TOPIC I: INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS:

Learning objectives

By the end of this topic, you should be able to;

• Define and distinguish vector and scalar quantities and give examples
• Represent vectors using vector symbols
• Define a unit vector
• State the rectangular unit vectors or standard basis vectors
• Represent vectors using rectangular components
• Add or subtract vectors
• Multiply a vector by a scalar
• Evaluate the dot product and scalar product of two vectors
• Find the angle between two vectors
• Evaluate triple products of vectors
• Apply vector algebra in solving problems
1.1. Definition of a vector

A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction such as displacement, velocity, force
and acceleration.

1.2. Vector notation

a letter with an arrow over it as ⃗ , a bar line over it as ̅ , or

Analytically a vector is represented in four ways;
or a wavy line below the letter as
and its magnitude is denoted by ⃗ or | |

Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow as ⃗ (Figure 1) defining the direction, the

magnitude of the vector being indicated by the length of the arrow. The tail end O of the arrow is

⃗ is also indicated as OA and its magnitude denoted by ⃗

called the origin or initial point of the vector, and the head A is called the terminal point or
terminus. The vector

1
 ⃗
A

Figure 1

1.3. Definition of a scalar

A SCALAR is a quantity having magnitude only but no direction, e.g., mass, temperature, length,
time and any real number. Scalars are indicated by letters in ordinary type as in elementary algebra
e. g ℎ, , , etc. Operations with scalars follow the same rules as in elementary algebra.

1.4. Definition of a unit vector

A unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude e.g. | | = 1 . A unit vector in the direction of ⃗is

a vector having unit magnitude having the same direction as ⃗. In the figure below ⃗ Any vector

Let ⃗= , then ⃗ is called a unit vector in the direction of AB. In symbols,

⃗
a unit vector = ⃗
.also denoted as

B
P

A
Figure 2

1.5. THE RECTANGULAR UNIT VECTORS , , .

An important set of unit vectors are those having the directions of the positive x, y, and z axes of
a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system, and are denoted respectively by , , and
(Fig.2.). We shall use right-handed rectangular coordinate systems unless otherwise stated. Such
a system derives its name from the fact that a right threaded screw rotated through 90° from Ox
to Oy will advance in the positive z direction, as in Fig.2 below

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 z-axis

y-axis
O

x-axis

Figure 3

1.5.1. Standard basis Vectors

In three-dimensional space there are three standard basis vectors,

"⃗ = (1,0,0), %⃗ = (0,1,0) and ⃗ = (0,0,1)

In two-dimensional space there are two standard basis vectors,

"⃗ = (1,0), %⃗ = (0,1)

Note that standard basis vectors are also unit vectors.

1.6. COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR.

Any vector A in 3 dimensions can a represented with initial point at the origin O of a rectangular
coordinate system (Fig.3). Let ( , &, ' ,) be the rectangular coordinates of the terminal point
of vector A with initial point at O. The vectors , & , and ' , are called the rectangular
component vectors or simply component vectors of A in the x, y and z directions respectively.

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 , & and ' are called the rectangular components or simply components of A in the x, y and z
directions respectively. The sum or resultant of , & , and ' is the vector A so that we can write
= + & + '

The magnitude of vector A is given by ⃗ =) &

+ &
&
+ '
&

The general notation for a n-dimensional vector is, *⃗ = (+, , +- , +. , … , +0 ) and each of the +1 ′3
are called components of the vector.

1.7. Vector algebra

Vector algebra deals with the study of the algebra of vector quantities. Universal symbols are used
to signify quantities ,numbers or variables. The symbols are latter used in many expressions
,equations and formulae to perform algebraic operations .

We perform algebraic operations on vectors and vector spaces. The arithmetic operations familiar
in the algebra of numbers or scalars are suitable ,defined and capable of extension to an algebra of
vectors . Operations such as addition, subtraction ,multiplication are performed on vectors.

1.7.1. Laws of vector algebra

If ̅ , 4 and 5̅ are vectors and 6, 7 are scalars ,then the following algebraic properties hold

̅+ 4 = 4+ ̅
̅ + ( 4 + 5̅ ) = ( ̅ + 4 ) + 5̅
1. Commutative law of addition

3. 6 ̅ = ̅6
2. Associative law of addition

4. 6(7 ̅) = (67) ̅
Commutative Law for Multiplication

5. (6 + 7) ̅ = 6 ̅ + 7 ̅
Associative law of multiplication
distributive law
6. 6 ( ̅ + 4 ) = 6 ̅ + 6 4 Distributive law

These laws enable us to treat vector equations in the same way as ordinary algebraic equations.

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1.7.2. Addition and subtraction of vectors

the vectors ⃗ = (+1 , +2 , +3 ) and :⃗ = (;, , ;- , ;. ), the addition of the two vectors is given by the
Vector addition and subtraction are the same as ordinary algebraic addition and subtraction. Given

following formula

⃗ + :⃗ = (+, + ;, + +- + ;- + +. + ;. )

Similarly, the difference of the two vectors is given by,

⃗ − :⃗ = (+, − ;, + +- − ;- + +. − ;. )

Example 1

If +⃗ = 3= + 4? − 5A and ;⃗ = 7= − 2? + 3A, find +⃗ + ;⃗

Solution

+⃗ + ;⃗ = 3= + 4? − 5A + 7= − 2? + 3A

= (3= + 7=) + (4? − 2?) + (−5A + 3A)

= 10x + 2y − 2z

In same way , if a⃗ = 3G + 4H − 5I and b⃗ = 7G − 2H + 3I,

Then, a⃗ + b⃗ = 3G + 4H − 5I + 7G − 2H + 3I

= (3i + 7i) + (4j − 2j) + (−5k + 3k)

= 10i + 2j − 2k

1.7.3. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

Given the vector ⃗ = (+, ,+- ,+. ) and any number the scalar multiplication is,

⃗ = ( +, , +- , +. )

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So, we multiply all the components of +⃗ by the constant .

Example 1

For the vector +⃗ = (2,4), compute 3+⃗, +⃗ and −2 ⃗.

,
-

Solution:
Here are the three scalar multiplications.
3+⃗ = (6,12)
½+⃗= (1,2)
−2+⃗= (−4, −8)
Example 2
If +⃗ = 5P − 6Q + 7 , find 3+⃗

3(5P − 6Q + 7 ) = 15P − 18Q + 21

Solution

1.8. Scalar (dot) product

and S is defined as the products of the magnitude of

and S and the cosine of angle T between them.
The dot or scalar product of two vectors ,

It is denoted by

U . U = ‖W‖X U XYZ[\ where 0 ≤ T ≤ ^

Note that U . U is a scalar and not a vector. The dot or scalar product is also an example of an inner
product.

1.8.1 LAWS OF DOT PRODUCT

If , S and 5 are vectors , m is a scalar ,then the following properties are satisfied

i) . S = S.
. _ S + 5` = . S + . 5
Commutative law of dot product
ii) Distributive law

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 iii) 6_ . S ` = _6 `. S = . _6 S ` = _ . S `6 Associative law
iv) â. ĉ = ĉ. U = U . â = d
â. â = ĉ. ĉ = U . U =
v) = ,P + -Q + . and S = , â + - ĉ + .
U ,then

.S=
If

, , + - - + . .

. = ,
-
+ -
-
+ .
-

S. S = ,
-
+ -
-
+ .
-

vi) If . S = 0 and and S are not null vectors, then and S are perpendicular to each
other (orthogonal) i. e T = 90°

Example 1 Compute the dot product for each of the following.

1. e⃗ = 5 − 8 , f⃗ = + 2 ,

2. ⃗ = (0,3, −7), :⃗ = (2,3,1)

Solution

1. e⃗. f⃗ = (5)(1) + (−8)(2) = 5 − 16 = −11

2. ⃗. :⃗ = (0)(2) + (3)(3) + (−7)(1) = 2

1.8.2. Geometrical interpretation to the dot product

Suppose that T is the angle between two vectors +⃗ and ;⃗ such that 0 ≤ T ≤ ^ as shown in the

:
figure below

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Theorem

⃗. :⃗ = ‖ ⃗‖ X :⃗XYZ[\

Proof

−:
:

Using the law of cosines,

2
X ⃗ − :⃗X =X+⃗X + g;⃗g − 2‖+‖‖;‖hi3T
- 2

Using the properties of dot products, we can write the LHS of the above relation as

2
X ⃗ − :⃗X = _+⃗ − ;⃗`. j+⃗ − ;⃗k= X+⃗X − 2+⃗. ;⃗ + g;⃗g
- 2

Substituting for X ⃗ − :⃗X , we obtain

-

‖+⃗‖- − 2+⃗. ;⃗ + X;⃗X = ‖+⃗‖- + X;⃗X − 2‖+‖‖;‖hi3T

- -

Simplifying we have

−2+⃗. ;⃗ = −2‖+‖‖;‖hi3T

Thus +⃗. ;⃗ = ‖+‖‖;‖hi3T (proved)

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The formula from this theorem is often used not to compute a dot product but instead to find the
angle between two vectors. Note as well that while the sketch of the two vectors in the proof is
for two dimensional vectors , the theorem is valid for vectors of any dimension (as long as they
have the same dimension of course).

l⃗.m⃗
hi3T = ‖l‖‖m‖

Example 2 : Determine the angle between ⃗ = (3, −4, −1) and :⃗ = (0, 5, 2)

Solution

⃗. :⃗ = (3)(0) + (−4)(5) + (−1)(2) = −22

/ ⃗/= o3- + (−4)- + (−1)- = √26

/ :⃗/= √0- + 5- + 2- = √29

hi3T = = = −0.02918
q-- q--
√26×29 stu

T = 91.67°i 1.6 +vP+73

The dot product gives us a method for determining if two vectors are perpendicular and it will
give another method for determining when two vectors are parallel. Note as well that often we
will use the term orthogonal in place of perpendicular.

Now, if two vectors are orthogonal then we know that the angle between them is 90°. This tells us
that if two vectors are orthogonal then,

⃗ ⋅ :⃗ = 0

Likewise, if two vectors are parallel then the angle between them is either 0° (pointing in the same
direction) or 180° (pointing in the opposite direction). Once again this would mean that one of the
following would have to be true.

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+⃗ ⋅ ;⃗ =∥ +⃗ ∥ ;⃗ ∥ (T = 0°)

OR +⃗ ⋅ ;⃗ = −∥ +⃗ ∥∥ ;⃗ ∥ (T = 180°)

Example 3 Determine if the following vectors are parallel, orthogonal, or neither.

1. +⃗ = (6, −2, −1), ;⃗ = (2,5,2)

2. y⃗ = 2P − Q, e⃗ = −12P + 14Q

Solution

1. ⃗. :⃗ = (6)(2) + (−2)(5) + (−1)(2) = 12 − 10 − 2 = 0

∥ + ∥= o6- + (−2)- + (−1)- = √41

∥ ; ∥= √2- + 5- + 2- = √33

∥ + ∥∥ ; ∥= √41 × 33 = 36.78

⃗. :⃗ ≠∥ + ∥∥ ; ∥

orthogonal but not parallel

2. y⃗. e⃗ = (2)(−12) + (−1)(14) = −38

∥ { ∥= o2- + (−1)- = √5

∥ * ∥= o(−12)- + (14)- = √340

∥ y ∥∥ e ∥= √5 × 340 = 41.23
y⃗. e⃗ ≠∥ y ∥∥ e ∥
not orthogonal neither parallel
1.9. Vector (cross) product

The vector or cross product of ̅ and 4 is a vector 5̅ = ̅ × 4

The magnitude of ̅ × 4 is defined as the product of the magnitude of ̅ and 4 and the sine of the
angle T between them.

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The direction of 5̅ = ̅ × 4 is perpendicular to the plane containing ̅ and 4 such that ̅ , 4 and
the resultant vector 5̅ form a right-handed system.

Mathematically , we express

| × | = | | || | |[ }\ }
| where T varies from 0 to ^ i.e. 0 ≤ T ≤ ^ and 74 is the unit vector
in the direction ̅ +7v 4

If ̅ × 4 = 04 , then ̅ = 4 or ̅ is parallel to 4 or [ }\ = d

1.9.1. Laws of vector or cross product

1. ̅ × 4 = − 4 × ̅
The following laws are valid:
(not commutative)
2. × ( + 5) = × + × 5 (Distributive Law)
3. 6( × ) = (6 ) × = × (6 ) = ( × )6, where 6 is a scalar.
4. P × P = Q × Q = × = 0, P × Q = , Q × = P, × P = Q
5. If ̅ = ,P + -Q + . and 4 = ,P + -Q + . , then

̅ × 4 = ~A, A- A. ~
B, B- B.

6. The magnitude of ̅ × 4 is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides | and | .
7. If ̅ × | = 0, and | and | are not null vectors, then | and | are parallel.

The cross product requires both vectors to be three dimensional vectors.The result of a dot
product is a number and the result of a cross product is a vector

The cross product is really the determinant of a ' × ' matrix. The notation for the determinant is
as follows;

row is the components of ⃗ and the third row is the components of ⃗. There are different
The first row is the standard basis vectors and must appear in the order given here. The second

methods for getting the formula.

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One of the methods uses cofactors as shown in the formula below;

⃗ × ⃗ = •A2 A3 A
• −• 1
A3 A
• +• 1
A2
•
B2 B3 B1 B3 B1 B2

‚ = … − :Y
ƒ „
Note: The determinant of

Example1: If ⃗= (2,1, −1) and :⃗ = (−3,4,1) compute each of the following.

1. +⃗ × ;⃗
2. ;⃗ × +⃗

Solution

1. +⃗ × ;⃗ = ~ 2 1 −1~ = 1 −1 − 2 −1 + 2 1
−3 4 1
4 1 −3 1 −3 4

= 5 − + 11

2. ;⃗ × +⃗ = ~−3 4 1 ~ = 4 1 − −3 1 + −3 4
2 1 −1
1 −1 2 −1 2 1

= −5 − − 11

Example 2 A plane is defined by any three points that are in the plane. If a plane contains the
points = (1,0,0), † = (1,1,1) +7v ‡ = (2, −1,3) find a vector that is orthogonal to the plane.

†⃗ = (1 − 1,1 − 0,1 − 0) = (0,1,1)

solution

− ‡⃗ = (2 − 1, −1 − 0,3 − 0) = (1, −1,3)

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The cross product of these two vectors will be orthogonal to the plane. So, let’s find the cross
product.

1 1 0 1 0 1
†⃗ × ‡⃗ = ~0 1 1~ = − + =4 + −
−1 3 1 3 1 −1
1 −1 3

1.9.2. Geometric interpretation/ applications to the cross product

First, we will let θ be the angle between the two vectors a and b and assume that 0 ≤ T ≤ ^, then
we have the following fact,

∥∥ +⃗ × ;⃗ ∥∥=∥ +⃗ ∥∥∥ ;⃗ ∥∥ 3P7T

If +⃗ × ;⃗ = 0, then +⃗ and ;⃗ will be parallel vectors. Provided that +⃗ × ;⃗ ≠ 0,then +⃗ × ;⃗ is

orthogonal to both +⃗ and ;⃗

Suppose we have three vectors +⃗, ;⃗and h⃗ and we form the three-dimensional figure as shown
below.

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The area of the parallelogram (two-dimensional front of this object) is given by,

ˆ+ =∥∥ ⃗ × :⃗ ∥∥

and the volume of the parallelepiped (the whole three-dimensional object) is given by,

‰iŠy6ˆ =∣∣ ⃗ ⋅ (:⃗ × Y⃗) ∣∣

We can use this volume fact to determine if three vectors lie in the same plane or not. If three
vectors lie in the same plane then the volume of the parallelepiped will be zero.

Example 3 Determine if the three vectors +⃗ = (1, 4, −7),;⃗ = (2, −1, 4) and h⃗ = (0, −9, 18) lie
in the same plane or not, hence compute the volume of the parallelepiped formed by these three
vectors.(hint; If the volume is zero, they lie in the same plane and if the volume isn’t zero, they
don’t lie in the same plane)

Solution

_:⃗ × Y⃗` = ~2 −1 4 ~ =
−1 4 − 2 4 + 2 −1
0 −9 18
−9 18 0 18 0 −9

= 18P − 36Q − 18

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 ⃗ ⋅ _:⃗ × Y⃗` = (1 × 18) + (4 × −36) + (−7 × −18) = 0

Since the volume is zero +⃗ , ;⃗ and h⃗ lie in the same plane (coplanar vectors)

1.10. TRIPLE PRODUCT

The dot and cross multiplication of three vectors , ̅, 4 and 5̅ is called triple products of
vectors. It may produce meaning products of the form; ( ̅. 4 ) × 5̅ ; ̅. ( 4 × 5̅ ) +7v ̅ × ( 4 ×
5̅ ). The triple product is called the mixed product

The following laws are valid for triple products of vectors

1. ( ̅. 4 )5̅ = ̅( 4 . 5̅ )
̅. ( 4 × 5̅ ) = 4 . (5̅ × ̅)
5̅ . ( ̅ × 4 )
2.

edges ̅, 4 and 5̅ .
The geometrical meaning of the above expressions is the volume of the parallelopiped having

3. If ̅= 1 + 2 + 3 ,4= ,P + -Q + . and 54 = 5, P + 5- Q + 5.
Then,
P Q
1 2 3
̅ . ( 4 × 5̅ ) = Œ 1 2 2Œ
Œ=• 1 2 3•
1
h1
2
h1
3
h1 51 52 53
(SCALAR)

̅ × ( 4 × 5̅ ) = ( ̅ × 4 ) × 5̅
̅ × ( 4 × 5̅ ) = 4 ( ̅ . 5̅ ) − 5̅ ( ̅ . 4 )
4. Associative law

( ̅ × 4 ) × 5̅ = ( ̅ . 5̅ ) 4 − ( 4 . 5̅ ) ̅
5. (can be proved)

The product | . ( | × Ž
| ) is called the scalar triple product or box product .We can write it as
• ̅ 4 5̅ • and the product | × ( | × Ž
| ) is called the vector triple product

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Example 1

| = P − 2Q + 3 and Y4 = 2P + Q + 2
If | = 2P − 3Q + 4 ; :

Find;

| × Y4
i) :
| × Y4`
ii) |. _:
| × Y4`
iii) | × _:
|(|. Y4) − Y4_|. :
iv) : |`

Solution

| × Y4 = ~1
: −2 3~
2 1 2

−2 3 1 3 1 −2
= − +
1 2 2 2 2 1

= −7 + 4 + 5

| × Y4` = (2 − 3 + 4 ). (−7 + 4 + 5 )
ii) |. _:

= (& × −‘) + (−' × ’) + (’ × “) = −”

| × Y4` = ~ 2 −3
iii) | × _: 4~
−7 4 5

−3 4 2 4 2 −3
= − +
4 5 −7 5 −7 4

= −31 − 38 − 13

|(|. Y4) − Y4_|. :

iv) : |`

|. Y4 = (2P − 3Q + 4 ). (2P + Q + 2 ) = 4 − 3 + 8 = 9

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 (P − 2Q + 3 )9 = • − – + &‘

| = (2P − 3Q + 4 ). (P − 2Q + 3 ) = 2 + 6 + 12 = 20
|. :

(2P + Q + 2 )20 = ’d + &d + ’d

(• − – + &‘ ) − (’d + &d + ’d ) = −31 − 38 − 13

| × Y4` = :
We notice that | × _: |(|. Y4) − Y4_|. :
|`

Exercise 1.1

a) Given that A = 3i + 2 j − 3k , B = 2i + j + 2k and C = 5i + 2 j − 2k , find:

(i) ( A + 2B ) • (2B − 3C )
(ii) A× B × C
b) Find a vector perpendicular to and given that A = 2 i + j + k and B = −4 i + 3 j + k
~ ~ ~ ~ ~

c) Find the angle between vectors 2, 2, − 1 and 5, − 3, 2

a) Given that vector P = 3i − j + 2k Q = i − j − 2 k and R = 2i + 3 j + 4 k , complete

~ ~

(i) PxR
→
(ii) Pr oj R
d) Find the vector orthogonal to the plane through P Q and R if P(2,0,-3) Q(3,1,0) and
R(5,2,2)

|=
e) Find the area of triangle with vertices P(1,4,6) Q(-2, 5, -1) and R(1, -1, 1)
f) Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are given by | = 2P − 3Q + 4 , :
−2 − and Y4 = 3 − + 2
g) Show that the three vectors | = 2P − Q + | = P + 2Q − 3 and Y4 = 3P − 4Q + 5 are
;:

| = 3P + 2Q + 6 and
coplanar.
h) Determine the value of 6 such that the vectors | = 2P + Q + 4 ; :
Y4 = P − 4Q + 2 are coplanar.

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