Coherence between the principles of knowledge, instruments, and the results of

knowledge.

We understand knowledge as the conscious and well-founded understanding that we are capable of
to communicate and discuss, and is thus distinguished from vulgar knowledge or 'doxa' which is simply
remembered and that we cannot subject to criticism. It is currently considered that knowledge is a
process, in opposition to the consideration of traditional philosophy that conceived it as something
static (the immanent but permanent forms of Aristotle, Cartesian idealism, the theory of
the pre-established harmony of Leibniz, the a priori categories of Kant...). Thus, what characterizes the
current science is not the attempt to achieve true knowledge but, as Popper asserts, the
obtaining a rigorous and verifiable knowledge: Science must manage to structure
systematically the knowledge based on general principles that serve as
explanation and they possess those, providing a general coherence and clarity that did not exist before.

When Popper talks aboutthe development ofScientific knowledge does not have in mind the
accumulation of observations, but the repeated overthrow oftheories cscientific and their replacement
for other better or more satisfactory ones.

Knowledge is true, legitimate, valid, useful and above all correlates to the need for
the community. From this perspective, there is no ignorant people. Knowledge arose and
I relate it indissolubly to everyday practice and work; that is to say, knowledge is without
doubt, the main technology that men have to survive and develop. Man does not
he only intended to understand the functioning of nature, he also sought to find explanations
deeper reflections on life, death, and the meaning of human existence, surpassing this
it forms the empirical level of knowledge.

The production of knowledge involves: Aspects of a biological type (functions and

brain stimuli, chemical-electrical reactions), psychological aspects (will,
intentionality, reaction, stimulus), social aspects (needs, problems, ways of
production), religious aspects, political aspects.

During the development of human intellectuality, various positions have arisen and
various theories surrounding what knowledge is. For the dogmatists, knowledge was
exclusively a natural condition of man, ignoring that knowledge implies a
relationship; the dogmatic neglects the object and its function, then the skeptics arrived, the
pragmatics, realists, critics among others, who refuted all positions prior to theirs
raised, regarding the possibility of producing any knowledge.

It is true that knowledge as such is closely tied to philosophy and science.

they represent pure speculation, that is to say, they represent the explanation and interpretation of knowledge
human, this kept the great philosophers of ancient Greece very busy who did not
They spared no effort in presenting and defending their arguments.

INTERDISCIPLINARY, INTRADISCIPLINARY, AND TRANSDISCIPLINARY APPROACH

Studies on interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity gained prominence during the

last 30 years. It is society itself that has pushed us to find solutions to problems
complex from both points of view. Although the terms refer to two conceptions
different, their indeterminate use forces us to pause at their distinctions.

Interdisciplinarity implies points of contact between disciplines in which each one

brings its problems, concepts, and research methods. Transdisciplinarity, however,
it is what is inherently simultaneous to the disciplines and where the same is ultimately adopted
research method. Transdisciplinarity is between disciplines, within disciplines, and beyond.
beyond the disciplines. The definitions are much more complex and compel us to review
historically its emergence and use.
The historical studies of scientific disciplines and the phenomena that condition them are not
abundant. This condition is maximized in the case of the controversial informative disciplines, the
which are understood as those that appear framed within certain institutions:
library science and archiving, and those that maintain a completely independent character from the
institutions: bibliography and information science. In the current era, information science
information constitutes the discipline with the greatest dissemination of research, both theoretical and
historical.
Interdisciplinarity is nothing more than the reaffirmation and constant epistemological approach of the
reorganization of knowledge. In modern science, the concern of its main proponents
Galileo, Descartes, Bacon - for the interdisciplinary scientific society was unchanging.

EMPIRICISM AND RATIONALISM

1.- EMPIRICISM

Definition of empiricism: EMPIRICISM is the philosophical tendency that considers the

EXPERIENCE as a criterion or STANDARD OF TRUTH IN KNOWLEDGE.
As such, it refers to EXPERIENCE (from Greek empiria) in its second meaning:
it is not 'personal participation in repeatable situations' (with personal and subjective meaning);
but the repeated experience of certain situations offers us a criterion (objective and
impersonal) to know things (or situations).

Empiricism is characterized by two fundamental aspects:

a) DENIES THE ABSOLUTIZATION OF TRUTH or, at the very least, denies that absolute truth
sea accessible to man.

b) Recognize that EVERY TRUTH MUST BE TESTED and, based on experience,

It can eventually be modified, corrected, or abandoned.

IT DOES NOT OPPOSE reason in any way, but denies the claim to establish
NECESSARY TRUTHS, that is to say, truths that are valid in such an absolute way that it becomes
unnecessary, absurd, or contradictory its verification or its control.

Most of the time we act or think empirically. We expect things to happen.

things more by habit or custom than by scientific reasoning. In this sense, EMPIRICISM
contrasts with RATIONALISM.
2.- RATIONALISM

Definition of rationalism: RATIONALISM is the PHILOSOPHICAL TREND that considers

THE REALITY GOVERNED BY AN INTELLIGIBLE PRINCIPLE to which reason can
access and ultimately IDENTIFIES REASON WITH THINKING.

In general terms, it is opposed to IRRATIONALISM (not to empiricism), and throughout the

history has known multiple variants:

ethical rationalism: this term refers to the Socratic moral intellectualism.

- metaphysical rationalism: Platonic rationalism (which considers reality ordered according to the
ideal and final model of the Good.

religious rationalism: it is that of the deists (Kant, the Enlightened, the French Revolution...) that
they identify the revealed truth with the ultimate data of reason and believe in a rational god but do not
provident.

- ontological rationalism: it is Hegelian thought (for whom the process of the real coincides with
the self-realization of Reason or Spirit.

The various types of rationalism (Cartesian or not, Platonic or not, Hegelian or not!) defend
all the thesis that REASON IS NOT A FACULTY (psychological) but a concatenation
of necessary truths.

On the other hand, the thesis of rationalism is, as it has been said, that there is no necessary truth, that all
Truth can be tested, controlled, and eventually modified or abandoned.

Rationalism is the expression of a strong reason that finds

IN ITSELF THE PRINCIPLE OF its JUSTIFICATION.

3.- OTHER ASPECTS OF EMPIRICISM.

Denial of any knowledge or INNATE principle (that must be recognized as valid

necessarily)

Denial of the SUPRASENSIBLE (that is, of any reality that cannot be verified by
some objective, verifiable way

Affirmation of the importance of the CURRENT REALITY or of the immediately present to the
sensory organs, that is, of the reality of fact (de facto, and not de jure).

Recognition of HUMAN nature - THAT IS, LIMITED, PARTIAL, AND IMPERFECT-

of the tools that man possesses to witness, to know, and to control the truth
(critical empiricism).

The application of such instruments (however limited they may be) for ALL AREAS of the
reality and for each (supposed) TRUTH.
Taken to its most extreme consequences, empiricism could lead to SKEPTICISM - as
It was the case of Hume. In fact, he was the first theorist of Greek Skepticism: Sextus Empiricus [180-220
C.E.] was an empiricist. A basic difference between ancient empiricism and that of Hume lies in the
moral character of the first, in contrast to the basically epistemological character of the second.

Materialist Dialectics

The simplest and most influential formulaion of dialectical materialismis found inin English, thatbelieved with
he did not deviate from Marx or, in any case, believed he could complete Marx. Engels' formulation has
incorporated intothe Marxismlabeled as 'orthodox'. This does not mean that only Marxists
"Orthodox" shall be dialectical materialists. It is possible to uphold dialectical materialism within
forms of 'non-orthodox' Marxism – at least non-orthodox in relation to orthodox Marxism
alluded. This can happen in several ways, among which two stand out: as an attempt to
supplement and systematize Marxism in a manner different from the today traditional conglomerate 'Marx-
"Engels-Lenin", or "Marxism-Leninism"; or as a possibility for the future, when it has been
"completely absorbed" by the analytical and positive reason that is supposed to still characterize the sciences and
these can be constituted dialectically, or materialistically-dialectically.
Engels developed dialectical materialism in the work 'The Transformation of the Sciences by Mr.
"Dühring" (Herr Dühring's Revolution of the Sciences, 1878; published as a series of
articles in Vorwärts, 1877), known by the name of Anti-Dühring, and also in a series of
2148 manuscripts from 1873-1883 and published for the first time in 1925 under the name
Dialectics of Nature (there are later editions, more reliable; Spanish translation with introduction by
Manuel Sacristán). Although Engels opposed idealism, including Hegel's idealism,
found in this author support for a "philosophy of Nature" that dismissed and overcame the
mechanistic materialism, ccharacteristic of a large part of modern physics (mechanics) and in particular
of the philosophical interpretations of modern science that proliferated in the 19th century due to
Ludwig Büchnerand other authors. This materialism is, according to Engels, superficial and does not take into account
that mechanical models do not apply to new scientific developments, such as those occurring in
chemistry and in biology, and especially as they manifest in the theory ofthe evolution of the
species. The mMechanical 'vulgar' materialism also does not take into account the practical character of
knowledge and the fact that the sciences are not independent of social conditions and
the possibilities of revolutionizing society.
While mechanistic materialism is based on the idea that the world is composed of things
and, ultimately, of material particles that combine with each other in an 'inert' way, the
dialectical materialism asserts that material phenomena are processes. Hegel was right in
insist on the global and dialectical character of changes in natural processes, but erred in making
of these changes manifestations of the 'Spirit'. It is necessary to 'invert' the Hegelian idea and place it in the
base the matter in terms of how it develops dialectically. The dialectic of Nature proceeds
according to the three great dialectical laws:

law of the transition from quantity to quality,

law of the interpenetration of opposites (or contrary) and
law of the negation of the negation.

Denying that there are contradictions in Nature is, according to Engels, to maintain a metaphysical position;
The truth is that the movement itself is full of contradictions. These are 'objective' contradictions.
and also 'subjective'. Without the constant struggle of opposites, changes cannot be explained.
The character of struggle and opposition of opposites is, according to Engels, universal. It manifests itself not only in the
society and in Nature, but also andin mathematics.The negation of the negation manifests itself
from which a germ a plant arises that blooms and dies, producing another germ that returns to
to flourish. It is also manifested in that the negation of a negative quantity gives a positive.
dialectical materialism is not, according to Engels, opposed to the results of the sciences; for the
contradict, explain, justify, and synthesize these results.
In the Dialectics of Nature, Engels expressed his disagreement with considering necessity or
the necessary as the only interesting thing from a scientific point of view and chance or the casual as
indifferent to science, for thus 'all science ceases, since it must precisely investigate what
that we do not know." He considered that metaphysics is captive to the opposition that mediates between
chance and necessity and does not understand how the casual is necessary and the necessary, at the same time,
casual.Determinism, whichIt shifts from French materialism to natural sciences, trying to solve
the problem of pure chance simply by denying it. According to this conception, in nature
"queen simply the direct necessity". In changingOh, Darwinhe founded the need for the
evolution, aboutthe broadest base of chance. Nature has unfolded itself 'more or less
accidentally, but with the need that is also inherent to chance." Currently
it could be seen ein mathematicsofthe probabilities, aconfirmation of this dialectical vision, in
its specificities for natural sciences and social sciences.
In spite of the cited example in mathematics, it has often been asked to what extent the
formal sciences, and specifically logic, are dialectical and are subject to the laws
stated by dialectical materialism. Engels expressed himself on this matter in a somewhat
ambivalent, as while the reference laws have, in their view, a truly far-reaching scope
universal, on the other hand, the dialectical laws themselves constitute an invariable element. Since
Logic itself is dialectical; it seems unnecessary to ask whether dialectical logic is or is not.
dialectics; it does not seem that dialectical logic can be denied by any non-dialectical logic. On the other hand,
side, the negation of the negation of this dialectical logic would supposedly give a dialectical logic.
"superior." There are many discussions about the autonomy or heteronomy of formal logic within
of dialectical materialism.
Many authors after Engels have followed this author on the path of dialectical materialism.
they have indeed modified this in various ways. Such happens con Lenin, con whom a tradition begins
of dialectical materialism called 'Marxist-Leninist'. For him, dialectics is the doctrine of
development in its most complete, deep, and free from unilateralism, the doctrine about the
relative to human knowledge, which gives us a reflection of matter in perpetual development.
Lenin initially insisted less than Engels on the notion of 'matter' as reality subjected to
changes according to a dialectical process, because he was interested in defending materialist realism
against the idealism and phenomenism of those who followed Autoreit's like Machand Avenarius. In
Materialism and Empiriocriticism(1909Lenin equated material reality with the reality of
real world 'external', reflected by consciousness, which 'copies' this world through the
perceptions. These are not symbols or figures, but reflections of 'the reality (material) itself'. This does not
It means that perceptions, or sensations, describe the physical real world as it is.
The true knowledge of this world is scientific knowledge, but perception is not
incompatible with this knowledge. Dialectical materialism and 'realistic' epistemology and
"scientific" that accompanies it is, according to Lenin, the doctrine that must be adopted to fight in favor
of communism. This seems to turn dialectical materialism into an ideology whose truth
It depends on the historical situation. Dialectical materialism is, in sum, 'partisan'. However,
this partisanship cannot be equated with that of non-proletarian and non-revolutionary ideologies; if it is
an ideology is one that contributes to bringing to the world the 'true theory', which is the one that
corresponds to a classless society.
In discussions among dialectical materialists, the question has frequently arisen of whether, and
to what extent, the materialist or dialectical aspect should be emphasized. In writings after the
cited earlier, and especially in the Philosophical Notebooks (1915), Lenin significantly emphasized
the dialectical aspect and, with it, what was interpreted as the true Hegelian method, but that does not
it still amounts to setting aside materialism, without which one would lead to idealism:
 Dialectics as living knowledge, multilateral (with the number of aspects always in
increase), of countless nuances in the way of approaching, of getting closer to reality
(with a philosophical system that develops into a whole from every nuance): here is the content
immeasurably rich, in comparison to 'metaphysical' materialism, whose
the main misfortune is the inability to apply dialectics to the 'Theory of Reflection', to the
process and development of knowledge.

Thus, while the dialectic in dialectical materialism highlights 'idealist' aspects and
"Hegelian," materialism in the same doctrine highlights, or may ultimately highlight
excessively emphasizes purely "mechanistic" or "superficial" aspects. The balance between
Dialectics and materialism in dialectical materialism is therefore one of the desires of many.
of the authors adhering to this trend.
At times, efforts have been made to resolve the conflict between the two components of materialism.
dialectical emphasizing the 'practical' aspects. This happens, for example, with Maoism and with
several political trends more interested in implementing a program than in discussing the foundations
underlying philosophical aspects in the sameo. Maohe wrote andin 1937the rehearsalo About Contradiction, that
in addition to starting from the universality of contradiction and the particularities of each contradiction,
it focuses on determining the main contradiction and the main aspect of a contradiction, thus
like antagonism, struggle, and the identity of opposites, so that the militants
revolutionaries had a manual of logic for solving specific political problems.
Dialectical materialism, whose presentation as such is more due to the activity of Engels than to the
From Marx himself, it has traditionally been considered as Marx's philosophical stance.
and Engels in front of Hegelian idealism, that is, as the result of his critique of idealism and,
As such, it has been presented by most scholars of Marxism as the framework of
conceptual reference from which historical materialism is developed, which would be the expression
properly scientific of his thought. The exposition of dialectical materialism is found
fundamentally in the works of Engels: 'Anti-Dühring', (with contributions from Marx, published
in 1878), and 'On the Dialectics of Nature' (written between 1873 and 1886), this latter work,
also known by Marx, whose contents he never rejected and given the close collaboration
between them until his death, is also considered an expression of his own thought
Marx.

Marxist Humanism and Bolivarian Education

Humankind lost its way and its destiny: happiness, health, love. Immersed in a
sick society, the Imperialist Neoliberal Capitalist, has spread its spirit of greed,
unbridled profit-seeking and individualism. Surprised by its essence and the nature of which
is part of, relates to the world from its loneliness and passivity, transferring to objects and
to money its human faculties.
The egocentrism he suffers from is nothing more than the result of the logic of capital which
stimulates among the wealthy, according to Fabelo (1), a constant search for profit maximization
even at the cost of everything and everyone, and which forces others, the poor, to also be selfish, because
Sometimes selfishness is for them the only possibility of survival.
Self-absorbed in that contradictory existence, man and woman are eagerly seeking answers.
to certain questions. Why did they separate from themselves, from nature and from others? Why
Are they imprisoned by their instincts and suffering from mental insanity? Where does their fragmentation come from?
emptiness, sadness, and unease? How can they harmonize their souls with being and consciousness?
Do you need to rebuild your relational world?
In that relational world, the Venezuelan has been subsumed, suffering from the same contradictions: the
sadomasochism, submission, the effects of power, the disrespect for individuality and
collective needs since the Spanish colonizers arrived in these lands in the 15th century
to establish the capitalist system of production. They violated the way of life, of work and
of harmonious coexistence of the aborigines and imposed another model, foreign to these realities,
inspired by bourgeois Liberalism, the traditionalism of Catholicism, and Positivism
Rationalist; this led to the loss of the categorical systems that articulated the immediate past.
of the native and his displacement as the protagonist of History. (2).
The nascent Latin Caribbean nation-states progressively blurred with the
transnationalization of capital and the needs of the market as well as the way of being,
feel, act and fabricate of these peoples. The overwhelming ideological penetration of tendency
Homogenizing has made man an individualist, an egoist. A society that
functions under a selfish system, in which profit is above any other value and the
the individual appropriation of social wealth is accepted by ethics, it is a sick society that is going
shaping their own abysses; it is a suicidal society." (3). Marx (4) tells us:...The true
The spiritual wealth of the individual depends entirely on the richness of their real relationships. (...)
men make each other both physically and spiritually. We ask ourselves: How
Has the Venezuelan lost his human condition? What are his real relationships with nature like?
with yourself and with others? Why do you disdain your creative abilities? Are you a selfish being and
individualist or altruist and supportive? Has Education and the bourgeois School contributed to its
dehumanization, its alienation?
How ideological apparatuses have multiplied the ideology of domination through the school
formal, secular and religious, public and private, where knowledge was and is transmitted
disconnected from the immediate realities of the learners. In the classrooms, there is still a prevalence of
Greek maxim - 'the teacher said', the mechanical transmissibility of a useless and encyclopedic knowledge,
a routine scholastic environment where fear and submission are instilled in the young
generations. In short, an education and a school of the world turned upside down (5) that ... teaches us to
to endure reality instead of changing it, to forget the past instead of listening to it, and to accept the
future instead of imagining it.
According to the Ministry of Education and Sports (6), the country project that was implemented through
those ideological apparatuses during the period 1958-1998 known as the Fourth Republic, served to
deepen the dependency and the colonialist relationship with transnational capital and to satisfy the
market needs and not those of the real population through the promotion of exogenous development
and its precepts of productivity, competitiveness, educational laborism, and generalization
business. Also consider that...the human being in his education is subject to intentionality
from other agents who 'plan' their education from afar, from the strange, with transposition,
borrowed science, just like techniques, methods, and even instruments. At the same time, it is
deprived of the systematization and strength of one's own, of its root and essence of the human, in order to be
the object of management was copied from foreign models.

To reverse this dehumanization and estrangement, the Bolivarian Educational Proposal emerged.
which germinated in the context of the advances and setbacks of the Bolivarian Revolution
substantiated with common and non-negotiable values of humanity such as freedom; the
independence and the self-determination of peoples; peace and the defense of nuclear disarmament;
solidarity and the common good; territorial integrity and non-intervention; coexistence and the
Latin Caribbean integration; justice and social equality. (7)

This revolutionary process is increasingly flourishing in the soul of the people through its axes: the
philosophical, by focusing on man and woman in all their actions: the organizational, by adopting the
Missions as organizational forms and stimulants of collective consciousness; economic,
promote the creation of a collective and solidarity economy represented in cooperatives; the
political, through the manifestation of new forms and behaviors of defense and deepening of the
revolution; the strategic, by the civic-military unity as a pillar and guarantee of permanence; and the
leadership centered on Commander Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías.
 Redeeming the HUMAN is the basic premise of the Bolivarian Revolution, an objective to achieve.
with the collective construction of libertarian actions inspired by the Bolivarian ideology useful for
definitely delineates social justice, the modification of the economy, a new ethics and morality,
Internationalism and integration Towards that destination, efforts such as ALBA have been directed.
TELESUR, PETROCARIBE, PETROSUR, BANK OF THE SOUTH and other projects.
This educational proposal focuses on the following aspects, according to the governing body: (8)
Revert the neoliberal trend of the 1990s by taking up the Teaching State as a guide.
of the educational process
Conceive education as a human right and a social duty of every person, without
any discrimination, guaranteed free of charge and mandatory for the entire population, in
especially for the most vulnerable sectors; hence its sense of equity.
It assigns to Education the primary function of directing, promoting, and supervising the training of
new citizen and republican in a sense of full development of their personality, of enjoying
a dignified existence, valuing the work ethic and with a sense of participation
citizen.

Articulates in a new structure of the educational system the two mechanisms of innovation.
transformative like the flagship projects, Simoncito, Bolivarian School and High School, Schools
Robinsonian Techniques and Bolivarian University and educational missions,
Robinson I and II, Ribas and Sucre.
Conceive the school as an entity of quality dedicated to the integral development of the students.
from their minds and intellect, their hands for work and their body for physical and mental health, their
spirit for creativity, inventiveness, and cognitive wisdom.
Promote a new National Pedagogy as a basis to consolidate sovereignty and
self-determination of our people.

However, the coexistence of weaknesses and strengths, models, vices and old and new values.
Within the educational-school apparatus, it has hindered the achievement of these objectives.

The bureaucratic school segmented into levels and modalities; invaded by corruption and the
unionism; by immediate, pragmatic, and confused teachers in their conceptions
philosophical, political, axiological, and epistemological, discriminators of cognitive capacities of
the apprentices and the essence of learning, detached from their social environment, coexists with a
emerging school and extracurricular structure promoting community self-management, the projects
of endogenous development and respect for the collective construction of knowledge despite the fact that...
oligarchs fight to capture the extraordinary revolutionary advance of the missions, trying to
to assimilate them to the ancient state that justified their creation. They also prevent the strength
transformer of the missions, shred and transform the state we inherited from the Fourth Republic.
(9)

The definition of the man and citizen to be formed by the Bolivarian School is also ambiguous.
For example, in the National Educational Project (10), it was stated that education must respond to the
requirements of material production from a humanist and cooperative perspective as well as
also to train the new generations in the culture of citizen participation, of the
social solidarity, intercultural dialogue, and recognition of ethnic diversity.
The same ministry (11) conceives Bolivarian Education as... a localized human continuum,
territorialized that addresses the processes of teaching and learning as a complex unit of
total and integral human nature, corresponding its levels and modalities to the moments of
personal development of each age in its physical, biological or psychological, cultural, social and historical state
in successive periods where each one encompasses the previous, creating the conditions of aptitude,
vocation and aspiration to be served by the Educational System.
It repeatedly states in its documents expressions such as human conception, integral and
progressive, development of a new type of humanistic society based on the principles of
freedom, equality and social justice. We ask ourselves: What Humanism are we talking about, of
Liberal
Bourgeois who still consecrates the Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic? Of a Humanism
eclectic with diffuse ontological and axiological conceptions? Is it rather a Humanism
Radical that takes root in the creators of Marxism, a body of ideas and values that encouraged
and they encourage women and men to transform their dehumanized realities into societies
truly human?
We believe that a revolution, when it is genuine, profoundly changes the human relationship of a
town, its culture and spirituality as well as the ways in which it produces and reproduces its existence
collective so that each individual receives from society according to their needs and work and it
deliver to her according to her capabilities. The Bolivarian Revolution is heading towards the
construction of a new society that will replace the selfish consciousness of Capitalism with the
solidarity consciousness of Bolivarian Socialism, capable of transforming the man-commodity into a
true human being who relates with love to their peers and with nature.

MARXIST HUMANISM.

It is a case of philosophical humanism (*). The h.m. developed especially in the years following
the Second World War by a group of philosophers. The most representative speakers
fueron:Ernst Blochen Alemania,Adam Shaffen Polonia,Roger Garaudyen Francia,Rodolfo
Mondolfo in Italy, Erich Fromm and Herbert Marcuse in the United States. These authors discussed
to recover and develop the humanistic aspect that, according to his interpretation, constituted the essence
same as that of Marxism. Previously, Engels in his famous letter to Bloch (1880), had emphasized
that Marxism had been misunderstood and that it was a mistake to see a determinism
absolute and unilateral of the productive forces over consciousness and the superstructures. The
consciousness, explained, reacts in turn to the structure and is necessary for understanding
revolutionary of the mutations of the structure and of the contradiction between the productive forces and
social relationships.

Humanist Marxists highlighted the importance of Marx's youth writings, especially

of the Economic-Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, of the German Ideology and of the Critique of
Hegel's right, and others from maturity like those of the Theory of Surplus Value. These philosophers are
they made an effort to reinterpret Marx's thinking in a way that was not strictly
economist and materialist (* Materialism). Thus, they emphasized more than the writings of maturity.
from Marx, such as Capital, to the youthful works recently discovered in the 1930s. They highlighted
that passage from the Manuscripts in which Marx says: "... man is not only a natural being;
it is also a natural human being, that is, a being that is for itself, and then a being that belongs to the
human species. As such, he must realize and affirm himself both in his being and in his knowledge. By
These human objects are not natural objects as they are presented in an immediate mode...
nature, taken abstractly, in itself, fixed in its separation from man, is for man
a nullity." Marx says, at the beginning of his anthropology exposition in the Manuscripts:
We see here how naturalism or humanism, taken to its own term, is distinguished from both
idealism as well as materialism, and it is at the same time the truth that unites both.

Mondolfo explains that: "In reality, if we examine historical materialism without prejudice, just as
it results in the texts of Marx and Engels, we must recognize that it is not a materialism,
rather of a true humanism, which places at the center of every consideration and discussion the
concept of man. It is a realistic humanism (Rea-le Humanismus), as the same called it.
creators, which seeks to consider man in his effective and concrete reality. It seeks to
understanding their existence in history and understanding history as a produced reality
by man through his activity, his work, his social action, over the centuries in which
how the process of training and transformation of the environment in which the
the man lives, and in which the man himself is developing, simultaneously as an effect and
cause of all historical evolution. In this sense, we find that historical materialism does not
can be confused with a materialist philosophy." (* Philosophical antihumanism and Marxism-
Leninism

Historical-Social Conditions for the Emergence of a New Humanism

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION

The economic, political, and social changes that the Bolivarian Republic is going through
Venezuela involves great challenges for education as a key element of national development.
instrument for the holistic development of the human being, taking into account the new criteria for
educational policies. Concepts about human rights are taken for granted in the everyday context.
the importance of ethics and morality in the human being, as well as their subsequent behavior towards
society for the common good.

The philosophical conception of the SEB focuses on the ideas of Simón Bolívar about the role of the
education and in a new model of society that it prefigures, as established by the Preamble of the
CRBV, the profile of the new generation, which will make a democratic, participatory republic possible,
protagonistic, multiethnic and multicultural, in a state of law and justice that allows it to grow
progressively in understanding their condition as a citizen and respond,
correspond and participate in society.

Bolívar considered the need to develop a personality based on education.

the spirit and the heart of the citizens, as well as for the exercise of work in society and of the
training for social and human life. It also valued the indispensable nature of education as
instrument for the exercise of the political rights of citizens, who do not
they require special conditions of goods and fortunes to exercise them. For him, the nation will be what
it is based on wise and virtuous educational principles, and each society corresponds to a type of
education; its rhythm of wisdom or darkness will determine whether it advances or sinks.

Ideas of Rousseau, Simón Bolívar, Simón Rodríguez, and José Martí.

In José Martí, there is no intention to develop an educational theory; his true objective is
actively participate in every controversy of their time, and coherently and fairly present what
think with a single purpose: to form the new Latin American man, capable of transforming society.
It is within this framework that he presents his educational ideas.
His educational thought is essentially humanizing, with a clear purpose: to develop a
culture of the human being, in which dignity occupies the central place, as it is considered the highest virtue
the elevation of man and his creative spirituality.
We are in the presence of a foundational work with infinite apprehensive channels, where a simple
an approach to the essences is useful, considering that the Master leaves abundant
knowledge in the educational sphere and still has much to teach today.
The Martian conception of education does not arise spontaneously; it constitutes a process.
complex that takes into account socio-cultural and historical background, the era that Martí lived with his
respective influences, as well as their own worldview that serves as its foundation. All of this
becomes central mediations, conditioning and determinations that give reality to its
educational ideology. It is a process of assimilation and creation, with a deep ecumenical vocation.
The history of humanity recognizes the French Revolution of 1789 as the event that
universalizes socio-political change projects, as it presents a new ideology that
provokes a turn in philosophical, economic, political, social ideas, and especially
educational institutions of the time. England is the theoretical model for France, especially due to the influence of
John Locke (1632-1704) and Newtonian science. This movement is initiated by Charles L.
Montesquieu (1689-1756) and Voltaire (1694-1778). However, it is Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-
the main figure of the French Enlightenment in addressing the educational problem,
while it is Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) who develops and puts into practice the
Pedagogical conceptions of Rousseau. John Locke grounds his educational conceptions.
about practical methods, recommend the school of life and criticize scholastic teaching. Without
embargo, strips the educational principles of solidarity feelings, defends that everyone
Students are not the same and proposes a preceptor for each student.
Jean Jacques Rousseau critiques the social regime of France from different positions. Although
revisits the ideas of J. Locke, surpassing them by proposing that education should not only focus on cultivation
of the spirit. It asserts that it is necessary to learn through constant practice.
Rousseau shares with Locke and the main philosophers of the Enlightenment the vision of being.
human as an individual united with nature and society, which in the conception of the
education means above all, attention to the individual and their training in correspondence with the
natural and social environment. The problem of education is thus posed in the individual dimension,
while Martí goes further in recognizing the need to educate the popular masses. However,
He agrees with Rousseau in seeing the influence of nature in education and advocating for freedom.
of thought to which every man has the right. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss, whose
conceptions established the foundations of modern elementary education. Influenced by
Rousseau creates objective teaching, advises as a method 2
educational individual experience demands basic education for farmers and
workers. It understands that the school is an important element in education that enriches the
experience, personal and common life, but within a broader framework than the family context. It is the
creator of scientific pedagogy as a system. Sees in education the remedy that saves the
towns, although it does not recognize the need to change the social living conditions, it does see in the
Education is the means for social reform. Martí admits, just like Pestalozzi, education in the
moral aptitude, as the key element to elevate human strengths.
The educational ideals of the European Enlightenment that transcend through their ethical, modern content and
progressive are: education as a capacity for moral life, elementary education for the
peasants and workers, use of practical methods in the education of men and
freedom of thought. European Enlightenment looks towards the solution of problems
humans that capitalist development had brought and becomes a weapon to promote the most ideas
progressives regardless of which part of the world it was from. This thought constitutes the model
theoretical framework of the Enlightenment thinkers of Spanish America, reflecting the most genuine aspirations of a
new type of humanism, with which modernity and the possibilities of emancipation opened up
Latin America.
The main Latin American thinkers of the 19th century show a consistent affiliation.
enlightenment, with practical liberal conceptions and proposals for our peoples. They coincide in
giving education an important place as an element of sociopolitical transformation and
economic. In this sense, Venezuelans Simón Narciso Carreño played an important role
Rodríguez (1771-1854), and Simón Bolívar (1783-1830), the Mexican Justo Sierra Méndez (1848-
1912), the Argentine Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811-1888), the Puerto Rican Eugenio María de
Hostos (1839-1903) and the Uruguayan José Pedro Varela (1845-1879).
Simón Narciso Carreño Rodríguez proposes schools that use the same time for study and
work. It opposes differentiated education by social classes. When referring to the importance of the
education sees the education of the masses as a strategic element to achieve unity in the
Latin American republics, aware that Europe and the United States constitute a
a threat to the originality of our peoples, which advocates for the independent development of
the towns based on education.
Simón Bolívar, in 1824, supports the introduction of Pestalozzi's method and encourages the expansion of the
illustrated education on the continent. Brings Lancaster to apply his educational concepts to
the new school. From this moment on, the conditions for the development of a
new education, which will contribute to the gradual formation of a Latin American pedagogy,
committed to the problems of the region and their solution.
For the Liberator, education must contribute to the welfare of men, but first of all, there is
to liberate the peoples and elevate culture, to end ignorance and form a consciousness
American. Recognizes that we are a new human genre, neither Europeans nor French, and manifests the
need to link education to political projects.
Justo Sierra Méndez, known as the 'Maestro de México', [1] historian, sociologist, philosopher,
writer, politician and biographer of Benito Juárez. He teaches from primary level to
university student. He recognizes that although Mexico ceases to be a colony of Spain, it never changes its
condition, as it remains in a deep economic and cultural backwardness. It advocates for the ...
universities teach to research and think, which opposes traditional methods.
His educational thought is characterized by a high patriotic content and concern for the...
the threat that the power of the North means for our people. Martí has great admiration for
His work: -Who does not know that Justo Sierra is the honor of the Mexican homeland? It would be foolish to debate this here.
my comment.‖ [2] Martí and Sierra agreed in recognizing the relationship between education and
instruction and the need 3
that the school corresponds to the interests of society, as well as for secular education
and its expansion in rural areas.
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento dedicates thirty years of his life to the task of education. His crowning work The
popular education, written in 1849. Among its main ideas is that teaching should guide
and train the people in connection with the work they will later carry out. Education must
to be the same for all social classes. In its practice, it proposes a comprehensive education, aimed at
individual development of the student.
The Apostle criticizes Sarmiento's fanaticism for the American way of life and the fact that
to underestimate the education of the indigenous people by considering them outside of social classes, with which
it manifests a discriminatory position. [3] In the work Facundo, Sarmiento considers that the evils of
Latin America is in these races and admires how the United States did not accept the indigenous masses.
in its social constitution.
Eugenio María de Hostos is another prominent educator, born in Puerto Rico. Teacher, sociologist,
literary, geographer, politician, and educator, author of Science of Pedagogy, History of Pedagogy and
Pedagogical controversies, works published in Madrid.
Hostos, the Citizen of America, is alongside Martí, a founding teacher of peoples like those
great men of the 19th century, members of that exceptional record of thinkers dedicated to
continental exaltation. They are contemporaries and coincide as they come from nations still subjected
to Spanish colonial rule.
Martí and Hostos engage in an independence project, where education takes a prominent place.
key to the formation of our towns. They agreed on defending women's education,
criticism of punishment, secular and compulsory education, patriotic education for raising awareness
based on the ideals of justice and freedom in the broadest ethical sense.
In the analysis of all these educators, there are two fundamental trends. One proposes that the
education shapes equal and cultured individuals, with a universalist conception of man, that
it devalues individuality and promotes general patterns. Among them Andrés Bello and Domingo
F. Sarmiento sees in the North American and European models of life the solution for progress.
the region. This position has limitations such as: the contempt for education that is based on
our authentic cultural roots, and raises the need to copy foreign models to give
solution to the problems facing the continent. This trend is disastrous because it leads to the
loss of individual identity and of Latin American peoples.

Colonial Economy of Venezuela.

The search for precious metals was the primary reason for the Conquest, in such a way that the
The importance of each Colony depended on its ability to export gold and silver to the Metropolis. The
The Spanish government stimulated the exploration of the territory in search of these metals and in some cases
he imposed it as an obligation on the conquerors.

Likewise, the conquerors dedicated themselves to the exploitation of pearls and to the exploitation of
some mines discovered in the north of the country. The pearls were exhausted very quickly and the mines were
abandoned due to their low yield. The colonizers had to dedicate themselves to agriculture and
the breeding, thus initiating the formation of an agricultural economy that came to be the
characteristic economy of the colonial period starting in the 17th century.

Factors that determined the development of the colonial economy

The land: The lands were declared the property of the kings. Over time, a part of them
they passed into the hands of private individuals, sometimes by donation and other times by sale. Those that were in
power of the Crown, were called Royal Lands (Realengas); and those that passed into the hands
particulars constituted the Territorial Property, which originated from the Divisions,
Mercedes, Sales and Land Compositions.

The indigenous labor: The subdued Indians were forced to work for the
colonizers, who primarily used them in The Encomiendas and The Missions. More
In the afternoon, the black labor was incorporated into the work of the Colony and was mainly used in
the cacao plantations.

Colonial agriculture.
Subsistence Agriculture: it was practiced by the indigenous people and the blacks, cultivating in their conucos and
in their communal lands, the essential products for their daily food: corn, cassava,
ocumos, potatoes, pineapples, sweet potatoes, celery, many species of tubers and fruits.

Plantation Agriculture: The one that was established definitively, based on large property.
territorial, with mainly slave labor, intended for export and trade
internal: tobacco, cacao, indigo, cotton, wheat, coffee, wheat flour, leather, etc.
The main export product is cocoa, an American fruit and category in
expansion since 1670, fundamental base of the wealth of the landowners, called then
large cocoa beans. Since the 17th century, cocoa has replaced tobacco cultivation as the primary crop.
of production and trade. Cocoa is grown throughout the coastal strip, from Irapa, Soro and
Yaguaraparo to Maracaibo. However, the highest concentration of production is found in
the central zone, basically in Caracas and the central coast, Barlovento, valleys of Aragua and Tuy.
Tobacco, another product of American origin, is also important in various contexts.
regional, especially in Cumaná, and in the regions of the Andean foothills plains, especially in
Barinas, whose variety is one of the most sought after.
Other agricultural products like cotton, benefited by American Indians long before
from the arrival of the Spaniards, they have a lower spatial distribution. The same happens with indigo, cultivated
preferably in the Aragua valleys, especially in Maracay, where there are about 60
haciendas, and Yaracuy, which is incorporated into the colonial economy starting from 1770.
The space cultivation of coffee has seen considerable growth since its introduction in 1730.
in the Orinoco region, then reaching almost the entire territory, the Coastal mountain range and the
Andes in particular. Since the late 18th century, production has been increasing until it becomes
the main export item at the end of the 19th century, until 1926 when oil takes its
position.
Of the products for domestic consumption, and which are occasionally exported, sugarcane occupies
First of all, it is one of the most important plants for regional economies. From it, we
both sugar, whether white or in the form of panela and papelón, and aguardiente, a product of
large internal consumption, and a true headache for civil and religious authorities who
they are trying to eliminate it, to protect producers from the peninsula and the Canary Islands

The Colonial Cattle Ranching.

The introduction of livestock and the beginning of cattle raising in Venezuela constitutes one of the most
significant contributions of the Spaniards to the development of the colonial economy. In its beginnings this
The activity was linked to the conquest and exploration of the territory, as the first explorers
they brought livestock destined for maintenance, and mules and horses for transport and
the war. When the first cities were founded, their inhabitants engaged in livestock breeding as an activity of
subsistence, and in some cases they were able to have livestock for the organization of new
expeditions and for exchange.
The products of breeding constituted an important line of the colonial economy; on one hand
they provided food: meat, milk, cheese, butter, and raw materials for production
soles, ropes, harnesses, and other household goods; on the other hand, they supplied goods for the
export, especially mules and hides; also, pack animals for the transportation of goods,
agricultural and communication works.
Since the 16th century, the introduction of cattle, horses, sheep, and in
lower grade, pork. The regions where the imports were made were Cumaná and,
large scale, Choir.

From Coro, the cattle moved to El Tocuyo, which became the main cattle center of the
Colony. From there it was exported to New Granada and the expansion towards Los Llanos continued. In Los
The plains quickly reproduced the cattle, soon they gained great importance both in the area.
llanera as in the western center, the leathers and the cordobans (tanned skins of male goats),
the same as the soles, as by-products of livestock. The leather trade came to occupy the
third place in exports, after tobacco and cocoa.

Colonial Trade in Venezuela.

The Venezuelan economic life during the Colony depended on its agricultural production and the
exchange with imported goods, remained within the limitations of an economy
natural, with little room for trade, and also subject to prohibitions and restrictions that
they determined a slow and painful development of the economy.
Initially, trade was bartering: the Spaniards exchanged trinkets with the Indians for
gold samples. Then pearls were used as currency. After that, currency was used or
canvas, which was a special fabric made under certain rules established by the authorities
to serve as money. Throughout the Colony, various coins were used.
originating from Spain, such as the maravedí, the peso, and the real.

Until the end of the 18th century, commercial activities were subject to the norms of
mercantilism. Spain prevented its colonies from trading with those of other empires, and likewise
between those colonies. Likewise, the transport of the products had to be done by ships.
Spanish. There was no direct trade between one colony and another, but rather through Spain, which...
way exercised the commercial monopoly, characteristic of mercantilist countries. In exchange for these
products included food supplies, crockery, wines, silks, silver and gold coins, slaves, and a wide variety
of manufactured articles.

Trade between the metropolis and its domains was always governed by the principle, universally
admitted from the monopoly, as a means of securing the benefit of the dominant power, From a
Initially, the monopoly functioned poorly, and its deterioration was exacerbated by a series of reasons that
It would be lengthy to explain: the inadequacy of the Spanish industry to meet American demand.
impossibility of properly monitoring such vast areas, administrative corruption, etc.
The trade was carried out through some Venezuelan ports authorized for traffic, divided into
effect on major ports (La Guaira and Puerto Cabello), and minor ports (Maracaibo, Cumaná,
Pampatar, Caraballeda, and Santo Tomé de Guayana). In the first ones, all taxes were paid,
In the smaller ports, some fees were reduced and sometimes only taxes were collected.
municipal
Colonial trade must be viewed from different operational angles, based on its importance.
the restrictions and the operations that derived from it.

Slave labor
At the beginning of the fight for theindependence,
the mathe labor force was constituted by 18% of
slaves and 22% of servitude. Reduces the capacity of the workforce.Bolívarto the plant
congress of his desire to free the slaves and this is enactedthe lawofLibertygoods, which
it basically consisted of giving freedom to slaves over 18 years of age. Then on the 2nd of
October 1830, the congress enacted a new manumission law, which meant a step back.
regarding the previous one because it gave freedom to slaves at the age of 21.
Small farms, Plantations, and Estates
The conuco represents a cultivation practice unique to the indigenous populations of South America.
which still persists today. The conuco as a productive unit is prepared with slash and
burning, semi-nomadic use ofthe soils andpredominant planting of cassava varieties, combined
with other items like yam, andthe corn, the frouch, ohthe tomato, the touyama or the papaya. While the
the milpa leans towards the planting of corn combined with other grains; the conuco in any case
produce aerosionofthe floorless than that provoked by the milpa.
The systemAztec agriculture was based on three types ofagriculture: las milpas, the vegetable crops and the
chinampas. The milpas represented a type of temporary, extensive agriculture, ontierrafirme and
with simple instruments, where it was cultivatedin corn,tomatobeans, peppers or squash. The crops
horticultural, intensivein work, it givesthey were developed using irrigation and organic fertilizers. And the
Chinampas were cultivated lands on lakes, in the manner of artificial islands.
rectangular, anchored to the bottom ofthe water for thethe roots of the willows; the fertility ofthe floorin them
achieved with the application of mud, manure andplantslaccrops such as
corn, tomatoes, chilies, beans, and legumes (Jennings, Gary, 1997, 107). When the Aztec Empire
it was dominated by the white Spaniards, these types of agriculture were abandoned, partly due to
the lack of experience of the conquerors in thisthe methods, peor mainly due to the lack of
the forceof sufficiently high work that they required.
The colonial estate represented the fundamental productive unit of the new agrarian system.
emperor andin Americanagainst the Spanish occupation. The colonial estate reproduced the system
agrarian ofSpainthe moment ofthe conquest, as suchthey exploited men andnatural resourceson
mercantilist fines. The concentrations of land that a hacienda from that time encloses.
Spanish domination is a sign of concentration ofthe earthin the hands of a few white people
(colonizers, landowners, mine owners, representatives of theChurch)a symbol of
expropriation of indigenous communal lands, an icon of exploitation of dominated races, a
break with ethe balanceecological food system of pre-Hispanic times, the first step towards a system
capitalist agrarian. In the colonial estate, servile, slave, and
own contractualof capitalism(González, Manuel, 1995, 50).
Permanencethe economycolonial in ethe projectrepublican
The stateColonial attempted to protect its indigenous subjects belatedly by issuing a series of
provisions that were compiled in 1680 in the Compilation of theLawsfrom India. But to the
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries theconductinggeneralized of Spaniards and Creoles (including those
own officials of thebureaucracystate), responded to the popular saying according to which the orders of the
Laws were enacted but not enforced. The reforms undertaken by the Bourbons sought
precisely the establishment of a new state apparatus that would make effective the
royal provisions, but whoseefficacymodernization meant eliminating the abyss that separated
the rulesgales of everyday practices. These reforms, as well as the profoundcrisis
economic andpoliticianinsular, exacerbated by the French invasion, precipitated the struggles of
independencethe dismemberment of the colonial space into a series of new creole republics
formally born as independent nations, inhabited by citizens of equalthe rightsy
obligations, pebut that actually sustained their existence in the prolongation of the bases
colonials ofthe power, hecho reflected in the survival of the indigenous tribute until the middle of the century
XIX.
Independence did not mean that the coloniality of power ceased to be the main pattern.
computer of social and cultural relations in the shiny creole republics. Everything happened
on the contrary, as coloniality was the organizing mechanism of relations among the newly formed
nations and their majority indigenous populations, which were condemned to the paradoxical
situation of continuing to be second-class inhabitants in their own lands.
The initial attempts ofBolívar forto convert the Indians into owners and individual citizens,
disassociating them from their ethnic and community corporations, they were used in their favor by the
dominant elites, who throughout the 19th century expanded the territories of their estates at the expense of
the indigenous communal lands. By the work and grace of liberal laws, the Indians were
converted into second-class citizens, without the right to vote but with the obligation to follow
paying the colonial tribute. The republican state as beforethe statecolonial, proved ineffective in
his attempts to protect the Indians through laws and decrees that were always dead letters.

BOLIVARIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

The SEB is a set of structured and integrated elements, oriented according to the
stages of human development aimed at ensuring educational services for all
Venezuelan population under the direction of the Ministry of Popular Power for Education (MPPE).
Understand the following subsystems: the Bolivarian Initial Education, with two levels
(maternal, from 0 to 3 years, and Preschool, from 3 to 6 years); the Bolivarian Primary Education (from 1st to
6th degrees, from 6 to 12 years old); the Bolivarian Secondary Education, with its two options (High School
Bolivarian, from 1st to 5th grade, and the Technical School Robinsoniana and Zamorana, from 1st to 6th grade, of 12
up to 19 years of age, approximately); Special Education; Intercultural Education
Bilingual; Education for Young People, Adults, and Adult Women (includes Mission Robinson (I and II) the
Ribas Mission.
In the revolutionary process, it resolves, through these subsystems and missions, the exclusion and
create the social equilibrium model to comply with the constitutional principle of comprehensive education
and quality for everyone. It is structured in such a way that it guarantees from the first
ages the transition of the new generation, until achieving training for life as a being
committed to the society in which it develops. Likewise, it favors progressiveness.
curricular and pedagogical among the different subsystems.
The SEB, in the current circumstances and moments, has before it the task of educating the new
generations in a context characterized by complex social contradictions that affect
the formative processes in national and international society and for a greater understanding of the
direction and perspectives of the educational work carried out by society and various actors
participants.
General characteristics of the SEB
The SEB has the following general characteristics:
It takes place in the educational institutions created for that purpose in each of the systems.
The population served institutionally by the SEB in its different subsystems includes the
ages of zero (0) years and above.
It fosters the development of scientific and technological capabilities, skills, and interests in
correspondence with the needs and problems posed by the diverse contexts
socio-cultural aspects of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
It stimulates the creation of a scientific culture, from a didactic platform of teaching and the
learning of science, appropriate and relevant from the early periods of life to adulthood.
The transit through the SEB ensures coherence and interrelation between the different subsystems.
Focus on the human being as an active and protagonist participant in their own development.
Guarantees the rights of equal opportunities and conditions for integration in the
different subsystems of children, adolescents, young people, and adults
the adults, attending to the multiethnic, intercultural, and pluricultural diversity with needs
special educational.
The systemic, flexible, and integral nature.
Purpose of Bolivarian Education within the framework of the Bolivarian Educational System
To achieve its purposes and ideals, the SEB specifies that the educational institution is a space for:
The formation of a social, supportive, critical human being with democratic participation,
protagonist and co-responsible.
The promotion of Human Rights and the construction of peace.
Citizen participation in equal rights and conditions.
Pedagogical innovations.
The formation of a critical consciousness for the analysis of the content disseminated by the media
of social and alternative communication.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
The comprehensive education of the child, the girl, the boy, the adolescent, the young person, the adult, and the woman, for
improve their quality of life (health, sports, recreation, among others).
Training in, for, and by productive and liberating work, which contributes to the appropriate use of
science and technology, to problem solving and community development.
The development of values and attitudes to consolidate freedom, independence, peace,
solidarity, the common good, territorial integrity, coexistence, in such a way as to ensure the
right to life, to work, to culture, to education, to justice and to social equality and without
discrimination based on ethnicity, skin color, gender, social origin, creed or religion.
The formation of a citizen consciousness of environmental education for endogenous development,
sustainable and sustainable.
The development of a patriotic and republican consciousness intertwined with local identity,
regional and national, with a Caribbean, Latin American, and universal vision.
The following pedagogical foundations:
Education plan for the homeland: from its perspective, education is a progressive integrated process.
in which the school environment must have good conditions, that is, good engineering
school. It established special characteristics for schools of the time. Furthermore, the statistics
School was essential for monitoring and control.
Consider individual differences: it follows Rousseau's thinking, expressing that
should take into account age, inclinations, genius and temperament, height, health and the
social development. Hence, "each individual constitutes a special problem and must be studied
in a total and changing environment.
Knowledge of the social and the practical: in the understanding of history and languages, it should be
to learn, first of all, the contemporary (current), 'to gradually rise to the times'
darker of the fable". That is, of the knowledge closest to reality of the past. It leans
Bolívar for the teaching of practical knowledge. In his recommendations for the education of his
nephew Fernando, suggests disciplines such as geography, cosmography, statistics, drawing, and astronomy.
Importance of physical education, play, and recreation: they are sources of health and well-being
as a generating force of energy, from the healthy joy of living to maintain a healthy body,
physically and mentally.
Belén María Sanjuán Colina, Venezuelan educator, staunch follower of educational theories
of Simón Rodríguez and the teacher Luis Beltrán Prieto Figueroa, claimed that education should be
integral, that is, preparing for life. According to her, education was a path for construction
of thought in the citizen in their constant social relationship, being critical of their context.
Based on the Robinsonian principle of "think before acting", teacher Sanjuán Colina stated:
“as the principles are in things, one will teach to think with things”; in this sense, it defends
practical knowledge, establishing the following elements in its characterization:
Knowledge of scientific notions and concepts is reached through direct observation of
something concrete.

Everything learned is useful for everyday life, which is why teaching must be active and
participative.
One must be taught to learn in order to continue learning.
The following refers to the main psychological foundations on which it is based.
education and training in values, taking as a premise that, when addressing this issue, it
10
it refers to the formation of personality. Among the existing conceptions related to the
In the formation of the human being, there are the theories of Jean Piaget and L. S. Vygotsky, for considering
the contributions that these authors made in this regard.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Swiss, was a biologist, philosopher, and psychologist, who unwittingly made.
transcendental contributions to Pedagogy as a science. For him, the causes and the genesis of development
of knowledge lies in how man constructs knowledge. In his theory, there are two
mechanisms: assimilation, which are the existing schemas that make sense of the world; and the
Accommodation, which allows the subject to make changes in their schemes to respond to situations.
new.
He recognized man as a biological being that is in a constant search for balance between the
assimilation and accommodation, immersed in a society to which he has to adapt; however, it
it granted education an important role as an external factor for psychological development
human.
In his theory, he acknowledges to a certain extent the influence of the role of the environment in the development process.
of personality, although it is based on the premise that in order to achieve this, certain structures are required
they are already ripe.

Piaget's originality lies in that he shifted the studies of the moral content of the time towards
the structure of moral reasoning, taking as a starting point the development of the
intelligence.
Sociological foundation
From the point of view of Sociology, the formation of personality is associated with forces
motivations of the functioning of society, to the directionality of its movement, to the purpose of
social behaviors, whether they are those of society as a whole or of certain communities,
from the multiethnic and multicultural character that is expressed as a point of balance and process
transformer in Venezuelan society.
In the introduction of the work Treatise on Lights and Social Virtues, Simón Rodríguez reveals
2
the popular character that it gives to education in which the public sector, in their opinion, must
play a fundamental role in expanding it. For this reason, the Government must assume the functions of
common father in education, generalizing instruction.
Simón Rodríguez insists on the mass education of children in order to overcome the
darkness and generalizing the lights and virtues, making these a matter of public domain, that is,
extending them to everyone, so that they fulfill a social function. This is evidenced in the
next appointment:
"Man is not ignorant because he is poor, but on the contrary. Generalize education of the
childhood[y]there will be lights[y]social virtues!. There are lights, there are virtues... But... what is not general,
3
It's not public! What is not public is not social! .
The education advocated by Simón Rodríguez is distinguished by its social, popular, and
equal, free and compulsory, public, experimental and nationalist; expressed in:
Socially, education is conceived as a fundamental element for the construction of the new
society.
Popular and egalitarian, it is based on the idea that education should benefit everyone.
Free and mandatory, considering that society should not only make available to everyone the
instruction, but is required to seek the resources for its implementation.
The public always showed a tendency towards public education, founded, organized and
funded by the State.
Experimental recommends the incorporation of useful, practical sciences instead of sciences.
such as theology, philosophy, law, and medicine.
Nationalist, replace Latin with Quechua, which opens the nationalist sense of the school.
robinsoniana.
4
The Robinsonian educational thought presents, among others, the following characteristics:
The importance of civil society for the development of the Republic.
The importance of school for national consolidation.
Their practices of education through work.
His idea of teaching to learn.
Intentionalism.
Creativity and originality.
Conception of politics as public service.
Humanist thought, utopian and its praxis, aimed at achieving a more participatory society,
cooperative and solidary.
As Rosario Hernández (2001) states, Robinsonian thought proposes a school for
the community life, with the political objective closely linked to the formation of a
citizen for a society that is struggling and trying to build itself on an economic and scientific basis
5
and technological, guided by national policies.
In the sociological ideas about education in Bolívar's work, we find, among his
foundations, the following:
The comprehensive vision of education: that goes from the knowledge of personal development
up to morality. While scientific knowledge is necessary, man is a social being and
It requires good manners to live in society with one's peers.
Education for girls of all classes: as a foundation for family education.
6
Luis Beltrán Prieto Figueroa is another of the central figures that nourishes educational thought
Bolivarian. His thesis on the teaching state, presented at the National Convention of Education, in the
city of Valencia in 1943, summarizes that in any country, in any time, it is
inconceivable that the State leaves the guidance to the whim of private activities
and the formation of citizens' consciousness.
Prieto viewed education as a collective phenomenon, governed by established norms by a
social group, expressed as a whole and that is why the State determines the means to
satisfy her.
Education is an essentially public function, assigned by the State and the community, that
seeks the formation of the learner in correspondence with the general concept of citizen,
agreement with state interests as a human being with certain characteristics.
An education for the comprehensive formation of man with an emphasis on humanistic development
according to a specific social context was the ideal of teacher Prieto Figueroa, for which he led to
constant struggles in the field of education. It was up to the teacher to define a project
educational to shape free men with tools to develop economically and socially,
what manifests the struggle against a system that had excluded a lower income group,
keeping them out of the knowledge society and confining them within
illiteracy.
He managed to define a new idea of what education should be in the country and the role of the State as
teaching actor in the construction of a more equitable and democratic society. Bet on a
Revolutionary Venezuela thanks to a new educational model, a project that was interrupted.
for the dictatorship that sent him into exile for a period of almost ten years.
An indispensable mention in the universal field is the contribution of the French sociologist Emile
Durkheim, who established the guidelines of a concept of education, focused on the need for
socializing the individual. For him, education is a social institution that appears closely
linked to the rest of the social activities and defines it as the action exercised by the
adult generations that are still not mature for social life.
It points out that the fundamental objective of education is precisely to socially integrate the individual, which
the social environment tends to shape the child in its image, and that parents and teachers are the representatives
the intermediaries in the formation of that image. This notion has transcended over time in the
pedagogical and sociological thought and, in one way or another, has been embraced by many authors
7
contemporaries.
 8
The specialist Juan C. Tedesco it suggests that it is not until the early 20th century when the
Education in any society has always been called to socialize new generations; it
which implies preparing them to live in society and together; furthermore, responsible for educating the citizen,
to the person as an individual, capable of performing civic functions and endowed with a set of
values that allowed him to coexist socially with the rest of his kind. He conceives the
education as a systematic activity, carried out from the school and aimed at training individuals
people in their capacity as citizens.
The doctor in Philosophical Sciences, José R. Fabelo Corzo, expresses that "to educate means to socialize, it is
to say, to transform the learner into a social being, an integral part of a human community
particular, essential step and the only possible way to make it representative and participatory of
human gender.
Endogenous development is a model ofdevelopmentthat seeks to enhance the internal capabilities of
aregionocommunitylocalso thatcan be used to strengthen society and its
economy from the inside out, so that it is sustainable and lasting over time. It is important
It should be noted that in endogenous development, the economic aspect is important, but it is not more important than the
integral development of the collective and the individual: in the moral, cultural, social, political, and
technological. This allows the conversion of natural resources into products that can be consumed,
distribute and export to the whole world.
In an organization of this type, there are suitable individuals or human resources in some branch of
knowledge and are willing to make that knowledge available to the other members of the
organization, with the purpose of voluntary technology transfer for the growth of all.
This leads to the strengthening, breadth, integration, and development of individual capacities.
and consequently the natural formation of multidisciplinary teams that cooperate to
the harmonious development of the organization in a systemic, symbiotic, and synergistic environment.
There is another vision of endogenous development that presents it as a question about the ways in
that a community can unfold (develop) in harmony with its environment, understanding that
this deployment involves ensuring the deployment of all human beings that are part of that
community. In this sense, the human being transitions from being an object of development to being a subject of development.

OBJECTIVES OF A ENDOGENOUS DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

Promote, guarantee, and foster the harmonious and coherent development of policies, plans
and projects of the National Executive, for endogenous development, communal economy, collective and
solidarity
Coordinate actions with other bodies of the Public Power, directly or indirectly linked
to the objectives of the Fund, especially with those whose competencies are necessary for
guarantee the deepening and consolidation of endogenous development.
Promote the necessary training and assistance to organizations of the communal economy and
solidarity, to strengthen its development and consolidation as a fundamental and primary base of the system
national economy.
Promote the efficient and responsible use of the resources provided for financing
plans and projects for endogenous development.
Promote and contribute to the training and education of community organizations and
solidarity economy, promoting their responsible participation in plans and projects of
endogenous development, as well as in responsible social oversight.
Finance plans and projects aimed at strengthening the structure and productive capacity of the nation.
through community organizations and the communal and solidarity economy, in accordance
with the policies and plans set by the National Executive regarding the matter.

What is an Endogenous Development Core?

ItiscaledEndogenousDevelopmentNucleus(NUDE)thestructure
productivethatmeetingthecharacteristicsstatedabove,alsohas
aprovenvocationofcontinuityintime,givenits
its own potentials. Physically, it constitutes itself on a territory
adequately marked, inhabited by a group of people
identified as a community of history, culture, tradition
economic activities. ELNUDE enhances or in its case
buildundertheguidanceandsupport(SociopolitcalandTechno-Productive)ofthe
MissionTurnAroundFaces,asetofassociativestructuresinaccordancewiththe
productivevocationsofthespaceitselfandthecolectivethatinhabitsit.For
Helo,theproductivepotentialitiesarepreviouslyidentified,concretized.
a inventory of natural resources and the promotion of talents,
pro-productive traditions, commercialization capacity, possible
strategic alliances with other NUDE and organizations and institutions
diverse.TheNUDEstrengthenswiththesupportofcoordinators,facilitators
Facilitating data in instructors or instructors as a company
permanent supervision of the State, until its productive dynamics
it is self-sustainable, that is to say, as long as the core is maintained by
theirownmeans.IntheconstructionofaNUDthereshouldbe
the following elements are identified: a. Delimitation of the space
the nucleus occupies in terms of its geographic description. (It is common
to combine the concepts of space and territory) b. Productive networks
(cooperatives their organizations inside and outside the nucleus that
to allow the particular production, the processing, the distribution and the
consumptionofproductsorservices
Needs, problems, identified potentialities and strengths
porlossujetosprotagónicososujetasprotagónicasylascomunidades
linked to the core. d. Idle or underutilized spaces (land, warehouses, parks
industrial, silos, etc.) and other resources such as tools, machinery, etc. The
Nuclei can be: a. Urban: when they are found within large cities.
Periurban: located in the outskirts of cities but in constant relation with the
needs of these.
.c. Rural areas: in the countryside and sparsely populated territories. To ensure full
operation of the Endogenous Development Centers, the State guarantees the contribution of the
following resources: a. Training to generate in the subjects and protagonists, on one hand
awareness and capacity for political organization (socio-political training) and, on the other hand, skills
for production (technical-productive training). All of this in a permanent process and
uninterrupted that is part of the knowledge and experiences of the protagonists.
Timely financing of productive projects of the organized protagonists in
cooperatives..c. Infrastructure (physical facilities) suitable for the needs of the core. d.
Organization in cooperatives as production units where the product of labor is not
for the benefit of an employer but of the worker, laborer, and the collective, and where equality and
solidarity should be the fundamental values of the production relationship. e. Accompaniment and
advice for each project from the different bodies that are part of the Ministry
for the Popular Economy (and in cases where it is necessary, from other state institutions),
taking into account its specific characteristics, and until the transfer of resources is guaranteed
financial and technical resources, achieving a core of sustainable development. f. Use of technology
appropriate, that does not exclude artisan techniques and respects the cultural and environmental diversity of the
regions (ancestral knowledge, machinery, equipment, tools, etc.). g.g. Integration with
grassroots organizations, organized communities and other social missions of the State, to
to allow an integral cultural, social, political, and economic development.

VISION OF DEVELOPMENT

The development vision of the Venezuelan state is based on the endogenous perspective.
as an expression of a new development approach, aimed at human development. In
The purpose of this work is to establish that education is a key element.
fundamental of endogenous development, as well as identifying in the positive Legal System
how the State defines itself in relation to economic development and specify the pursued values
National System of Social and Productive Inclusion within the framework of endogenous development. It is used
a descriptive documentary methodology and concludes with the identification, coherence and
articulation between the constitutional values that are transmitted through educational programs
and those who support the endogenous development model.