BPHY1204/BCSC 1201

DIGITAL LOGIC AND

ELECTRONICS/CIRCUITS
• Course Content
1.Number systems:- decimal, octal, hexadecimal
systems and their conversions, 1s and 2s
complement, BCD and excess- 3 codes.
2. Introduction to logic gates and their logic
operations:- AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and
XNOR, their truth tables and their applications.
3. Boolean algebra and functions:-Boolean
theorems, De Morgan theorems, minimization and
manipulation of logic functions, Karnaugh maps
and their applications.
• 4. Combinational logic circuit designs,
programmable logic devices.:-adders, subtractors,
decoders, encoders, multiplexers, DE multiplexers
and error control circuits
• 5. Memory elements: flip-flops, latches, shift
registers and counters, Sequential circuits design
using flipflops and logic gates
• State diagrams and state tables, classification of
sequential circuits and applications.
• 6. Ohm’s law : symbols,codes, kirchoff’s laws,
Thevenin, Norton, capacitors
• 7. diode, transisitor, thyristors and triacs
• REFERENCES:
• Digital Electronics Part I – Combinational and
Sequential Logic Dr. I. J. Wassell
• -D. M. Harris and S. L. Harris, ‘Digital Design and
Computer Architecture,’ Morgan Kaufmann,
2007.
 introduction
• Digitization is the process of converting analog
signals into discrete states/information a process
called digitization . The states are well separated
such electronic noise does not create errors which
allows;
✓ Storage without deterioration, faster retrival and
transmission
Analog signals include temperature, pressure,
velocity, mass
• What is Data?
• Raw, unprocessed facts and figures.
• What is information?
• Processed, organized, and interpreted data

• Information that has been translated into digital

format, into bits (1s and 0s). Binary digit
• Byte-8 bits
• Nibble-4 bits, half a byte
• 1KB= 2^10 =1024 bits
• 1MB=2^20=1048576 bits
Bandwidth -maximum amount of data that can be transmitted
over a network or internet connection in a given amount of
time
measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps),
megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).
Types of bandwidth-
Network bandwidth -data transfer capacity of a network
connection.
digital bandwidth -range of frequencies available for data
connection
Internet bandwidth-speed of data download or upload
 Silicon lattice
• Transistors are built on silicon substrate
• Silicon is a group IV material
• Forms crystal lattice with bonds to four
neighbors.
 Dopants
• Silicon is a semiconductor
• Pure silicon has no free carriers and it
conducts poorly
• Adding dopants increases conductivity
• Group V: extra electron (n-type)
• Group III: missing electron, hole (p-type)
 P-n junctions
• A junction between p-type and n-type
semiconductor forms a diode
• Current flows only in one direction
 transistor
Electronics deals with circuits using transistors as
main elements.
A transistor is a device with 3 terminals that
regulates or voltage flow and acts as a switch or
a gate for signals or does amplification
Bipolar junction transistor
Can be operated in
Saturation –fully ON
Cut off –fully OFF
Active –operates as an amplifier
 Transistor as switch

An open switch when its operated in the

cut-ff region
Volage a base terminial is 0V
Base emitter junction is not forward biased ,
𝐼𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐶 are zero
As a closed switch it operates in saturation
region
For a BJT to operate in the saturation region, the base-emitter junction
and base-collector junction should be forward-biased
There should be sufficient base current to produce collector saturation
current
Power supply voltage
Field effect transistors
Advantages of FET over BJT
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
• Useful in amplifiers due to very high input impedance
which allows maximum capture of input signal.
• The gate is insulated from the channel by an extremely
thin layer of metal oxide e.g silicon (iv) oxide.
• There are two basic types of MOSFETs
• Depletion-type MOSFET or D-MOSFET:
• The D-MOSFET can be operated in both the depletion
mode and the enhancement mode
• Enhancement –type MOSFET or E-MOSFET:
The E-MOSFET- can only be operated in the enhancement
mode

17
 MOSFETS AS SWITCH

•The input and Gate are grounded ( 0V )

• Gate-source voltage less than threshold voltage VGS < VTH
•MOSFET is “OFF” ( Cut-off region )
• No Drain current flows ( ID = 0 Amps )
•VOUT = VDS = VDD = “1”
• MOSFET operates as an “open switch”
• The input and Gate are connected to VDD
• Gate-source voltage is much greater than threshold
voltage VGS > VTH
• MOSFET is “ON” ( saturation region )
• Max Drain current flows ( ID = VDD / RL )
• VDS = 0V (ideal saturation)
• Min channel resistance RDS(on) < 0.1Ω
• VOUT = VDS ≅ 0.2V due to RDS(on)
• MOSFET operates as a low resistance “closed switch”
 Number systems
a. Decimal number system (Base/Radix 10)
• Digits (or symbols) allowed: 0-9; All higher
numbers after ‘9’are represented in terms of
these 10 digits only.
• 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
• 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,
• 20, 21, 22, 23,24,,,,,,,,,,,29
• 30, 31…………………………39
• Weight. 345=3x102 +4x 101 + 5x 100 =345
a. Octal number system (Radix/ base 8)
Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17
20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27
30,31…
318- 3x 8^1+1x8^0=24+1=25
125708 =
Quiz. Convert 127.428 to decimal no system
1x82 +2x81 +7x80 .4𝑥8−1 +2𝑥8−2 =87.53125
64+16+7 2/64=0.03125
c. Hexadecimal number system (Radix 16)
Uses 10 digits and six letters
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A,B,C,D,E,F
10, 11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,1A,1B,1C,1D,1E,1F
20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,2A,2B,2C,2D,2E,2F
3016 3𝑋161 + 0𝑋16^0 = 48
Calculate decimal equivalent of 19FDE16=decimal
 quiz
a. Express (FFFF)16 to decimal number system. (show your working)
(2mks)
65535
b. Consider an arbitrary number system with the independent digits as 0, 1,2 3 and
X.

i. Determine the radix of this number system?

(1mk)
4
ii. List the first 30 numbers in this number system
(4mks)
0, 1,2,3,X
10,11,12,13,1X
20,21,22,23,2X
30,31,32,33,3X
X0,X1,X2,X3,XX
5. Convert 1345 to base 10
d. Binary number system ( base 2)
Allowed digits 0 ,1
Why is binary number system the most
preferred in digital electronics?
❖All kinds of data could be conveniently be
represented in terms of 0s and 1s
❖ Binary arithmetic is based on binary notation
❖ Logic circuits are based on binary number
systems
 0 1
10 11
100 101 110 111
1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110
1111 are the first 7number
1 X2^3 +1X2^2+1X2^1+1X2^0
8 +4 + 2 +1=15
Convert the following binary numbers to decimal
23 22 21 20 8 42 1
1 0 0 1 1 00 1

1010=
1011=
Conversion between bases(BASE 2)
• The integer and fractional parts are worked out
separately.
• divide decimal/integer value by 2 (the base) and record
the remainder until the quotient is 0
• The carry sequence written in 4ward order constitutes
the binary equivalent
• Write remainders from LAST to FIRST
• For the fractional part, successively multiply the
fractional part of the decimal number by 2 and record
the carry until the multiplication result is 0. The carry
sequence is written in 4ward order from FIRST to LAST
 Base 10 to base 2
Convert 25 (base 10) to binary
❑ nbjbj25

• 13 .37510 to binary
13 r
2 6 1
2 3 0
2 1 1
2 0 1 1101

0.375 x2=0.75 0
0.75 x2 =1.5 1
0.5 x2 =1.0 1
0X2=0

13.37510 =1101.011
 Decimal to octal
• Progressive division in case of integer part and
progressive multiplication by 8 which is the radix
• (153)10 to octal
153 r
(8) 19 1
2 3
0 2 (231)8
• Quiz,
• Find the octal equivalent of (73.75)10
• 111.6
 Decimal to hexadecimal
Repeated division in case of integer part and
progressive multiplication by 16 for fractional
part which is the radix
(82.25)10 to hexadecimal
(16) 82 r
5 2
0 5
0.25X16=4
=52.416
Computing uses 0X52.4
 Binary to octal and hexadecimal
conversion
• These rely on changing patterns
• Binary is base level, the whole is a single group
e.g 0110011010101101
• Octal groups 3 binary digits
• 23 = 8
• 0 110 011 010 101 101 → 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟖

• 24 = 16
• 0110 0110 1010 1101 → 66AD𝟏𝟔
• xDIVy-integer result of diving one number by
another. Any remainder or fraction is discarded
• xMODy –remainder e.g 10MOD5 =0, 5MOD2=1
 Binary arithmetic
❖ Numbers used in digital systems (decimal
and floating point numbers ) are stored in in
binary format in most computer systems .
❖All arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division are
done in binary representation of numbers
Steps used for a computer to complete addition
are greater than human, but processing speed is
far superior.
 Binary Addition • Activity
• Rules • Perform the following
• 0+0=0 additions in binary
• 0+1=1 • 1012 + 1012 = 1010
• 1+0=1 • 238 + 678 =
• 1+1=0 (with carry 1)
• 1+1+1=1 (with a carry
of 1)
• 3208 + 1810 =
011010000+10010=1110
0010
BINARY SUBTRACTION
BINARY SUBTRACTION
• Computers have trouble performing
subtractions so the following rule is employed;
• X-X= X + -X
• This is where two’s complement is used.
 Negative integers
Number Binary equivalent
a. sign-magnitude
convention: It uses one +3 0011
bit (usually the leftmost)
to indicate the sign. "0" +2 0010
indicates a positive
integer, and "1" +1 0001
indicates a negative
integer. The rest of the
0 0000
bits are used for the
magnitude of the
-1 1001
number
e.g +4=0100 while - -2 1010
4=1100
-3 1011
 Complement • 2’s complement of a
binary number is
• A bit with opposite value obtained by adding 1 to
to the given one is known the 1’s complement of
as complement that number
• 1’s complement- change all • Preferred because it has
1’s to 0’s and all 0s by 1s. only one value for 0.
• Implemented using NOT • Example;
gate • Convert the following
binary numbers to their
2’s complement
• A. 101
• B. 10011
• Addition and subtraction in 2's complement
notation is performed by doing the simple binary
addition of the two numbers. Subtraction is
accomplished by first performing the 2's
complement operation on the number being
subtracted then adding the two numbers.i.e
3-2=0011 -0010 1101
0011+ 1
1110
10001 =0001
• The operation is carried out by means of the
following steps:
• (i) At first, 2’s complement of the subtrahend is
found.
• (ii) Then it is added to the minuend.
• (iii) If the final carry over of the sum is 1, it is
dropped and the result is positive.
• `(iv) If there is no carry over, the two’s
complement of the sum will be the result and it is
negative
• Example 2
• If the first number is larger than the second
• 610 − 1010 =
• Convert to binary 6=0110 10=1010
• Hence 0110+ (-1010)
• 2’s complement of negative number =0110
• Add; 0110
+
• 0110
• 1100
• 2’s complement of sum; (0100) which is (-4)
 Activity 2
• Perform the following subtractions using 2’s
complement
• a. 22-8=
• b. 6-44=
• c. 538 − 378
• d. 𝐵616 − 𝐴216
 Binary multiplication
• Multiplication follows the general principal of
shift and add.
• 0 x 0=0
• 0x1 =0
• 1x0=0
• 1x1=1
• Example 15x 5=
Activity 3
 Binary division
• Similar to long division in decimal. Uses shift
and subtract.
• Evaluate 25/5 in binary.
• The two’s complement of the 2nd number is added
to the first.
• The two’s complement of 101 is 011.

• Quiz: complete the following divisions

• 34/2
• 580/17
 Binary codes
• When numbers, alphabets or words are
represented by a specific group of symbols i.e they
are encoded.
• Group of symbols used are called codes-binary
codes.
• Encoding –sending information over long distances
• Needs decoding at receiving end to get back
original information
Weighted codes-Binary coded decimal (BCD)
Non-weighted codes-excess 3 , gray code
Alphanumeric codes-ASCII
Error detecting and correcting codes-parity ,
hamming codes
Need for coding
Desirable properties of codes
 BCD code
• Binary coded decimal.
• Each decimal number is
represented by a separate
group of 4-bits.
• Each number is expressed
in 4-bits i.e a string of
nibble
• Electronic calculators,
digital clocks, medical
equipment

(2945)Decimal =
(0010100101000101)BCD
• From 10 to 15 it is considered as the don’t care
bits, because to enter (10) with the keyboard or
keypad, first we press 1 who’s binary value is
sent and then we press 0, a binary value of zero
is sent. So that’s why in BCD we consider
numbers and their codes from 0 to 9.
• Activity
• Represent the following in BCD code
• 1) 73
• 2) 238.35
 BCD to Binary
First convert from BCD to decimal then to binary
Example: find the binary equivalent of the BCD
number 0010 1001.0111 0101
Solution :
. • Corresponding decimal number: 29.75.
• The binary equivalent of 29.75 can be determined
to be 11101 for the integer part and .11 for the
fractional part.
• Therefore, (0010 1001.0111 0101)BCD
=(11101.11)2.
Quiz: Convert (0110 1000.0101 0101)BCD to
binary
 Binary to BCD
• The process of binary-to-BCD conversion is the
same as the process of BCD-to-binary conversion
executed in reverse order.
• first determine its decimal equivalent and then
write the corresponding BCD equivalent .E.g
• Convert (10110) 2 to BCD
• (10110) 2 =2210
• 2210 =(00100010)BCD
• Quiz: 1. Convert 1910 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶𝐷
• 2. Convert (10011) 2 to BCD
• 3. find the BCD equivalent of the binary number
10101011.101
 Excess-3 code

• Addition of of 3
(0011)to BCD number
• The excess-3 code for a
given decimal number is
determined by adding ‘3’
to each decimal digit in
the given number and
then replacing each digit
of the newly found
decimal number by its
four-bit binary equivalent.
E.g Find the X3 of 15. Add 3 to 1 and 5 separately to get
15
33 Hence (01001000)XS3
48
Find the excess-3 code for the decimal number 597
Solution:
The addition of ‘3’ to each digit yields the three new
digits/numbers ‘8’, ‘12’ and ‘10’.
• The corresponding four-bit binary equivalents are 1000,
1100 and 1010 respectively.
• The excess-3 code for 597 is therefore given by: 1000 1100
1010=100011001010.

XS3 to BCD
Group the number in 4-bit format
Subtract the formed number with three (0011 0011)
Converting Excess 3 code 1010101 into BCD number.
0101 0101 - 0011 0011 = 0010 0010
So, the BCD number will be 0010 0010.
 Gray Code
• Binary number system in which two successive
pair of numbers differs in only one bit.
• Also known as reflected binary code / cyclic
code
• Binary number is converted to gray code to
reduce switching operation
• Unweighted code-does not depend on
positional value of digit.
• Used to reduce errors in data transfer
 Binary to Gray Conversion
• Record the MSB as it is
• Add MSB to the next
bit, record the sum and
neglect the carry
• Repeat the process
Binary reflected Gray code
 Gray to binary conversion
• The Most Significant Bit (MSB) of the binary
code is always equal to the MSB of the
given gray code.
• Other bits of the output binary code can be
obtained by checking the gray code bit at
that index. If the current gray code bit is 0,
then copy the previous binary code bit, else
copy the invert of the previous binary code
bit.
Java code
 ASCII
• Standard seven bit (0-127) code first proposed
by American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)
• Provide standard code for various characters
e.g letters, numbers , punctuation marks and
control codes.
• Uses a look up table
 ASCII look up table

BAD! In ASCII Code –

In binary--

In Hexadecimal--
• Limitations of ASCII
• Can only represent 127 0r 255 characters
• Can only code for standard English language
• UNICODE
• An international and multilingual text character
• And coding system
• Uses more bits –more character combinations
• Facilitate communication between devices all
around the world without relying on translation
• UTF-8 Extended ASCII (8bits)
• UTF-16-expanded to western languages (16 bits)
• UTF-32 –most complete (32 bits)
 Assignment 1 (10 mks)
(Show your working in each case!)
1. Convert 1345 to base 10 (2mks)
2. Evaluate 6-44 using 2’s complement (2mks)
3. Find the BCD equivalent of the binary
number 10101011.101 (2mks)
4. Convert the binary number 101011 to Gray
code (2mks)
5. Write Hello 2025! using ASCII look up
table(2mks)
 Logic gates
• Electronic switches that can turn ON (when
certain conditions are met ) or OFF
• A combination of transistors that performs
binary logic

• Has one or more inputs (voltages of 5V or 0V

)and only 1 output operating of logic
• If a certain logic gate needs to determine if two
numbers are equal, the rule should be “is
equal”.
• If the two numbers are equal, it goes to ON
position, if not equal, it goes into OFF position
 TYPES OF LOGIC GATES
• NOT
• AND
• OR
• NAND
• NOR
• EX-OR
• EX-NOR
• BUFFER GATE
 NOT GATE
• Accepts one input value and produces one
output value.
• If the input is 0, the output value is 1, and if the
input value is 1, the output is 0
• Sometimes referred to as inverter, because it
inverts the input value.

• Boolean Expression X=𝐴ҧ

 Transistor representation of NOT gate
• When no voltage is
present on the input
• The transistor turns off.
• No current flows
through the collector-
emitter path thus
• Current from the supply
Vcc flows through the
resistor
• Method notGate(boolean input)
• Takes a Boolean input (true or false )
• Returns negation of the input using !input
• main () method execution;
• Calls notGate(true); returns false and
print result
• Calls notGate(false); returns true and
prints result
Java/Python syntax
 AND gate
Accepts two input signals
If the input values for an aND gate are both 1,
the output is 1; otherwise output is zero.
Logic diagram and truth table

Boolean expression X=A.B

7408 quad 2 input AND gate
 OR gate
• If the two input values are both 0, the output
value is zero; otherwise, the output is 1

• Boolean Expression X=A+B

• NAND gate
• This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND
gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all
NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low.

• X=𝐴. 𝐵
 NAND gate as a universal gate
• NAND gates can also be used to produce any
other type of logic gate function
• NOR gate This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal
to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.
• The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of
the inputs are high.

• X=(𝐴 + 𝐵)
• Show that NOR gate is universal gate.
 XOR gate
• Produces 0 if its two inputs are the same, and 1 if
otherwise.

• Boolean expression
ҧ
• X=A ⊕ 𝐵=𝐴B+A 𝐵ത
• EXNOR gate
• Logically equivalent to an XOR gate followed by
inverter .

• X=𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵
 BUFFER GATE
• Returns same output as that of the input

• Restores signal strength (amplification )

• Isolation between circuits (prevent loading effect)
• Voltage level shifting
Logic gate symbols
 Boolean Algebra
• Used to analyze and simplify digital circuits.
• Only uses binary numbers 0 and 1.
• Invented by George Boole in 1854.
• Rules in Boolean Algebra.
Commutative law
1. The order of Oring or ANDing does not matter
A+B =B+A ; AB+BA
2. Associative law of multiplication
The order of Oring or ANDing does not matter

• A(BC)=(AB)C=ABC
 3. Distributive law
• A(B+C)=AB+AC

• X=A(B+C) X=AB+AC
• (A+B)(C+D)
• AC+AD+BC+BD
 4. Oring with 0 or 1
• A+0=A

• A+1=1
 5. ANDing with 0 or 1
• A.0=0

• A.1=A
• 6. identity law
• A+A=A

• A.A=A
7. Complementary laws.
A+𝑨ഥ =1

A.𝑨
ഥ=𝟎
• 8. Double inversion
Ӗ
• 𝐴=A
 Boolean laws
• 1. a. A.0=0
b. A+0=A (identity elements)
2.a. A.1=A b. A+1=1
3a. A+𝐴=1ҧ b. A. 𝐴ҧ =0 (complement law)
Ӗ double inversion(NOT NOT) returns any
4. 𝐴=A
variable to its previous state
• Boolean algebra finds its most practical use
in the simplification of logic circuits.
• the simplified equation may be translated
back into circuit form for a logic circuit
performing the same function with fewer
components.
• If equivalent function may be achieved with
fewer components, the result will be
increased reliability and decreased cost of
manufacture.
 Examples
• A+AB=A
 ҧ =𝐴+𝐵
A+𝐴𝐵
• a. Write the expression for output Q
• b. Simplify using Boolean laws
• c. Draw the equivalent logic circuit
Simplified logic circuit
Simplify the electromechanical relay
circuit shown
• For the logic circuit shown;

• a. write the output

• b. simplify the circuit using Boolean algebra
• C. Draw the equivalent circuit.
 Boolean simplification examples
• Example 1
• Suppose the cash room at a store has access restricted
to certain employees, each of whom has a key, which
produces a logic 1 at particular inputs to an unlocking
circuit. Only the store;
• manager (M) can enter alone.
• The assistant manager (A) and the cashier (C) must be
accompanied by each other, or by the store manager.
• Design a combinational logic circuit that will allow
access by producing a logic 1 when the above
conditions are me.
• Truth table Simplify using Boolean laws
MAC ഥ
Q=𝑀𝐴𝐶 + 𝑀𝐴ҧ 𝐶ҧ + 𝑀𝐴C+MA ҧ 𝐶ҧ +
• 000 0 𝑀𝐴𝐶
ഥ
• 001 0 =AC(M+ 𝑀)=AC
ҧ ҧ ҧ ҧ
• 010 0 =AC+ 𝑀𝐴 𝐶 + 𝑀𝐴C+MA 𝐶
=AC+M 𝐴ҧ (𝐶+C)+
ҧ MA 𝐶ҧ
• 011 1
= AC+M 𝐴 ҧ + MA 𝐶ҧ
• 100 1
• 101 ҧ
1 A(C+ 𝐶M)+ M 𝐴ҧ
• 110 1 =A(C+M)+M𝐴ҧ
• 111 1 =AC+AM+ M 𝐴ҧ
• Boolean expression AC+M(A+ 𝐴 ҧ )=AC+M
ഥ
• Q=𝑀𝐴𝐶 + 𝑀𝐴ҧ 𝐶ҧ +
ҧ
𝑀𝐴C+MA 𝐶ҧ + 𝑀𝐴𝐶
 quiz
John’s Automated Cafeteria orders a machine to
dispense coffee, tea, and milk. Design the
machine so that it has a button (input line) for
each choice and so that a customer can have at
most one of the three choices and draw the
corresponding circuit diagram.
 Quiz

Design a logic circuit which will open the waste valve is opened if at least two out
of the three sensors show good flame
 Simplification using K-maps
• Karnaugh Maps offer a graphical method of
reducing a digital circuit to its minimum
number of gates. It contains 2𝑛 cells
• The Karnaugh map uses the following rules for
the simplification of expressions by grouping
together adjacent cells containing ones
• A.
B.

C
D.

E.
 F

G
• H.

Summary:
1. No zeros allowed.
2. No diagonals.
3. Only power of 2 number of cells in each
group.
4. Groups should be as large as possible.
5. Every one must be in at least one group.
6. Overlapping allowed.
7. Wrap around allowed.
8. Fewest number of groups possible.
 examples
i

ii.
• Simplify the expression f(XYZ)=sum(2,3 ,7)

Simplify the expression (wxyz)=Sum(1,5,6,7,9,13)

 Combinational logic
• The outputs of Combinational Logic Circuits
are only determined by the logical function of
their current input state, logic “0” or logic “1”,
at any given instant in time.
• Its memoryless I.e. no feedback
• They are decision making circuits
• Multiplexers, De-multiplexers, Encoders,
Decoders, Full and Half Adders etc
• Has several inputs but only one output
Consists of logic gates, Boolean algebra and truth tables
 Half adder
• Adds 2 bits with a sum and a carry

A B S C(out)
0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1
Half adder circuit
 Full adder
• The main difference between the Full Adder
and the previous Half Adder is that a full
adder has three inputs.
• The same two single bit data inputs A and B as
before plus an additional Carry-in (C-in) input
to receive the carry from a previous stage
Full adder circuit
 Half subtractor
• Half subtractor is a combination circuit with
two inputs and two outputs (difference and
borrow).
• It produces the difference between the two
binary bits at the input and also produces an
output (Borrow) to indicate if a 1 has been
borrowed.
Truth table
 Full subtractor

• a full subtractor has three inputs. The two

single bit data inputs X (minuend) and Y
(subtrahend)
• additional Borrow-in (B-in) input to receive
the borrow generated by the subtraction
process from a previous stage as shown
below.
Truth table
Memory elements
A sequential circuit generates output based
on its previous output state and current input
state.
It consists of a combinational circuit with a
memory unit such as a flip-flop or latch.
Flip-flops are edge-sensitive and latches are
level-sensitive. The memory unit is used to
provide feedback.
• Latches can be faster but may cause
glitches if the input changes while the
enable is active.
• Flip-flops are more reliable for sequential
logic circuits because they update only at
discrete clock edges, preventing
unintended data changes.
Implement Latch using NAND gates
 Different Modes of Transistor
Operation
• Saturation Mode (BE - Forward, BC - Forward) →
Fully ON (Switching Mode)
• Active Mode (BE - Forward, BC - Reverse) →
Amplifier Mode
• Cutoff Mode (BE - Reverse, BC - Reverse) → Fully
OFF (Switching Mode)
 Transistor as switch

An open switch when its operated in the

cut-ff region
Volage a base terminial is 0V
Base emitter junction is not forward biased
,
𝐼𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐶 are zero
As a closed switch it operates in saturation
region
DC Biasing of BJT
 Example 1
• Given supply voltage; 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10𝑉,
• Base resistor 𝑅𝐵 = 100𝑘Ω
• 𝑅𝐶 = 100𝑘Ω
• Base –emitter voltage; 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉,
• 𝛽 = 50
• Determine; a. 𝐼𝐵 , 𝐼𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐵
• (b)𝑄 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
Voltage divider circuit (2 resistors )

𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2 are used as biasing

resistors
More stable and reliable

Provides better control over

the transistors Q-point

Less dependent on 𝛽
 Finding Base Voltage ​ Using
Thevenin's Theorem
• simplifies the voltage divider bias circuit by
replacing the resistor network with an equivalent
Thevenin voltage source and Thevenin resistance.

• Thevenin resistance is parallel combination of

𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2
 Example 2
• Given the data; 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 12𝑉
• Resistors 𝑅1 = 47𝑘Ω, 𝑅2 = 10𝑘Ω, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 =
0.7𝑉(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛)
(a). Find the Thevenin Equivalent Voltage (𝑉𝑇ℎ )
(b). Equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ