan G. S.1 and Rajesh S. V.1

1 . Department of Archaeology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom Campus,

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala – 695 581, India (Email: [email protected];
[email protected]; [email protected])

Received: 18 August 2021; Revised: 27 October 2021; Accepted: 29 November 2021

Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 9 (2021-22): 270-287

Abstract: Megalithism, or huge-stone burial practice, is a significant cultural practice worldwide. Its
varied manifestations have been available in different cultural contexts since the late stone age. The
Megalithic practice in Kerala is associated with the early Iron Age, which shares many characteristics
with their counterparts in the Indian subcontinent. The Megalithic burial monuments and associated
materials are the distinctive landmarks of the Iron Age in Kerala, while there is a lack of clear-cut
evidence of habitation or settlement. The State of Kerala produces evidence of a wide variety of Megalithic
monuments, especially in the north Kerala region. A significant share of Megalithic sites found in
southern Kerala has been accidentally discovered. The majority of the southern part of Kerala is
unexplored, and a detailed database of sites is not available. Kollam district in south Kerala is one such
area where minimal research has been conducted on Megaliths. The present paper attempts to document
the Megalithic monuments in this region and identify their typology, distribution and characteristic
features with the help of a full-coverage village-to-village survey.

Keywords: Urn, Cist, Menhir, Iron Age, Excavations, Burial Typology, Distribution

Introduction
The term ‘Megaliths’ refers to the monuments built of large stones. The term has a
restricted usage and is applied only to a particular class of monuments or structures,
which are built of large stones and have some grave-like, commemorative or ritualistic
association. The Indian Megalithic burials and monuments generally belong to the Iron
Age and are largely sepulchral in character. However, the sepulchral aspect of this
tradition was not a new feature of the Iron Age, the antiquity of burial practices in
India is dated back to the Mesolithic period (Allchin and Allchin 1982), and the marked
burials began to appear in the Neolithic period. During the Neolithic and Chalcolithic
periods, the tradition of burying the dead continued to exist in different parts of the
Indian subcontinent as an antecedent stage of Megalithism (Rajan 1994). This tradition
became widely popular during the Iron Age, mostly in the southern part of India and
 Kumar et al. 2021-22: 270-287

to some extent in northern India, and it continued to survive even during the historical
and up to modern times in a few pockets of central, southern and north-eastern India.

Colonel Colin Mackenzie noticed the Megalithic culture in India and accidentally
found some Megalithic remains in Karnataka (Paddayya 2006). In 1823, Babington
published for the first time an account of the Megalithic tombs he had excavated in the
Malabar region in Kerala. It was followed by a host of explorations and excavations by
various agencies and scholars, for which reviews are available (Peter 2002; Darsana
2010; Abhayan 2018). The Megalithic period in Kerala is represented largely by burials,
but habitation evidence is almost unavailable. Apart from the burial types found in the
other southern Indian States, the northern Kerala region exhibits unique types of
laterite-made burial architecture, such as rock-cut chambers, umbrella stones,
capstones, and hood stones.

Kollam: Previous Studies

Kollam is one of the southern districts of Kerala State, sharing its boundary with
Thiruvananthapuram district in the south, Alappuzha district in the north,
Pathanamthitta district in the north-east, Tamil Nadu in the east and the Arabian Sea in
the west. The Kollam district is composed of six taluks: Pathanapuram, Punalur,
Kottarakkara, Kunnathur, Karunagapally and Kollam.

Despite the presence of Megalithic burials and the strategic location of Kollam, this
region has received limited attention from the point of view of Megalithic/Iron Age
research. In the Kollam district, 35 Megalithic sites (excavated and explored) were
reported previously. Mangadu is one of the important excavated sites in the Kollam
district. The cultural assemblage of the urn burial site at Mangadu belongs without any
doubt to the Megalithic order of south India, but the monument is different in many
respects from its counterparts in other places. The Megalithic monuments at Mangadu
consisted of 28 hard, compact and uneven laterite blocks within an area of
approximately 10 × 10 metres (Satyamurthy 1992). The radiocarbon determinations
from the Megalithic burial of Mangadu, Kollam district of Kerala are cal BC 1299- 902
(100%) (BS-958), and cal BC 1289- 1282 (0.37%) cal BC 1269- 821 (99.63%) (BS-957)
(Satyamurthy 1992; Abhayan 2018). This is the earliest date assigned to the Megalithic
burials in Kerala so far. Other excavated sites in Kollam are Poredam (Rajendran 1993),
Valiyapadam (IAR 1989-1990: 45), Arippa (Rajendran and Badam 1995), Karimpalur
(IAR 1991-1992: 126), and Thazhuthala (The Hindu 2009) (Table 1). The reports of the
excavations, except Mangadu, are preliminary in nature. Hence, detailed information
on contexts, burial architecture, and material remains is not available. The major
Megalithic burial type reported from Kollam is urn burials, which are followed by
cists, menhirs, dolmens and stone circles. Beads of semiprecious stone and glass, bone
pieces, metal objects (iron, copper and gold), and pottery (Black and Red Ware, Red
Ware and Black Polished Ware) (Rajendran 1993) were unearthed from these burials
(Table 1). Recently, Megalithic cists have been excavated in the Pathanamthitta district,
which is a neighbouring district of Kollam (Abhayan et al. 2021; Ambily 2021b).

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Table 1: Excavated Megalithic Sites in Kollam District, Kerala

coordinates

Monument

References
Materials
Reported
from the
Type of
Sl. No

Taluk

Sites
Geo-
Site

1 Mangadu N 08° Kollam Cairn Red ware, Satyamurthy

55’ 13” Circles, Carnelian beads, 1992: 25
E 076° Urn burial iron wedge, knife,
36’ 57” sickles, charred
bones and charcoal

2 Valiyapadam Kunnathur Megalithic Rock slabs, iron IAR 1989-

Burials implements like 1990: 45
knife, axe, dagger,
and pot
3 Poredam Kottarakkara Megalithic Red ware, IAR 1989-
Remains Micaceous Gray 1990: 45
Ware, Black and
Red Ware pots,
sickles, iron axes,
and child fossil
bones from pots
4 Arippa N 08° Kottarakkara Cist Red Ware, Black- IAR 1990-
50’ 07” and-Red Ware, 1991: 33
E 077° Black-Slipped
01’ 35” Ware, Red-Slipped
Ware, Grey Ware,
and various iron
objects

5 Karimpalur Pathanapura Urn burial Large jar, vases, IAR 1991-

m and iron axe 1992: 126
6 Thazhuthala Kollam Cist Melted iron, 2 The Hindu
granite slab, iron 2009
weapons, Black and
Red Ware

The reported Megalithic remains from Kollam are mostly discovered accidentally.
Hence, limited information is available on their burial monument typology and
distribution. The sites are reported in various journals, books, newspapers, Indian
Archaeology – A Review, etc. In many cases, not only are the geo-coordinates not given
but even details such as distance and direction from the nearest village and the name of
the district are not provided. As a result of the detailed survey of the published works
on the Megalithic remains of Kollam, a total of 35 reported sites were documented
(Table 2). These 35 sites include the recent explorations by Vinuraj (2016), which
reported 11 new Megalithic sites in the Kollam district (Table 2).

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Table 2: Previously Reported Megalithic Sites in Kollam District, Kerala

Geo-coordinates

Monuments

References
Materials
Reported

Reporter
Type of
Sl. No.

Site

1 Pallavaeer Cist and Department IAR 1960-

Cairn of 1961: 58
Circles Archaeology,
Government
of Kerala
2 Kollam Menhir T. IAR 1992-
and Sathyamurthy 1993: 112
Topikallu*
3 Kakkottumula Menhir P. Rajendran IAR 1992-93:
113
4 Mangadu Menhir P. Rajendran IAR 1992-
1993: 113
5 Trikkadavoor Menhir P. Rajendran IAR 1993-
1994: 136
6 Abhayagiri Menhir Crucibles, P. Rajendran IAR 1995-
and Iron slag, 1996: 45
Megalithic Smelting
Iron-Ore blocks of
Smelting iron and
charcoal
7 Aeeram N 08° 56’ Cist Pottery and P. Rajendran IAR 1996-
44.2788” iron 1997: 189
E 76° 53’ implements.
45.1788”
8 Anjirandil Menhir - Department Satyamurthy
of 1992: 25
Archaeology,
Government
of Kerala
9 Anjirandil Topikallu* -Do- Satyamurthy
1992: 25
10 Chittiyam/ N 08° 57’ Menhir -Do- Satyamurthy
Chittayam 25.7976” 1992: 25
E 76° 36’
39.8772”
11 Kadavoor N 08° 55’ Menhir -Do- Satyamurthy
21.0756” 1992: 25
E 076° 35’
45.7908”

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12 Panayam Menhir -Do- Satyamurthy

1992: 25
13 Pavitreshwaram Menhir -Do- Satyamurthy
1992: 25

14 Doredam Menhir Yashodhar Liju 2006: 49

Mathpal
15 Perinad Menhir State Satyamurthy
Archaeology, 1992: 25
Kerala
16 Sathyanpara N 08° 58’ Menhir P. Rajendran The Hindu
45.4726” 2005
E 076° 58’
54.156”
17 Kuvakkad Dolmen, Rajan Liju 2006: 49
Cist Gurukkal
and
M.R.Varier
18 Anchal Urn burial State Satyamurthy
Archaeology, 1992: 25
Kerala

19 Maloor N 09° 05’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj

29.2524” 2016: 83
E 76° 49’
00.2568”
20 Chithara N 08° 48’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
51” 2016: 84
E 76° 58’
14”
21 Madathara N 08° 49’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
05” 2016: 85
E 077° 00’
42”
22 Kanjiramvila N 08° 54’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
22.2408” 2016: 85
E 77° 04’
14.6316”
23 Ummannur Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
2016: 86
24 Anchal N 08° 56’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
21.85” 2016: 87
E 76° 53’
47.46465”
25 Chinnakkada N 08° 53’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
06.2268” 2016: 88
E 76° 35’

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29.2416”
26 Villumala N 09° 03’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
44.32” 2016: 89
E 76° 58’
14.43”
27 Abhayagiri N 08° 57’ Urn burial Urn burial Vinuraj Vinuraj
48” 2016: 90
E 77° 02’
16”
28 Pullupara N 08° 57’ Menhir Vinuraj Vinuraj
33” 2016: 91
E 76° 36’
33”
29 Verukuzhy N 09° 03’ Cist Vinuraj Vinuraj
52” 2016: 92
E 76° 58’
50”
*The term ‘Topikallu’ is used for referring to stone slab in the published sources.

Recent Explorations
In order to document the Megalithic vestiges of the Kollam district, the first author
conducted a systematic village-to-village survey in the Kollam district as part of the
PhD programme and Kerala Megalithic Gazetteer Project. For the study, 1347 localities
(in 64 Grama Panchayath and 6 Municipalities) were subjected to a village-to-village
survey. The recent explorations conducted in the study area revealed 58 new
Megalithic sites (Figure1). Out of 35 previously reported Megalithic sites, only 16 sites
were visited in the present survey. The rest of the previously reported sites were either
destroyed or still untraceable due to the lack of geo-coordinates. However, as a result
of recent surveys, the number of Megalithic sites in the study area increased from 35 to
93. Most of the burial monuments discovered from the survey are in destroyed
condition. Geo-coordinates of previously reported sites are provided only for those
that have been revisited (Table 2). Many previously documented sites are destroyed
and hence no Megalithic remains were found, or local residents are unaware of the
existence of Megaliths.

In this recent exploration, the common type of Megalithic remains encountered in the
Kollam district is urn burials (24) and cist burials (24) and is followed by menhirs (8)
and stone circles (2). Most of the Megalithic sites were reported from Pathanapuram
(29) and are followed by Punalur (12), Kottarakkara (11), and Kollam (6) taluks (Table
3). The Megalithic sites were not discovered in Karunagapally and Kunnathur taluks in
the Kollam district (Arun Kumar et al. 2021).

Cist Burials
From the study area, 24 cist burial sites were discovered. Most of the cist burials are
reported from Pathanapuram (18) and are followed by Punalur (4) and Kottarakkara

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(2). The cist burials of the Kollam district are mostly located in the hilly areas and 78 m
to 170 m above the mean sea level. The granite/charnockite formations can be seen in
the areas where the cists are located.

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Pathanapuram Punalur Kottarakkara Kollam
Menhirs 0 6 2 0
Cist Burials 18 4 2 0
Urn Burials 11 2 7 4
Stone Circles 0 0 0 2

Figure 1: Recently Reported Megalithic Sites in Kollam District, Kerala

Table 3: Recently Reported Megalithic Sites in Kollam District, Kerala

Sl. No. Site Geo-coordinates MSL Taluk Type
1 Valiyapadam N 09° 01’ 18.3432” 30 m Kollam Urn
E 076° 37’ 55.3188” Burial
2 Mangadu Loc- 1 N 08° 55’ 13” 10 m Kollam Stone
E 76° 36’ 57” Circle
3 Mangadu Loc- 2 N 08° 54’ 57” 10 m Kollam Stone
E 076° 37’ 15” Circle
4 Meenambalam N 08° 48’ 43” 56 m Kollam Urn
E 076° 44’ 16” Burial
5 Meenambalam N 08° 48’ 41” 56 m Kollam Urn
Loc-2 E 076° 44’ 18” Burial
6 Bharanikkavu N 09° 03’ 32” 21 m Kollam Urn
E 076° 38’ 50” Burial
7 Kottathala N 09° 01’ 28.69” 94 m Kottarakkara Menhir
Kizhakku E 076° 45’ 28.37”
8 Eliyodu N 08° 58’ 21.94” 103 m Kottarakkara Menhir
E 076° 44’ 17.95”
9 ThalachiraLoc-1 N 08°52 ̍57.83 ̎ 76 m Kottarakkara Urn
E 076°45 ̍53.98 ̎ Burial
10 Thalachira Loc-2 N 08°52 ̍57.83 ̎ 74 m Kottarakkara Urn
E 076°45 ̍53.98 ̎ Burial
11 Malanada N 09°01 ̍26.94 ̎ 85 m Kottarakkara Urn
E 076°41 ̍49.62 ̎ Burial
12 Veykal Loc- 1 N 08°52’ 13.98” 96 m Kottarakkara Cist

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E 076° 51’ 52.21”

13 Veykal Loc- 2 N 08 ̊ 51’ 14.49” 96 m Kottarakkara Urn
E 076 ̊ 55’ 25.14” Burial
14 Vettikavala Loc-1 N 09 ̊ 00’ 00” 85 m Kottarakkara Urn
E 076 ̊ 49’ 51” Burial
15 Vettikavala Loc- 2 N 09° 00’ 01” 85 m Kottarakkara Urn
E 076° 49’ 50” Burial
16 Arkkannur Loc-1 N 08° 52’ 26.148” 45 m Kottarakkara Urn
E 76° 50’ 34.278” Burial
17 Arkkannur Loc-2 N 08° 52’ 56.2296” 45 m Kottarakkara Cist
E 076° 50’ 30.228”
18 Kallara Pacha N09° 03’ 38.03” 134 m Punalur Cist
Loc-1 E076° 53’ 20.19”
19 Kallara Pacha N 08° 52’ 48.36” 137 m Punalur Menhir
Loc-2 E 076° 58’ 40.13”
20 Kochukulam N 08° 56’ 58.2324” 128 m Punalur Cist
E 076° 59’ 36.87”
21 Sathyanpara N 08° 58’ 45.4726” 186 m Punalur Menhir
E 076° 58’ 54.156”
22 RPL 2F Colony N 08° 57’ 20.754” 102 m Punalur Menhir
Unit Loc-1 E 077° 03’ 06.948”
23 RPL 2F Colony N 08° 57’ 20.196” 90 m Punalur Menhir
Unit Loc- 2 E 077° 03’ 07.038”
24 Ettam Block N 08° 58’ 34.5648” 202 m Punalur Menhir
E 076° 59’ 08.5488”
25 Anakkulam Loc 1 N 08°51’ 01.46” 108 m Punalur Cist
E 076° 58’ 54.73”
26 Anakkulam loc-2 N 08° 53’ 02.88” 112 m Punalur Cist
E 076° 58’ 54.11”
27 Ottakkal N 08° 56’ 47” 203 m Punalur Urn
E 077° 02’ 20”
28 Urukunnu N 08° 59’ 17” 139 m Punalur Menhir
E 077° 01’ 56”
29 Panayamchery N 08° 56’ 21.85” 82 m Punalur Urn
E 076° 53’ 47.8464”
30 Karimpalur N 08° 49’ 37.31” 86 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 51’ 48.37”
31 Porunthakuzhy N 09° 05’ 50.02” 87 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 53’ 42.68”
32 Vattakkavu N 09° 05’ 49.53” 82 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 53’ 42.04”
33 Chithelvetty N 09° 06’ 37.44” 90 m Pathanapuram Cist
Loc-1 E 076° 52’ 56.14”
34 Chithelvetty N 09° 06’ 37.41” 96 m Pathanapuram Cist
Loc- 2 E 076° 52’ 56.11”
35 Chithelvetty N 09° 06’ 42.40” 87 m Pathanapuram Cist
Loc-3 E 076° 53’ 06.59”

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36 Chithelvetty N 09° 06’ 48.12” 79 m Pathanapuram Cist

Loc-4 E 076° 53’ 11.13”
37 Pavumba Loc-1 N 09° 03’ 38.44” 66 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 53’ 19.89”
38 Pavumba Loc- 2 N 09° 03’ 38.39” 67 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 53’ 19.73”
39 Nidhippara Loc-1 N 09° 03’ 38.03” 134 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 53’ 20.19”
40 Chachipunna N 09° 05’ 11.73” 120 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 54’ 16.27”
41 Kottakkayam N 09° 04’ 14.87” 124 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 077° 00’ 47.56”
42 Chethady Loc-1 N 08° 01’ 21” 75 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 50’ 26”
43 Chethady Loc-2 N 08° 01’ 20” 75 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 50’ 27”
44 Kallooorkonam N 08° 23’ 08.97” 55 m Pathanapuram Urn
Loc-1 E 076° 58’ 43.21”
45 Kallooorkonam N 09° 02’ 13” 57 m Pathanapuram Urn
Loc-2 N 09° 02’ 13”
46 Puliayyam Loc- 1 N 09° 06’ 30” 170 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 52’ 37”
47 Puliayyam Loc- 2 N 09° 06’ 27” 171 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 52’ 41”
48 Kottumukku N 09° 06’ 35” 104 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 077° 02’ 04”
49 Vattappara Loc-1 N 09° 03’ 37” 78 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 48’ 38”
50 Vattappara Loc- 2 N 09° 03’ 31” 76 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 48’ 37”
51 Ambalanirappu N 09° 03’ 36” 83 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 48’ 49”
52 Porunthakuzhy N 09° 05’ 33” 87 m Pathanapuram Cist
Loc- 2 E 076° 54’ 07”

53 Mullumurupu Jn N 09° 06’ 35” 97 m Pathanapuram Cist

E 076° 56’ 39”
54 Panayanath N 09° 04’ 10” 30 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 076° 48’ 10”
55 Karyara N 09° 02’ 33” 72 m Pathanapuram Urn
E 07° 652’ 53”
56 Nidhippara N 09° 03’ 34.03” 130 m Pathanapuram Cist
Loc- 2 E 076° 50’ 26”
57 Thondiyanmannu N 09° 06’ 38” 98 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 53’ 225”
58 Maloor N 09° 05’ 16.2312” 76 m Pathanapuram Cist
E 076° 48’ 58.824”

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In the present explorations, single-chambered cists and double-chambered cists were

discovered. The cists are mostly single-chambered. Based on morphology, the cists in
the study area are rectangular cists (Figure 2) and swastika-patterned cists (Figure 4).
The present survey did not reveal any indication of antechambered cists from the
study area. However, it is difficult to assess the presence of antechambers without
excavations. The size of the cists varies from 170 cm to 330 cm in length and 100 cm to
250 cm in width. The cists are found in the north-south direction (12 nos.) and east-
west direction (6 nos.), and the directions of the rest of the orthostats (4 nos.) are
unidentified. Most of the cists were found in a poor state of preservation, with 11 cists
in completely destroyed condition, 8 cists in partially destroyed condition, and 3 cists
in good condition.

Figure 2: Rectangular Cist from Figure 3: Swastika Patterned Cist from

Kottumukku Porunthakuzhy

Urn Burials
The urns (Nannangadi)are the most common type of Megalithic burial in the Kollam
district. Urns are usually low-quality Red Wares. Even though they are huge enough to
accommodate skeletal remains, they appear to be used for secondary burial purposes.
The urns are covered with terracotta lids or stone slabs and sometimes marked with
stones and cairn circles.

In recent explorations, 24 new urn burial sites were discovered in the study area. Most
of them were reported from Pathanapuram taluk (11) and are followed by
Kottarakkara (7), Kollam (4) and Punalur (2). The urn burials from the study area were
found in the area of 21 m to 203 m above the mean sea level.

An urn burial from Pavumba Loc-1 (Figure4) is covered with a terracotta lid, and an
urn burial from Kallorkonam Loc-1 (Figure5) is covered with a stone slab. Six urn
burials have a globular base and chain-like applique decorations on the neck portion of
the exterior.

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The explorations yielded Megalithic ceramics from three urn burial sites, namely
Vayakkal (VKL), Pavumba Loc-1 (PVMA-1), and Pavumba Loc-2 (PVMA-2). The
Megalithic ceramics from these urn burials include Black Wares and Red Wares in the
shape of bowls, pots, lids, and miniature pots. All the urn burial sites in the study area
are in an extremely destroyed condition due to modernization and infrastructure
development.

Figure 4: Lid Covered Urn from Figure 5: Stone Slab Covered Urn from
Pavumba Loc-1 Kalloorkonam Loc-1

Menhirs
Menhirs are erected single stones and are devoid of any grave goods placed beneath
them. The menhirs are also known as Nattukkal/Pullachikkal. From the study area, 8
menhirs were discovered. Most of the menhirs were reported from Punalur (6) and
Kottarakkara (2). The menhirs from the study area were found in an area of 94 m to 186
m above the mean sea level. All the menhirs are made of granite/charnockite stones.
Typologically the menhirs are found with the pointed top portion (Figure 6) and with
the flat top portions (Figure 7). The menhir at Sathyanpara is comparatively bigger
than the other menhirs. It has 230 cm in height and 102 cm in width.

Stone Circles
This type of burial consists of huge dressed or undressed stones arranged in a circle to
enclose burials. Generally, stone circles are used to demarcate and mark places with
memorials. From the study area, 3 stone circles were reported. In the recent
exploration, two stone circle sites were reported from Kollam taluk. The stone circles
from the study area were found in an area of 10 m above the mean sea level. Both the
stone circles are made of laterite stones. The stone circles at both sites are largely
destroyed, so their circumference measurements are not possible. At each site,

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presently only single stone of the stone circle can be seen on the surface (Figure 8). The
measurements of the stones are 63 cm to 84 cm in height, 50 to 64 cm in width and 33 to
42 cm in thickness.

Figure 6: Menhir with Pointed Top from Figure 7: Menhir with Flat Top from
Kottathala Sathyanpara

Figure 8: Stone of Stone circle from Mangadu Locality 1

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Condition of Preservation
In the Kollam district, most of the sites are in a poor state of preservation. The natives
do not have adequate awareness of the cultural value of the Megaliths, and factors like
urbanization and the development of infrastructure badly affect archaeological
remains. Still, a large number of burial structures have been damaged by the local
people in search of treasure within them. However, some Megalithic sites have been
considered worship places due to local beliefs, which helped to save some of the
Megalithic monuments from human interference.

Discussion and Conclusion

The systematic village-to-village survey conducted in the Kollam district yielded 58
new Megalithic sites. The identification of new sites across the study area has resulted
in a better understanding of the distribution pattern of Megaliths. The major type of
burials from the study area is cists and is followed by urns, menhirs and stone circles.
Earlier, only 6 cist burials were reported, and the recent explorations added 24 new cist
burial sites, and the total number of cist burial sites increased to 30. Similarly, the
discovery of 24 new urn burial sites resulted in a change in the distribution of urn
burial sites from 14 to 38 sites. The survey also yielded 8 menhirs, and which changed
the distribution of menhirs from 13 to 21sites. The survey also yielded 2 stone circles,
and which changed the distribution of stone circles from 1 to 3 sites. In previous
studies, only one dolmen was reported in the study area, but not a single dolmen site
was newly found in the recent exploration (Figure 9).

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Cist Urn Menhir Stone Circle Dolmen
Previous 6 14 13 1 1
New 24 24 8 2 0

Figure 9: Number of Megalithic Sites in Kollam District, Kerala

35 Megalithic sites were previously reported in the study area. Twenty of these sites
were reported between the late 1980s and early 1990s. The geo-coordinates of these
sites are not given in the available published sources. Among the previously reported
sites, only 16 were revisited with the help of local information, and thus, geo-
coordinates were recorded. Many of these are completely destroyed. Hence only 6 of

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the previously reported sites such as Mangadu, Chittayam, Kadavoor, Sathyanpara,

Verukuzhy and Abhayagiri yielded some remains like potsherds during the revisits.

In the study area, out of the total 30 cists reported, 24 cists were reported in the recent
exploration, and all the recently reported cists are located in hilly regions. Depending
on the location of the cists, hilly areas can be classified into three categories. The cists
are located on hill slopes (18), foothills (4) and hilltops (2). However, the cists located
on the hill slopes face a valley or water body, or agricultural areas such as paddy fields.
The locations of the 11 cists are in proximity to the streams, 12 cists to the valleys and
one cist to the paddy field. These areas are more likely to have habitation deposits of
the Iron Age people. Although the present surveys in these regions did not reveal any
habitation evidence, there is immense scope for future investigations.

The cists found during the study are located in various locations on hill slopes. The
cists are located on the slopes towards the east (8 nos.), west (5 nos.), south (8 nos.) and
north (3 nos.) of the hills.

A circular-shaped porthole was noticed on the southern orthostat of a cist at

Kottumukku. The porthole has 32 cm in diameter. The presence of portholes in other
cists can be detected only through an excavation. However, the porthole might have
been used for reopening the monument for annual ceremonies or some other ritualistic
purposes (Ambily 2021a).

44 Megalithic sites are located in the eastern hilly region, of which 31 are in
Pathanapuram taluk, and the other 13 are in Punalur taluk (Figures 4, 9-12). Most of
the Megalithic sites are in Pathanapuram and Punalur taluks. The majority of the
reserved forests are also concentrated in these two taluks. Compared to other four
taluks, Pathanapuram and Punalur taluks have least population density. As
Pathanapuram taluk is a hilly region and due to the presence of reserved forest, the
area is less disturbed. This could be a reason for the availability of a large number of
sites from this region. Geomorphologically the areas of Punalur and Pathanapuram
taluks are similar in nature. The enormous availability of granite and charnockite rocks
in these regions favoured the erection of cist burials. In addition to this, the region also
produces evidence of urn burials.

Kottarakkara taluk is in the midland region of the Kollam district. Therefore, the
agricultural and housing construction activities were responsible for exposing most of
the areas. Along with the urn burials, menhirs and cist burials were also identified
from Kottarakkara taluk. Kollam taluk has mostly coastal areas, and very few
Megalithic sites were found as compared to other taluks. It includes urn burials and
menhirs. Previous studies found only one Megalithic site in Kunnathur taluk, but not a
single Megalithic site in Karunagapally taluk. In this recent exploration, Kunnathur
and Karunagapally taluks did not reveal a single Megalithic vestige (Figures 4 and 12).
The reasons for the complete absence of Megalithic remains in this region need to be
investigated.

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Figure 10: Distribution Pattern of Previously Reported Megalithic Sites (for which
geocoordinates are available) in Kollam District

Figure 11: Distribution Pattern of Newly Reported Megalithic Sites in Kollam District

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Figure 12: Distribution Pattern of Previously Reported Megalithic Sites (for which
Geo-coordinates are available) and Newly Reported Megalithic Sites in Kollam District

The distribution pattern revealed through the present study does not show much
difference with regard to the distribution pattern based on the previously reported
sites (Figures 9-12). However, this study imparts a detailed list of Megalithic remains
from the region, which was systematically gathered with the help of a comprehensive
fresh archaeological survey. Importantly, this kind of regional-level database will be
available and useable to future researchers for further advancing the knowledge about
Megalithic populations of the Kollam region and the Indian subcontinent in general.

Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Department of Archaeology, University of Kerala, for
research support. The first author thankfully acknowledges the e-grants scheme of the
Government of Kerala for funding his PhD research. Thanks are due to the Kerala
Forest and Wildlife Department, and the State Farming Corporation of Kerala for
granting permission to survey the areas concerned. Thanks are due to Ananthu V. Dev
for preparing maps.

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