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 ENGINE EMISSION
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
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 ENGINE EMISSION
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
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‘ŽŽ—–‹‘‹–‹‰ƒ–‹‘‡ Š‹“—‡•

G. Amba Prasad Rao, PhD

T. Karthikeya Sharma, PhD
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press, Inc.
4164 Lakeshore Road 1265 Goldenrod Circle NE
Burlington ON L7L 1A4 Palm Bay, Florida 32905
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
7LWOH(QJLQHHPLVVLRQFRQWUROWHFKQRORJLHVGHVLJQPRGL¿FDWLRQVDQGSROOXWLRQPLWLJDWLRQWHFKQLTXHV
G. Amba Prasad Rao, PhD, T. Karthikeya Sharma, PhD.
Names: Rao, G. Amba Prasad, 1966- author. | Sharma, T. Karthikeya, 1985- author.
Description: Includes bibliographical references and index.
,GHQWL¿HUV&DQDGLDQD SULQW _&DQDGLDQD HERRN _,6%1
(hardcover) | ISBN 9780429322228 (electronic bk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Internal combustion engines—Exhaust systems—Design and construction. |
LCSH: Internal combustion engines—Exhaust gas—Measurement. | LCSH: Spark ignition
engines—Exhaust gas—Measurement. | LCSH: Automobiles—Motors—Exhaust gas—
Measurement.
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Apple Academic Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that
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Press products, visit our website at www.appleacademicpress.com and the CRC Press website at
www.crcpress.com
„‘—––Š‡—–Š‘”•

G. Amba Prasad Rao, PhD

Professor, Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Warangal,
India

G. Amba Prasad Rao, PhD, is a Professor

of Mechanical Engineering at the National
Institute of Technology, Warangal, India. He
completed his MTech (Design and Produc-
tion of IC Engines and Gas Turbines) and
PhD (Mechanical Engineering) from NIT
Warangal (formerly REC Warangal) in the
years 1992 and 2003, respectively. He has about 30 years of teaching and
research experience.
He joined NIT Warangal as a Lecturer in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering in 1996. His areas of research include internal combustion
engines, combustion, energy, alternative fuels, and emissions control. He
was promoted to an Assistant Professor and later as a Professor in the years
in 2004 and 2011, respectively. Since he joined as a Lecturer, he was actively
involved in the teaching and research activity.
He was the Principal Developer for the pedagogical course on internal
combustion engines and automobile engineering. The project was funded
by MHRD under NMEICT scheme sanctioned to IIT Kharagpur. He was
co-investigator in three projects: (i) Technical Back-up Support Unit under
the National Programme of Improved Chulha, (ii) Use of Jatropha Oil As
and Alternative Fuel (vegetable-based) for Automobiles, and (iii) Develop-
ment of Adiabatic Diesel Engines with Biodiesel as a Fuel.
He was the founder coordinator for the MTech in Automobile Engineering
course at NIT Warangal in 2008-09. He has supervised eight PhD theses and
currently three are in progress. He has guided over 50 MTech dissertations
and over 20 BTech projects. He has published about 75 technical papers in
reputed international journals and about 20 papers in reputed conferences.
He has given a number of presentations in the area of internal combustion
engines, alternative fuels, and emission control. He has organized several
short-term programs.
vi About the Authors

He is a life member of professional bodies such as ISTE, IEI, Combus-

tion Institute (Indian Section), Solar Energy Society of India (SESI),
and an annual member of SAE (India) and ASME. He has organized the
prestigious 1st International and 18th National Conference on Mechanical
Engineering for Sustainable Development under the aegis of the Indian
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ISME) during February 23–25, 2017 at
NIT Warangal. Around 50 papers of the conference presentations have been
brought out in the form of the book edited by him, by Apple Academic Press.
He has also authored 3 chapters in the book.
He has held many administrative positions at NIT Warangal, including
Warden for Hostels and Associate Dean-Academics. He has also worked
a Professor in-charge Training and Placement Section at NIT Warangal
and also as Associate Dean, Academics and Faculty Advisor for MTech in
Thermal Engineering program and faculty advisor of Nature Club, Mechan-
ical Engineering Association. He was a member of the Board of Studies
and Faculty Selections. He has visited the USA, Malaysia, and the UAE
in connection with the presentation of technical papers. He chaired many
technical sessions. Presently, he is on deputation to NIT Andhra Pradesh at
Tadepalligudem of WG District of State of Andhra Pradesh.
About the Authors vii

T. Karthikeya Sharma, PhD

Assistant Professor and Head, Department
of Mechanical Engineering, National
Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh,
India

T. Karthikeya Sharma, PhD, is an Assistant

Professor and Head of the Department of
Mechanical Engineering at the National
Institute of Technology, Andhra Pradesh,
India. He is specialized in internal
combustion engines, refrigeration, and
air conditioning and has been involved
in computational fluid dynamic analysis of combustion in IC engines. He
is a member of various prestigious professional bodies and a consultant
engineer for several research laboratories. He has published research articles
widely on pre-mixed HCCI combustion analysis. He, along with his student,
exhibited a manual transmission system for hybrid vehicles at a festival of
innovation held at Rastrapati Bhawan, New Delhi, India.
He received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the National Insti-
tute of Technology Warangal, India. Dr. Karthikeya has received awards and
citations for excellence as a researcher and as an engineering educator. He
is a past recipient of a Best Research Scholar Award of the Institution of
Engineers (India), a Young Scientist Award of Andhra Pradesh Akademi of
Sciences, and a Young Engineer Award of IIOS.
‘–‡–•

Energy Quotes ............................................................................................... xi

Abbreviations ..............................................................................................xiii
Foreword ..................................................................................................... xix
Preface ........................................................................................................ xxi
Inventors, Prominent Researchers, Manufacturers, and Authors in
the Area of Internal Combustion Engines ...................................................xxv
Introduction ................................................................................................xxxi

1. Basic Review of Internal Combustion Engines ............................................1

2. Formation Mechanism of Pollutant Emissions ..........................................85
3. Emissions Measurement Methods and Instrumentation.........................129
4. SI-in-Cylinder Measures ............................................................................173
5. SI-Aftertreatment Measures ......................................................................201
6. Diesel-in-Cylinder Measures ......................................................................219
7. Diesel-Aftertreatment Measures ................................................................251
8. Alternative Fuels .........................................................................................287
9. Alternative Combustion Concepts.............................................................361

Index .....................................................................................................................405
‡”‰›—‘–‡•

“Because we are now running out of gas and oil, we must prepare
quickly for a third change, to strict conservation and to the use of
. . . renewable energy sources, like solar power.”
—Jimmy Carter, 1977

“I’d put my money on the sun and solar energy, what a source
of power. I hope we don’t have to wait until oil and coal run out
before we tackle that.”
—Thomas Edison, 1931

“The thermal agency by which mechanical effect may be obtained

is the transference of heat from one body to another at a lower
temperature.”
—Sadi Carnot

“The total energy of the universe is constant; the total entropy is

continually increasing.”
—Rudolf Clausius

“I can never satisfy myself until I can make a mechanical model of

a thing. If I can make a mechanical model, I can understand it.”
—Lord Kelvin

“Bah! Genius is not inspired. Inspiration is perspiration. 2% is

genius. 98% is hard work.”
—Thomas Edison, 1898

“The cumulative amount of man-made global pollution that’s in

the atmosphere now traps as much extra heat energy every day
as would be released by 400,000 Hiroshima-class atomic bombs
exploding every day. It’s a big planet, but that’s an awful lot of
energy.”
—Al Gore
„„”‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘•

AECC Association for Emissions Control by Catalysts

AF air-fuel ratio
AFs alternative fuels
AFT adiabatic flame temperature
Al2O3 aluminum oxide
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
BD biodiesel-diesel
BDC bottom dead center
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption
BSNOx brake specific nitrogen oxides
CCV closed crankcase ventilation
CDA cylinder deactivation
CFR cooperative fuel research
CH4 methane
CI Engines compression-ignition engines
CI compression-ignition
CLD chemiluminescence detector
CNG compressed natural gas
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
CPC condensation particle counter
CR compression ratio
CRBME crude rice bran oil methyl ester
CRDI common rail direct injection
CRT continuously regenerating trap
CVS constant volume sampling
DEE diethyl ether
DI direct injection
DISC direct injection stratified charge
DME dimethyl ether
DOCs diesel oxidation catalysts
DPFs diesel particulate filters
DPT diesel particulate traps
EC elemental carbon
xiv Abbreviations

ECE Economic Commission for Europe

ece external combustion engine
ECM engine control module
ECU electronic control unit
ecu engine control unit
EFI electronic fuel injection
EGR exhaust gas recirculation
EICU electronic ignition control unit
EIVC early inlet valve closing
eivc early intake valve closure
EMS engine management system
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ET evaporation tube
ETBE ethyl tertiary butyl ether
ETC European transient cycle
FA fuel-air ratio
FFVs flexible fuel vehicles
FID flame ionization detector
FIP fuel injection pressure
FTIR Fourier-transform infrared
GC gas chromatography
GDI gasoline direct injection
GHG greenhouse gas
GIE gross indicated efficiency
GPS global positioning system
H2 hydrogen
H2O water
H2S hydrogen sulfide
HCCI homogeneous charge compression-ignition
HCN hydrocyanic acid
HCNG hydrogen-enriched compressed natural gas
HCs hydrocarbons
HC-SCR hydrocarbon selective catalytic reduction
HEPA high-efficiency particulate air
HLB hydrophilic (water liking) balance
HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
HSDI high-speed direct injection
HUCR highest useful compression ratio
IC internal combustion
ICEs internal combustion engines
Abbreviations xv

IDI indirect injection

IF inorganic fraction
ILUC indirect land-use change
IR infrared
ISFC indicated specific fuel consumption
J joule
LDV light-duty vehicle
LHR low heat rejection
LIVC late inlet valve closing
livc late intake valve closure
LNCs lean NOx catalysts
LNG liquefied natural gas
LNTs lean NOx traps
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
LTC low-temperature combustion
MAHs monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
MAP manifold air pressure
MBT timing maximum brake torque timing
MgO magnesium oxide
MPGI multipoint gas injection
MS mass spectrometry
MSW municipal solid waste
N nitrogen
N2O nitrous oxide
N2O2 dinitrogen dioxide
N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide
NA naturally aspirated
NDIR non-dispersive infrared
NEDC new European driving cycle
NGVs natural gas vehicles
NH3 ammonia
NiFe2O4 nickel-iron oxide
NiO nickel oxide
NMHC non-methane hydrocarbon
NO nitric oxide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
NOx nitrogen oxides
NPAHs nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
xvi Abbreviations

OBD on-board diagnostic

OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
OEMs Original Equipment Manufactures
PAHs polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCCI premixed charge compression-ignition
PCV positive crankcase ventilation
PEM proton-exchange-membrane
PEMS portable emission measurement systems
PIV particulate image velocimetry
PM particulate matter
PMP particle measurement program
PMT photomultiplier tube
PN particle number
PNC particle number counter
PND1 first particle number diluter
PND2 second particle number diluter
ppbv parts per billion per volume
PPC partially premixed combustion
ppmv parts per million by volume
PSZ partially stabilized zirconia
PTD port timing diagram
RCCI reactivity-controlled compression-ignition
RI ringing intensity
RPM revolutions per minute
SADI spark assisted stratified charge
SCR selective catalytic reduction
SI spark-ignition
SiC silicon carbide
SiO2 silicon oxide
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SOF soluble organic fraction
SOx sulfur compounds
SR steam reforming
T temperature
TBCs thermal barrier coatings
TDC top-dead center
TEL tetraethyl lead
THC total hydrocarbons
TiO2 titanium oxide
Abbreviations xvii

TKE turbulent kinetic energy

TWC three-way (catalytic) converter
UFPs ultrafine particles
UHC unburnt hydrocarbons
ULEV ultra-low emission vehicle standards
ULSD ultra-low sulfur diesel standards
UV ultraviolet
VDTCE variable displacement turbocharged engine
VE volumetric efficiency
VGT variable geometry turbo-charging
VM velocity Magnitude
VOCs volatile organic compounds
VPR volatile particle remover
VTD valve timing diagram
VVA variable valve actuation
VVT variable valve timing
WHTC world harmonize test cycle
WiDE water-in-diesel emulsion
ZnO zinc oxide
 ‘”‡™‘”†

Dr. G. Amba Prasad Rao is my colleague

at NIT Warangal, and I have known him
closely for the past about 30 years. Right
from his joining the Institute, he was very
much interested in the subjects related to
thermal engineering. He was acclaimed as
a good teacher, and many of the students
used to appreciate his way of teaching.
He was quite patient with students when
they approached for any clarifications in
the subjects, such as internal combustion
engines and alternative fuels.
I personally suggested that he to come out with a book on IC engines.
Finally, he could make the time and contribute to AAP with this book,
Engine Emissions Control Technologies, along with my junior colleague,
Dr. T. Karthikeya Sharma.
Dr. Sharma did his PhD work under the supervision of Prof. Amba
Prasad Rao on the new combustion concept, HCCI. These two published a
good number of papers in reputed journals. Though I belong to the area of
manufacturing engineering, I have glanced through quite a good number of
books on IC engines, and I appreciate his choosing of topics related engine
emissions control. The world cannot be thought of without an automobile,
and such an important machine is subjected to scrutiny due to atmospheric
pollution caused by automobiles. Every day in one part or other parts of the
world, development of new model of automobile is taking place. Human
population is growing, and so also the automotive population and new and
stringent norms are being legislated around the world, and in this direction
India leapfrogged from EURO IV to EURO VI and are poised to be imple-
mented from April 2020 onwards.
The book covers the topics related to emissions, its formation in both
versions, and its various pollution mitigation techniques. The book is covers
the use of alternative fuels and new combustion concepts that would pave
the way for complying with new emission concepts. Undoubtedly, the book
xx Foreword

is going to an asset to students to understand right from the basics of engines

to methods of control of engine-out emissions.
— Prof. C. S. P. Rao
Director, National Institute of Technology Andhra Pradesh,
Tadepalligudem, Andhra Pradesh, India
”‡ˆƒ ‡

Thanks to the inventors of internal combustion engines as they have made

the mobility of goods, humans, etc. simpler when compared to external
combustion engines. The IC engines have the advantage of being compact
and have a high power-to-weight ratio and use liquid fuels. The real benefit
of ICE-driven vehicles were realized after the discovery of petroleum fuels
and pneumatic tires. The automobiles that extensively use these ICEs-prime
movers have simplified the lifestyle of human beings. The ICEs easily fit
into any application—whether it is public transport, power generation,
etc. Indeed, transportation is much exploited by these prime movers. The
automobile sector has played a key role in developing other sectors as well,
such as manufacturing, etc. Civilization has seen stupendous development
with the expansion of the automobile sector. The automobile has become an
integral part of life of a human, whether rich or poor.
,&(VFDQEHEURDGO\FODVVL¿HGDVSHWUROJDVROLQHIXHOOHGRUGLHVHOIXHOOHG
engines, i.e., spark-ignition engines and compression ignition engines. The
spark-ignition engines are more compact than compression ignition engines.
The former type of engine accommodates fuels that are volatile or gaseous
fuels as opposed to later type viscous fuels. In earlier days, the SI engines
were easily managed in the passenger sector whereas the CI engines were
used for heavy-duty applications. However, with the advancements, CI
engines have evolved from being bulky, smoky, and noisy to compact,
cleaner, and quieter. The fuel injection system in diesel engines made these
improvements possible. Also, fuel injection systems have made their way
LQWR6,HQJLQHVWRR$OOWKHFUHGLWRIIXHOHI¿FLHQF\RIWKHVHHQJLQHVJRHVWR
UH¿QHGIXHODYDLODEOHWKHVHGD\V
With the exponential growth in automobiles, the demand for petroleum
products also increased. The nations that are have limited or no resources of
liquid fuel are depending heavily on imports and thereby losing their hard-
earned revenue. No doubt, the expansion of the auto sector has brought huge
revenue, but at the same, it has also led environmental degradation issues
DQGIXHOHQHUJ\FULVLV1DWLRQVVXFK23(&QDWLRQVWKDWKDYHWKHVHUHVRXUFHV
are virtually ruling the world.
The smog problem, which was detected in the 1960s, has given rise to
concern with environmental issues. With these, countries, especially in the
xxii Preface

EU, have set the norm for emissions from automobiles. Now the focus has
VKLIWHGIURPEHLQJPRUHHI¿FLHQWWRHQYLURQPHQWDOO\EHQLJQHQJLQHGHYHO-
opment. Both researchers and the manufacturing industry are perplexed
with the kind of emissions that are contributing toward rise in CO2 levels
in the atmosphere. Automobiles have become partly to blame for the rise
in pollutant emissions in the populated regions of several nations. Recently
1HZ'HOKLZLWQHVVHGKHDY\SROOXWLRQOHYHOVWKDWLVQRWFRQ¿QHGWRRQO\VXFK
cities.
The oil embargo of the 1970s has stimulated research on alcohol-fuelled
engines, and of late biodiesels prepared mainly from vegetable oils are seeing
its share in the vehicles. There are host of alternative fuels, such as CNG,
LNG, biogas, alcohols, hydrogen, etc., that have been explored as future
fuels. However, among these, each has its own advantages and limitations
from being used in large scale.
The stringent emissions regulations that started in the 2000s in India in
terms of Bharat Stage norms, which are in line with EURO norms, have to
some extent brought environmental consciousness among the general public.
However, skipping EURO V, India is poised to move to EURO VI-compliant
vehicles from 2020 onward. There is a serious concern and work going on in
PHHWLQJVWULQJHQWQRUPVE\ERWKHQJLQHPDQXIDFWXUHUVDQGWKHIXHOUH¿QLQJ
industry. Ultra-low sulfur diesel is being developed for this purpose.
Researchers over a period of time developed new combustion concepts
VXFK DV +&&, 3&&, 5&&, VWUDWL¿HG FKDUJH HQJLQH /+5 HQJLQHV YDUL-
able compression, and dual-fuel engines. These have become important to
addressing pollutant emission-related issues.
The subject of IC engines is taught at both undergraduate and post-
graduate levels. There are very good books available in the market, such
as those authored by John B. Heywood, W.W. Pulkrabek, R.S Benson, and
W.D Whitehouse and C.F Taylor. However, the authors felt it essential to
bring out a book exclusively focused on engine emission technologies. The
authors have experienced that not many books are available that can precisely
address the issues related to engine emissions and its mitigation techniques.
This volume is a result of the authors’ experience in teaching of subject on
internal combustion engines for over 25 years, along with the knowledge
they gained from research, colleagues, peers, experts, and scholars.
With this motivation, a keen attempt has been made to address the issues
and is brought out in the form of this volume, Engine Emission Control
7HFKQRORJLHV'HVLJQ0RGL¿FDWLRQVDQG3ROOXWLRQ0LWLJDWLRQ7HFKQLTXHV
Preface xxiii

The book starts with an introduction of the issues related to emissions.

Chapter 1 is a basic review of IC engine fundamentals. Chapter 2 describes
emission formation mechanisms from both SI and CI engines. Emission
measurement methods form the content of Chapter 3. Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7
have been written describing the in-cylinder approaches and after-treatment
techniques adopted to control the emissions from SI and CI engines. The role
of alternative fuels and alternative combustion concepts have been covered
in Chapters 8 and 9, respectively.
The book is written in lucid language and will be useful for both students
and research scholars.
The authors are highly thankful to the publisher, Apple Academic Press,
especially Mr. Ashish Kumar, Mr. Rakesh Kumar, and Ms. Sandra Sickels,
for their immediate acceptance of our request of bringing out a book. Their
timely cooperation is highly appreciated.
The authors are also thankful to their families, without whose support
this small attempt couldn’t have come to the present form.
Any suggestions toward its further improvement will be thankfully
acknowledged.
— G. Amba Prasad Rao
T. Karthikeya Sharma
 ˜‡–‘”•ǡ”‘‹‡–‡•‡ƒ” Š‡”•ǡ
ƒ—ˆƒ –—”‡”•ǡƒ†—–Š‘”•‹–Š‡”‡ƒ
‘ˆ –‡”ƒŽ‘„—•–‹‘‰‹‡•

Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot

He was the proponent of theoretical or ideal heat
engine regarded as Carnot Engine based on reversible
processes. He expressed maximum possible theoreti-
cal efficiency in terms of absolute temperature. He
also defined the concept of entropy.

Nicholaus A. Otto
Inventor of a 4-stroke cycle engine (gasoline fuelled
engine).

Rudolph Diesel
Inventor of the practical compression ignition engine.
xxvi Inventors, Prominent Researchers, Manufacturers

Robert Bosch
Inventor of fuel injection pumps for diesel fuel used
in Compression Ignition Engines.

Karl Benz
Creator of the Benz Patent Motorcar, considered the
first practical automobile.

John Boyd Dunlop

Invented air inflated tire.

Henry Ford
Envisaged homegrown fuels for future engines.
Inventors, Prominent Researchers, Manufacturers xxvii

Charles Franklin Kettering

Head of research at General Motors from 1920 to
1947.

Arie Haagen-Smit
In his lab, May 1961, he demonstrated smog.

Daimler-Chrysler
It is one of the oldest, reliable and largest manufac-
turer of automobiles in the world.

Atikinson
Inventor of over-expanded cycle.
xxviii Inventors, Prominent Researchers, Manufacturers

Felix Wankel
Inventor of a rotary combustion engine.

Ralph H. Miller
Proposed a thermodynamic cycle with compression
ratio less than expansion ratio.

Eugene Houdry
Inventor of catalytic converter.

John B. Heywood
Researcher and author of a book on Internal Combus-
tion Engine Fundamentals.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Sec. 11-3] The Hardness Test 285 Like the Brinell hardness,
Meyer hardness has units of kilograms per square millimeter. The
Meyer hardness is less sensitive to the applied load than the Brinell
hardness. For a cold-worked material the Meyer hardness is
essentially constant and independent of load, while the Brinell
hardness decreases as the load increases. For an annealed metal the
Meyer hardness increases continuously with the load because of
strain hardening produced by the indentation. The Brinell hardness,
however, first increases with load and then decreases for still higher
loads. The Meyer hardness is a more fundamental measure of
indentation hardness ; yet it is rarely used for practical hardness
measurements. Meyer proposed an empirical relation between the
load and the size of the indentation. This relationship is usually
called Meyer's law. P = kd'^' (11-3) where P = applied load, kg d =
diameter of indentation, mm n' = a material constant related to
strain hardening of metal fc = a material constant expressing
resistance of metal to penetration The parameter n' is the slope of
the straight line obtained when log P is plotted against log d, and k
is the value of P at c? = 1. Fully annealed metals have a value of n'
of about 2.5, while n' is approximately 2 for fully strain-hardened
metals. This parameter is roughly related to the strain-hardening
coefficient in the exponential equation for the truestress-true-strain
curve. The exponent in Meyer's law is approximately equal to the
strain-hardening coefficient plus 2. When indentations are made with
balls of different diameters, different values of k and n' will be
obtained. P = A:ii)i"'' = k,D2"^' = ksDs"^' ■ ' ' Meyer found that n'
was almost independent of the diameter of the indenter D but that k
decreased with increasing values of D. This can be expressed
empirically by a relationship of the form C = kiDi-'-'~ = A:2/)2"'-- =
ksDs-'-^ ■ ■ • The general expression for Meyer's law then becomes
^ Cdi"' ^ Cd^ ^ Cd^'^' Z)i"'~2 i)2"'-2 Z)3"'-2 ^^^~^' Several
interesting conclusions result from Eq. (11-4). First, this equation
can be written (11-5)
 286 Applications to Materials Testing [Chap. 1 1 Since dl D
must be constant for geometrically similar indentations, the ratio F
Idr must also be constant. However, F jd} is proportional to the
Meyer hardness. Therefore, geometrically similar indentations give
the same Meyer hardness number. Equation (11-4) can also be
rearranged to give (11-6) Remembering again that geometrically
similar indentations are obtained when d/D is constant, we see that
the above equation shows that the ratio P/D^ must also provide the
same result. Therefore, the same hardness values will be obtained
when the ratio F/D^ is kept constant. There is a lower limit of load
below which Meyer's law is not valid. If the load is too small, the
deformation around the indentation is not fully plastic and Eq. (11-3)
is not obeyed. This load will depend upon the hardness of the metal.
For a 10-mm-diameter ball the load should exceed 50 kg for copper
with a BHN of 100, and for steel with a BHN of 400 the load should
exceed 1,500 kg. For balls of different diameter the critical loads will
be proportional to the square of the diameter. 1'|-4. Analysis of
Indentation by a Spherical Indenter Tabor^ has given a detailed
discussion of the mechanics of deformation of a flat metal surface
with a spherical indenter. The elements of this analysis will be
described here. Figure 11-2 illustrates the process. For •0 (a) Fig.
11-2. Plastic deformation of an ideal plastic material by a spherical
indenter. (a) Beginning of plastic deformation at point 0; (b) full
plastic flow. {After D. Tabor, "The Hardness of Metals," p. 47, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1951.) an ideal plastic metal with no
strain hardening the highest pressure occurs immediately below the
surface of contact at a depth of about d/2. The pressure at this point
is about 0A7pm, where pm is the mean pressure over the circle of
contact. Assuming that the maximum-shear-stress theory is » D.
Tabor, "The Hardness of Metals," Oxford University Press, New York,
1951.
 Sec. 11-5] The Hardness Test 287 the criterion for plastic
flow, we can write 0A7pm = 0.5(To or Pm « l.lo-o (11-7) where o-o
is the yield stress in tension or compression. Therefore, the
deformation under the indenter is elastic until the mean pressure
reaches about 1.1 times the yield stress. At about this pressure
plastic deformation begins in the vicinity of point 0 (Fig. ll-2a). As
the load is further increased, the mean pressure increases and the
plastically deformed region grows until it contains the entire region
of contact (Fig. 11-26). An analytical solution for the pressure
between the spherical indenter and the indentation under conditions
of full plasticity is very difficult. The best analysis of this problem
indicates that pm « 2.66cro. Meyer hardness tests on severely cold-
worked metal indicates that full plasticity occurs when Pm « 2.8(ro
(11-8) For an ideally plastic metal the pressure would remain
constant at this value if the load were increased further. Since real
metals strain-harden, the pressure would increase owing to an
increase in o-o as the indentation process was continued. Most
Brinell hardness tests are carried out under conditions where full
plasticity is reached. This is also a necessary condition for Meyer's
law to be valid. 11-5. Relationship between Hardness and the
Tensile-How Curve Tabor^ has suggested a method by which the
plastic region of the true stress-strain curve may be determined from
indentation hardness measurements. The method is based on the
fact that there is a similarity in the shape of the flow curve and the
curve obtained when the Meyer hardness is measured on a number
of specimens subjected to increasing amounts of plastic strain. The
method is basically empirical, since the complex stress distribution at
the hardness indentation precludes a straightforward relationship
with the stress distribution in the tension test. However, the method
has been shown to give good agreement for several metals and thus
should be of interest as a means of obtaining flow data in situations
where it is not possible to measure tensile properties. The true
stress (flow stress) is obtained from Eq. (11-8), where co is to be
considered the flow stress at a given value of true strain. Meyer
hardness = Pm = 2.8cro From a study of the deformation at
indentations. Tabor concluded that 1 Tabor, op. cit., pp. 67-76; /.
Inst. Metals, vol. 79, p. 1, 1951.
 288 Applications to Materials Testing [Chap. 11 the true
strain was proportional to the ratio d/ D and could be expressed as d
e = 0.2 D (11-9) Thus, if the Meyer hardness is measured under
conditions such that d/D varies from the smallest value for full
plasticity up to large values and Eqs. (11-8) and (11-9) are used, it
•"" ' is possible at least to approximate the tensile-fiow curve. Figure
11-3 shows the agreement which has been obtained by Tabor
between the flow curve and hardness versus d/D curve for mild steel
and annealed copper. Tabor's results have been verified by Lenhart^
for duralumin and OFHC copper. However, Tabor's analysis did not
predict the flow curve for magnesium, which was attributed by
Lenhart to the high anisotropy of deformation in this metal. This
work should not detract from the usefulness of this correlation but,
rather, should serve to emphasize that its limitations should be
investigated for new applications. There is a very useful engineering
correlation between the Brinell hardness and the ultimate tensile
strength of heat-treated plain-carbon and medium-alloy steels.
Ultimate tensile strength, in pounds per square inch, = 500(BHN). A
brief consideration will show that this is in agreement with Tabor's
results. If we make the simplifying assumption that this class of
materials does not strain-harden, then the tensile strength is equal
to the yield stress and Eq. (11-8) applies. (Tu = Ty-nVm = 0.36p„j
kg/mm^ The Brinell hardness will be only a few per cent less than
the value of Meyer hardness p^. Upon converting to engineering
units the expression becomes au = 515(BHN) Fig. 1 1 -3.
Comparison of flow curve determined from hardness measurements
(circles, crosses) with flow curve determined from compression test
(solid lines). {D. Tabor, "The Hai-dness of Metals," p. 74, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1951.) 1 R. E. Lenhart, WADC Tech.
Rept. 55-114, June, 1955.
 >cc. 11-6] The Hardness Test 289 It shovild now be
apparent why the same relationship does not hold for other metals.
P'or example, for annealed copper the assumption that strain
hardening can be neglected will be grossly in error. For a metal with
greater capability for strain hardening the "constant" of
proportionality will be greater than that used for heat-treated steel.
11-6. Vickers Hardness The Vickers hardness test uses a square-
base diamond pyramid as the indenter. The included angle between
opposite faces of the pyramid is 136°. This angle was chosen
because it approximates the most desirable ratio of indentation
diameter to ball diameter in the Brinell hardness test. Because of the
shape of the indenter this is frequently called the diamondpyramid
hardness test. The diamond-pyramid hardness number (DPH), or
Vickers hardness number (VHN, or VPH), is defined as the load
divided by the surface area of the indentation. In practice, this area
is calculated from microscopic measurements of the lengths of the
diagonals of the impression. The DPH may be determined from the
following equation, DPH = ^^ %W2) ^ 1^ („.,0) where P = applied
load, kg L = average length of diagonals, mm 6 = angle between
opposite faces of diamond = 136" The Vickers hardness test has
received fairly wide acceptance for research work because it
provides a continuous scale of hardness, for a given load, from very
soft metals with a DPH of 5 to extremely hard materials with a DPH
of 1,500. With the Rockwell hardness test, described in the next
section, or the Brinell hardness test, it is usually necessary to change
either the load or the indenter at some point in the hardness scale,
so that measurements at one extreme of the scale cannot be strictly
compared with those at the other end. Because the impressions
made by the pyramid indenter are geometrically similar no matter
what their size, the DPH should be independent of load. This is
generally found to be the case, except at very light loads. The loads
ordinarily used with this test range from 1 to 120 kg, depending on
the hardness of the metal to be tested. In spite of these advantages,
the Vickers hardness test has not been widely accepted for routine
testing because it is slow, requires careful surface preparation of the
specimen, and allows greater chance for personal error in the
determination of the diagonal length. A perfect indentation made
with a perfect diamond-pyramid indenter
 [a) 290 Applications to Materials Testing [Chap. 1 1 would
be a square. However, anomalies corresponding to those described
earlier for Brinell impressions are frequently observed with a pyramid
indenter (Fig. 11-4). The pincushion indentation in Fig. 11-46 is the
result of sinking in of the metal around the fiat faces of the pyramid.
This condition is observed with annealed metals and results in an
overestimate of the diagonal length. The barrel-shaped indenFig. 1
1-4. Types of diamond-pyramid in- ^^^:^^^ -^^ Ylg. 1 l-4c is
found in colddentations, (a) Perfect indentation ; Vb) , , , , t, ^, r ,•
i,,- i . i-- worked metals. It results from pincushion indentation due
to sinking in ; (c) barreled indentation due to ridging. ridging or
piling up of the metal around the faces of the indenter. The diagonal
measurement in this case produces a low value of the contr.ct area
so that the hardness numbers are erroneously high. Empirical
corrections for this effect have been proposed.^ 11-7. Rockwell
Hardness Test The most widely used hardness test in the United
States is the Rockwell hardness test. Its general acceptance is due to
its speed, freedom from personal error, ability to distinguish small
hardness differences in hardened steel, and the small size of the
indentation, so that finished heat-treated parts can be tested without
damage. This test utilizes the depth of indentation, under constant
load, as a measure of hardness. A minor load of 10 kg is first applied
to seat the specimen. This minimizes the amount of surface
preparation needed and reduces the tendency for ridging or sinking
in by the indenter. The major load is then applied, and the depth of
indentation is automatically recorded on a dial gage in terms of
arbitrary hardness numbers. The dial contains 100 divisions, each
division representing a penetration of 0.00008 in. The dial is
reversed so that a high hardness, which corresponds to a small
penetration, results in a high hardness number. This is in agreement
with the other hardness numbers described previously, but unlike the
Brinell and Vickers hardness designations, which have units of
kilograms per square miUimeter, the Rockwell hardness numbers are
purely arbitrary. One combination of load and indenter will not
produce satisfactory results for materials with a wide range of
hardness A 120° diamond cone with a slightly rounded point, called
a Brale indenter, and }/{&- and 3/^-in. -diameter steel balls are
generally used as indenters. Major loads of 60, 100, and 150 kg are
used. Since the Rockwell hardness is dependent on the load and
indenter, it is necessary to specify the combination 1 T. B. Crowe and
J. F. Hinsley, /. Inst. Metals, vol. 72, p. 14, 1946.
 >ec. 11-8] The Hardness Test 291 which is used. This is
done by prefixing the hardness number with a letter indicating the
particular combination of load and indenter for the hardness scale
employed. A Rockwell hardness number without the letter prefix is
meaningless. Hardened steel is tested on the C scale with the
diamond indenter and a 150-kg major load. The useful range for this
scale is from about Re 20 to Re 70. Softer materials are usually
tested on the B scale with a 3^i6-in. -diameter steel ball and a 100-
kg major load. The range of this scale is from Rb 0 to Rb 100. The A
scale (diamond penetrator, 60-kg major load) provides the most
extended Rockwell hardness scale, which is usable for materials from
annealed brass to cemented carbides. Many other scales are
available for special purposes.^ The Rockwell hardness test is a very
useful and reproducible one provided that a number of simple
precautions are observed. Most of the points listed below apply
ecjually well to the other hardness tests : 1. The indenter and anvil
should be clean and well seated. 2. The surface to be tested should
be clean, dry, smooth, and free from oxide. A rough-ground surface
is usually adequate for the Rockwell test. 3. The surface should be
flat and perpendicular to the indenter. 4. Tests on cylindrical surfaces
will give low readings, the error depending on the curvature, load,
indenter, and hardness of the material. Theoretieal^ and empirical^
corrections for this effect have been published. 5. The thickness of
the specimen should be such that a mark or bulge is not produced
on the reverse side of the piece. It is recommended that the
thickness be at least ten times the depth of the indentation. Tests
should be made on only a single thickness of material. 6. The
spacing between indentations should be three to five times the
diameter of the indentation. 7. The speed of application of the load
should be standardized. This is done by adjusting the dashpot on the
Rockwell tester. Variations in hardness can be appreciable in very
soft materials unless the rate of load application is carefully
controlled. For such materials the operating handle of the Rockwell
tester should be brought back as soon as the major load has been
fully applied. 1 1 -8. Microhardncss Tests Many metallurgical
problems require the determination of hardness over very small
areas. The measurement of the hardness gradient at a carburized
surface, the determination of the hardness of individual con» See
ASTM Standard El 8. 2 W. E. Ingerson, Proc. ASTM, vol. 39, pp.
1281-1291, 1939. 3 R. S. Sutton and R. H. Heyer, ASTM Bull. 193,
pp. 40-41, October, 1953.
 292 Applications to Materials Testing [Chap. 11 stituents of
a microstructure, or the checking of the hardness of a delicate watch
gear might be typical problems. The use of a scratch-hardness test
for these purposes was mentioned earlier, but an indentation-
hardness test has been found to be more useful.^ The development
of the Knoop indenter by the National Bureau of Standards and the
introduction of the Tukon tester for the controlled application of
loads down to 25 g have made microhardness testing a routine
laboratory procedure. The Knoop indenter is a diamond ground to a
pyramidal form that produces a diamond-shaped indentation with
the long and short diagonals in the approximate ratio of 7: 1. The
depth of indentation is about onethirtieth of the length of the longer
diagonal. The Knoop hardness number (KHN) is the applied load
divided by the unrecovered projected area of the indentation. ™N =
£ = ^ (ll-U) where P = applied load, kg Ap — unrecovered projected
area of indentation, mm^ L = length of long diagonal, mm C = a
constant for each indenter supplied by manufacturer The low load
used with microhardness tests requires that extreme care be taken
in all stages of testing. The surface of the specimen must be
carefully prepared. Metallographic polishing is usually required. Work
hardening of the surface during polishing can influence the results.
The long diagonal of the Knoop impression is essentially unaffected
by elastic recovery for loads greater than about 300 g. However, for
lighter loads the small amount of elastic recovery becomes
appreciable. Further, with the very small indentations produced at
light loads the error in locating the actual ends of the indentation
become greater. Both these factors have the effect of giving a high
hardness reading, so that it is usually observed that the Knoop
hardness number increases as the load is decreased below about
300 g. Tarasov and Thibault- have shown that if corrections are
made for elastic recovery and visual acuity the Knoop hardness
number is constant with load down to 100 g. 11-9. Hardness-
conversion Relationships From a practical standpoint it is important
to be able to convert the results of one type of hardness test into
those of a different test. Since ^ For a review of microhardness
testing see H. Buckle, Met. Reviews, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 49-100, 1959.
2 L. P. Tarasov and N. W. Thibault, Trans. ASM, vol. 38, pp. 331-353,
1947.
 Sec. 11-10] The Hardness Test 293 a hardness test does
not measure a well-defined property of a material and since all the
tests in common use are not based on the same type of
measurements, it is not surprising that no universal hardness-
conversion relationships have been developed. It is important to
realize that hardness conversions are empirical relationships. The
most reliable hardnessconversion data exist for steel which is harder
than 240 Brinell. The ASTM, ASM, and SAE (Society of Automotive
Engineers) have agreed on a table ^ for conversion between
Rockwell, Brinell, and diamondpyramid hardness which is applicable
to heat-treated carbon and alloy steel and to almost all alloy
constructional steels and tool steels in the as-forged, annealed,
normalized, and quenched and tempered conditions. However,
different conversion tables are required for materials with greatly
different elastic moduli, such as tungsten carbide, or with greater
strain-hardening capacity. Heyer^ has shown that the indentation
hardness of soft metals depends on the strain-hardening behavior of
the material during the test, which in turn is dependent on the
previous degree of strain hardening of the material before the test.
As an extreme example of the care which is required in using
conversion charts for soft metals, it is possible for Armco iron and
cold-rolled aluminum each to have a Brinell hardness of 66; yet the
former has a Rockwell B hardness of 31 compared with a hardness
of Rb 7 for the cold-worked aluminum. On the other hand, metals
such as yellow brass and low-carbon sheet steel have a well-
behaved Brinell-Rockwell conversion^* relationship for all degrees of
strain hardening. Special hardness-conversion tables for coldworked
aluminum, copper, and 18-8 stainless steel are given in the ASM
Metals Handbook. 11-10. Hardness at Elevated Temperatures
Interest in measuring the hardness of metals at elevated
temperatures has been accelerated by the great effort which has
gone into developing alloys with improved high-temperature
strength. Hot hardness gives a good indication of the potential
usefulness of an alloy for high-temperature strength applications.
Some degree of success has been obtained in correlating hot
hardness with high-temperature strength properties. This will be
discussed in Chap. 13. Hot-hardness testers using a Vickers indenter
made of sapphire and with provisions for testing in either 1 This
table may be found in ASTM Standard E48-47, SAE Handbook, ASM
Metals Handbook, and many other standard references. 2 R. H.
Heyer, Proc. ASTM, vol. 44, p. 1027, 1944. 3 The Wilson Mechanical
Instrument Co. Chart 38 for metals softer than BHN 240 (see ASM
Handbook, 1948 ed., p. 101) is based on tests on these metals.
 294 Applications to Materials Testing [Chap. 11 vacuum or
an inert atmosphere have been developed/ and a high-temperature
microhardness test has been described.In an extensive review of
hardness data at different temperatures 400 8 00 Temperature, °K
Fig. 11-5. Temperature dependence of the hardness of copper. (/. H.
Westbrook, Trans. ASM, vol. 45, p. 233, 1953.) Westbrook^ showed
that the temperature dependence of hardness could be expressed by
H = Aexp (-BT) (11-12) where H = hardness, kg/mm^ T = test
temperature, °K A, B = constants Plots of log H versus temperature
for pure metals generally yield two straight lines of different slope.
The change in slope occurs at a tem1 F. Garofalo, P. R. Malenock,
and G. V. Smith, Trans. ASM, vol. 45, pp. 377-396, 1953; M.
Semchyshen and C. S. Torgerson, Trans. ASM, vol. 50, pp. 830-837,
1958. 2 J. H. Westbrook, Proc. ASTM, vol. 57, pp. 873-897, 1957;
ASTM Bull. 246, pp. 53-58, 1960. 3 J. H. Westbrook, Trans. ASM, vol.
45, pp. 221-248, 1953.
 Sec. 11-10] The Hardness Test 295 perature which is about
one-half the melting point of the metal being tested. Similar
behavior is found in plots of the logarithm of the tensile strength
against temperature. Figure 11-5 shows this behavior for copper. It
is likely that this change in slope is due to a change in the
deformation mechanism at higher temperature. The constant A
derived from the low-temperature branch of the curve can be
considered to be the intrinsic hardness of the metal, that is, H at
0°K. This value would be expected to be a measure of the inherent
strength of the binding forces of the lattice. Westbrook correlated
values of A for different metals with the heat content of the liquid
metal at the melting point and with the melting point. This
correlation was sensitive to crystal structure. The constant B, derived
from the slope of the curve, is the temperature coefficient of
hardness. This constant was related in a rather complex way to the
rate of change of heat content with increasing temperature. With
these correlations it is possible to calculate fairly well the hardness
of a pure metal as a function of temperature up to about one-half its
melting point. Hardness measurements as a function of temperature
will show an abrupt change at the temperature at which an allotropic
transformation occurs. Hot-hardness tests on Co, Fe, Ti, U, and Zr
have shown^ that the body-centered cubic lattice is always the
softer structure when it is involved in an allotropic transformation.
The face-centered cubic and hexagonal close-packed lattices have
approximately the same strength, while highly complex crystal
structures give even higher hardness. These results are in
agreement with the fact that austenitic iron-base alloys have better
high-temperature strength than ferritic alloys. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hardness Tests, "Metals Handbook," pp. 93-105, American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1948. Lysaght, V. E.: "Indentation
Hardness Testing," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1949.
Mott, B. W.: "Micro-indentation Hardness Testing," Butterworth & Co.
(Publishers) Ltd., London, 1956. Tabor, D.: "The Hardness of Metals,"
Oxford University Press, New York, 1951. Symposium on the
Significance of the Hardness Test of Metals in Relation to Design,
Proc. ASTM, vol. 43, pp. 803-856, 1943. 1 W. Chubb, Trans. AIME,
vol. 203, pp. 189-192, 1955.
 Chapter 12 FATIGUE OF METALS 12-1. Introduction It has
been recognized since 1850 that a metal subjected to a repetitive
■or fluctuating stress will fail at a stress much lower than that
required to cause fracture on a single application of load. Failures
occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called fatigue
failures, presumably because it is generally observed that these
failures occur only after a considerable period of service. For a long
time the notion persisted that fatigue was due to "crystallization" of
the metal, but this view can no longer be considered in the light of
concepts which hold that a metal is crystalline from the time of
solidification from the melt. In fact, there is no obvious change in
the structure of a metal which has failed in fatigue which can serve
as a clue to our understanding of the reasons for fatigue failure.
Fatigue has become progressively more prevalent as technology has
developed a greater amount of equipment, such as automobiles,
aircraft, compressors, pumps, turbines, etc., subject to repeated
loading and vibration, until today it is often stated that fatigue
accounts for at least 90 per cent of all service failures due to
mechanical causes. A fatigue failure is particularly insidious, because
it occurs without any obvious warning. Fatigue results in a brittle
fracture, with no gross deformation at the fracture. On a
macroscopic scale the fracture surface is usually normal to the
direction of the principal tensile stress. A fatigue failure can usually
be recognized from the appearance of the fracture surface, which
shows a smooth region, due to the rubbing action as the crack
propagated through the section (top portion of Fig. 12-1), and a
rough region, where the member has failed in a ductile manner
when the cross section was no longer able to carry the load.
Frequently the progress of the fracture is indicated by a series of
rings, or "beach marks," progressing inward from the point of
initiation of the failure. Figure 12-1 also illustrates another
characteristic of fatigue, namely, that a failure usually occurs at a
point of stress concentration such as a sharp corner or notch or at a
metallurgical stress concentration like an inclusion. Three basic
factors are necessary to cause fatigue failure. These are 296
 Sec. 12-2] Fatigue of Metals 297 (1) a maximum tensile
stress of sufficiently high value, (2) a large enough variation or
fluctuation in the applied stress, and (3) a sufficiently large number
of cycles of the applied stress. In addition, there are a host of other
variables, such as stress concentration, corrosion, temperature,
overload, metallurgical structure, residual stresses, and combined
stresses, ■ o rrri. 1 a ^ 1 A ^^ — / * . ^m L 1 — iTi =" A m IIIIIW
1* *'^. '^hi =^" "v^ ^rf^ f . 'I'l',' ■'■i',," ^ =.co 9H '•; M E ^L. H
i^m K ^r ^H !k^' ■.. . 9 mBm ft ' =-«N V joMh ^^&l^jll^^^l\ m
mm H p =1 H 1 1 w ^p-l ' ■"■ ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 ^^^^^^1
^^^^^^1 w — — ■■ a ^^^^^^^^H^^^H ^^^^^^1 ^^^H^^
— _— t ^^^^^^^^^^^1 ^^^^^1 Hjj^^ '""'""'' M
^^^^^^^H^^^^H ^^^^^^1 ^f^ , zz:r * ^^^Bi ^^ , V Fig. 12-
1. Fracture surface of fatigue failure which started at sharp corner of
a key way in a shaft. 1 X. which tend to alter the conditions for
fatigue. Since we have not yet gained a basic understanding of what
causes fatigue in metals, it will be necessary to discuss each of these
factors from an essentially empirical standpoint. Because of the mass
of data of this type, it will be possible to describe only the highlights
of the relationship between these factors and fatigue. For more
complete details the reader is referred to the number of excellent
publications listed at the end of this chapter. 1 2-2. Stress Cycles At
the outset it will be advantageous to define briefly the general types
of fluctuating stresses which can cause fatigue. Figure 12-2 serves to
 298 Applications to Materials Testing [Chap. 12 illustrate
typical fatigue stress cycles. Figure 12-2a illustrates a completely
reversed cycle of stress of sinusoidal form. This is an idealized
situation which is produced by an R. R. Moore rotating-beam fatigue
machine^ and which is approached in service by a rotating shaft
operating at constant speed without overloads. For this type of
stress cycle the maximum and minimum stresses are equal. In
keeping with the conventions established in Chap. 2 the minimum
stress is the lowest Fig. 12-2. Typical fatigue stress cycles, (c)
irregular or random stress cycle. (a) Reversed stress; (6) repeated
stress; algebraic stress in the cycle. Tensile stress is considered
positive, and compressive stress is negative. Figure 12-26 illustrates
a repeated stress cycle in which the mp^ximum stress o-max and
minimum stress a^nin are not equal. In this illustration they are
both tension, but a repeated stress cycle could just as well contain
maximum and minimum stresses of opposite signs or both in
compression. Figure 12-2c illustrates a complicated stress cycle
which might be encountered in a part such as an aircraft wing which
is subjected to periodic unpredictable overloads due to gusts. A
fluctuating stress cycle can be considered to be made up of two
components, a mean, or steady, stress (Xm, and an alternating, or
variable, 1 Common types of fatigue machines are described in the
references listed, at the end of this chapter and in the Manual on
Fatigue Testing, ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. 91, 1949.
 Sec. 12-3] Fatigue of Metals 299 stress (Xa. We must also
consider the range of stress Cr. As can be seen from Fig. 12-26, the
range of stress is the algebraic difference between the maximum
and minimum stress in a cycle. ^T O'max O^n The alternating
stress, then, is one-half the range of stress. (7„ - 2 (12-1) (12-2)
The mean stress is the algebraic mean of the maximum and
minimum stress in the cycle. S-A^ Curve The basic method of
presenting engineering fatigue data is by means of the S-N curve,
which represents the dependence of the life of the specimen, in
number of cycles to failure, A'^, on the maximum applied stress 0-.
Most investigations of the fatigue properties of metals have been
made by means of the rotating-beam machine, where the mean
stress is zero. Figure 12-3 gives typical S-N curves for this type of
test. Cases 60 t/i 8 50 o !^'40 (/) 1^30 ^20 "O O o o 0 V. ^^/V ^ d
Sf6 ^el ,— . limit ^^^ .^_^AIum 'nam alloy \Q~ 10^ 10^ 10^
10Number of cycles to failure, N Fi9. 12-3. Typical fatigue curves for
ferrous and nonferrous metals.
 300 Applications to Materials Testing [Chap. 1 2 where the
mean stress is not zero are of considerable practical interest. These
will be discussed later in the chapter. As can be seen from Fig. 12-3,
the number of cj^cles of stress which a metal can endure before
failure increases with decreasing stress. Unless otherwise indicated,
N is taken as the number of cycles of stress to cause complete
fracture of the specimen. This is made up of the number of cycles to
initiate a crack and the number of cycles to propagate the crack
completely through the specimen. Usually no distinction is made
between these two factors, although it can be appreciated that the
number of cycles for crack propagation will vary with the dimensions
of the specimen. Fatigue tests at low stresses are usually carried out
for 10^ cycles and sometimes to 5 X 10^ cycles for nonferrous
metals. For a few important engineering materials such as steel and
titanium, the S-N curve becomes horizontal at a certain limiting
stress. Below this limiting stress, which is called the fatigue limit, or
endurance limit, the material can presumably endure an infinite
number of cycles without failure. Most nonferrous metals, like
aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys, have an S-N curve which
slopes gradually downward with increasing number of cycles. These
materials do not have a true fatigue limit because the S-N curve
never becomes horizontal. In such cases it is common practice to
characterize the fatigue properties of the material by giving the
fatigue strength at an arbitrary number of cycles, for example, 10*
cycles. The reasons why certain materials have a fatigue limit are
not known, although a hypothesis regarding this important question
will be discussed later in the chapter. The usual procedure for
determining an S-N curve is to test the first specimen at a high
stress where failure is expected in a fairly short number of cycles,
e.g., at about two-thirds the static tensile strength of the material.
The test stress is decreased for each succeeding specimen until one
or two specimens do not fail in the specified number of cycles, which
is usually at least 10'^ cycles. The highest stress at which a runout
(nonfailure) is obtained is taken as the fatigue limit. For materials
without a fatigue limit the test is usually terminated for practical
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