BÍBLICALOYOLA

Under the guidance of the Jesuit Faculty of Philosophy and Theology

Belo Horizonte - MG

Introduction to
Old Testament
Erich Zenger|Georg Braulik
Herbert Niehr | Georg Steins | Helmut Engel
Ludger Schwienhorst-Schönberger
Silvia Schroer
Hans-Winfried Jüngling Ivo Meyer
Frank-Lothar Hossfeld

Translation
WernerFuchs
 Titu is in a l:
Introduction to the Old Testament
© 1995 W. Ko h lh a m m e r G m bH
ISBN:3-17-014433-2

Summary
All rights reserved

Acronyms and Abbreviations....................................................................11

Preface

The Sacred Scripture of Jews and Christians

r()E
eZ
ghnrice

I. The importance of the Jewish Bible for Christian identity........16

Te x t e d i t i o n : M a r c o s M a r c i o n i l o
The foundation of Christianity.....................................................................16
Preparation:RenatoRocha
2. The interpretative horizon of the New Testament...................18
Diagramming: Ronaldo Hideo Inoue
3. Old Testament or First Testament?.......................19
Revisao:RitadeCássiaMachadoLopes
4. Problematic ways to read and understand the
Old Testament in Christianity..............................................................21
5. Jewish-Christian biblical hermeneutics...............................................................24
II. The Tanakh: Sacred Scripture of the Jews........................................................28
1. The tripartite structure of the Tanak....................................................................28
2. The hermeneutic systematics of the Tanak........................................................31
3. The form of the transmitted text.......................................................................34
III. The First Testament: Sacred Scripture of the Christians.............36
1. The emergence of the extensive Christian canon....................................................36
2. The quadripartite structure of the First Testament.................38
3.First part of the Christian Bible is bipartite.......................41

The books of the Torah/the Pentateuch

AndtheteachingsofLoyolaandtheJesuits

Street 1822, 341 - Ipira

04216-000SãoPaulo,SP
I. The Torah/The Pentateuch as a Whole (Erich Zenger).............45
T55113385 8500 1. The final form of theological programming...................................................46
F55112063 4275 2. The historical context of the constitutive writing............................................51
[email protected] om.br 3. The Torah as a canonical book..........................................................58
vend@
as loyola.c om.br
www.joyola.com.br II. The emergence of the Pentateuch (Erich Zenger)...................................................61
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be
Indications of a process of emergence in multiple layers 63
rmeans
eproducedort(electronic
ransmetidinanyform
oranmechanical,
do/rany including photocopying and recording) or The three basic models of formation hypotheses
filedinanysystemordatabasewithoutpermission
of the Pentateuch....................................................................................................79
wetnribyhtePubsihle.r 3. Important stages in the critical research of the Pentateuch...........................81
4. Current status of the research
978-85-15-02328-8
III. The book of Deuteronomy (Georg Braulik).......................................................96
The impression: January 2016 1. Name, literary category, structure.............................................................97
©EDITIONS LO YO LA, São Paulo, Brazil, 2003
I. PECULIARITY AND IMPORTANCE OF WISDOM
IN ISRAEL
Erich Zenger

Bibliography: J. Assmann, Ma'at. Justice and Immortality in Ancient Egypt

Munich 1990; J. Blenkinsopp, Wisdom and the Law in the Old Testament. The Ordering
ofLifeinIsraelandEarlyJudaism,Oxford1983;M.Gilbert(ed.),TheWisdomofTheAn-
the Testament (BEThL 51), Leuven, 2nd ed., 1993; M. Görg, Wisdom in Israel. Roots,
Ways, Effects: KatBl113, 1988, pp. 544-549; O. Kaiser, The Human under the
Fate.Studiesonthehistory,theology,andcontemporarysignificanceofwisdom
(BZAW 161), Berlin 1985; H.-J. Klauck, "Christ, God's Power and God's Wisdom"
(1Cor1:24).JewishwisdomtraditonsintheNewTestament:WiWei55,1992,
pp. 3-22; M. Küchler, Early Jewish Wisdom Literature. On the Progress of Wisdom Literature
ThinkingintheAreaofEarlyJewishPathBelief(OBO26),Fribourg/Göttingen
1979; H. D. Preuß, Introduction to the Old Testament Wisdom Literature (UB 383), Stuttgart
gart 1987; G. von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 4th ed. 1992; K.F.D. Röm-
held,TheDoctrineofWisdomintheAncientOrient.ElementsofaFormHistory(BN.B4)
Munich1989;H.H.Schmid,TheNatureandHistoryofWisdom(BZAW101),Ber-
Lin 1966; S. Schroer, The Divine Wisdom and Post-Exilic Monotheism, in:
M.-T. Wacker/E. Zenger (eds.), The One God and the Goddess (QD 135), Freiburg 1991,
pp. 151-182; G.T. Sheppard, Wisdom as a Hermeneutical Construct. A Study in the Sa-
pientializing of the Old Testament (BZAW 151), Berlin 1980; B. Willmes, Old Testament -
DivinewisdomandJahwehbelief.OnthediversityoftheologicalthoughtstructuresintheOldTestament.
Testament, Frankfurt a. M. 1992.
284 — In t r the education to the Old Testament THE BOOKS OF WISDOM — 285

Wisdom as practical knowledge of life anddirectedtowardslife,thatdoinggoodcanenhancelifeandthatitwarms-

hewhoaimsforgoodultimatelycannotfail.Onthecontrary,in
Theconceptof"wisdom"designatesaninterculturalphenomenon. Israelisfoundedonwhatwisdomcalls"fearofGod."
widelyspreadinAntiquity,fromMesopotamiatoEgypt,butalso InamastersentencecitedseveraltimesinthewisdomliteratureofIs-
fromGreecetoRome,whichwecouldcallpracticalknowledgeoflifeorsa- raelstates,therefore:"ThefearoftheLordisthebeginningofwisdom"(Pr1:7;9:10;
everydayknowledgeacquiredthroughpracticeandaimedatpractice.'Apersonwho 15,32; Job 28:28), which the Latin tradition translated very accurately: "Fear
knowsalot..isstilnotwise.Andawisepersondoesnotnecessarilyhavetobesomeonewho ThefearofGodconstitutesthebeginningofwisdom.
knowsalotoreveneverything"(M.Gõrg,Wisdom,p.544).Forsomeoneto ThefearofGodistheinherentprincipleofwisdom.
tobecomewise,heneedstherightknowledgeandmustbeabletohandleitproperly genuineandfundamentallyessential.ThefearofGodisnotfear
correctwiththisknowledge.Wisdomisconcernedwiththerightknowledgeregarding to God in the sense of an obedient faith, required in Genesis 22 of Abraham, but it is
tolife.Forher,itisaboutlearning,practicing,andpassingonknowledge. totrustinGod,thatis,totrustinGodastheonewho,despite
to live, the art of living. Thedisturbancesanddangersgovernthewholeandbringsuccesstothelifepath.
Thestartingpointofallwisdomtheology,fromasimpleruleof ofpeoplewhoseektheordersoflife,whoactaccordingtothemandthe
behavioruptoareflectedethicalmaxim,istheconviction,gatheredfromtheex- communicateahead.FearofGodwhiletrustinginthepromotingpowerof
experience,oftheconnectionbetweenactionandwell-being/mal-being.Thisconnection,eachpes- life,fromagoodGod,therefore,isindeedtheprinciplethatleadstowards
Soyouknowitandapproveitinyourdailylifeasabasicguidelineforaction. wisdomandmotivatesthepracticeofthesapientialknowledgeoflife.With
Imean,namely:doinggooddoesgood(tothecommunityinwhichonelivesand,furthermore forthisreason,onecandesignatetheoldestwisdomofIsrael
deeply,tothebenefactorhimself)andthatdoingevilharms(thecommunity M.Gõrg)as'theologyofpracticalreason'.Thesourceofitsrecognitionisthe
andinadeeperwaytotheverywrongdoer).Theperspectiveoftheconnectionen- reason.Yourintentionisnotprimarilydirectedtowardstheoreticalknowledge,
threeactionandresult(goodorbad)servesasthefoundationofallpedagogyof buttothegoodpracticeoflifethatbringsgoodresults.Anditsbasicprincipleis
dailythatseekstomotivateforgoodandkeepawayfromevil.Theconnection afundamentalknowledgeaboutGodastheCreatoroftheworld,
fightsagainstevilandpromotesgood.
betweenactionandresultpresupposesabasicknowledgeofgoodandevil,andon-
allknowledgeoftheordersofgoodinthelifeoftheindividual,thefamily,thegroups
social,ofthestateandofthepeoples,yes,oftheentirecosmos.Thatiswhywisdomin-
Iseealotofeffortinrecognizing,formulating,andteachingtheseordersinyour 2. Main currents of the wisdom of Israel
multiple levels.
Allsingularordersare,accordingtotheteachingsofwisdom. Incorrespondencewiththesocialandhistoricalcontextsinwhichthepes-
ThebiblicalsagesofIsraelformulatedtheirknowledgeoflife,threecanbedistinguished.
Mesopotamian,Egyptian,andancientIsraelite,elementsofacomprehensiveorder
basiccurrentsofthesapientialtradition.
oftheworld,forwhichthegodsorganizedtheworldandthe
theyareequatedwiththelife-promotingenergyT
. heorderoflifethatencompasseseverything,
itenvelopsandpermeateseventheworldofthegods.Tothisoriginalorderthatdi- 2.1. Clan wisdom ('folk wisdom')
rulestheworld,theSumerianscallitME,theEgyptiansMa'at,theIsraelites
Wisdom.Thesapientialartoflifeconsistsofrecognizingtheencompassingorder Israelwaslargelyavillageandagriculturalsocietywithanethos
universalpeopleintheexerciseoflifeandsolidifyitthroughthepracticeof'justice' whichbetonthecohesionoftheclan,conducivetolife.Fromthisperspective,thelin-
(axiom:justiceproducessalvation,peace).Thestartingpointofart language,theimagesandthecontentsofclanwisdomarepopularandgi-
ThewisdomoflifeisnotarevelationfromGod,whateveritsformmaybe. rampredominantbeingarounddailysocialbehaviorinthe
butthereasonofthehumanbeingaimstodominatelife.Inwisdomtheology coexistenceofgendersandgenerations,aswellastheprotectionofbasicvalues
Israel'stardinessisthedivinewisdomitselfthatinspirespeopleintheir psychosoflifeandfreedom.However,italsodealsequallywiththeday-to-day
searchforwisdom. ruralconcrete,startingwiththeobservationoftheclimate,theplantsandthe
Norforthatreasonwisdom,bothinIsraelandinitsworldinvolved animals,eventherulesofconductwhensowingandharvesting,whendealingwithcitizens
Saleismerelyaprofaneoccupation,orevendisconnectedfromGod.Not urbanandwithforeigners.Fromtheperspectiveofculturalhistory,wisdom
onecandeducefromasimplisticoptimismthattheworldanditsordersaregood clanicaisnotonlytheoldestformofthewisdomtraditionofIsrael,
286 — r Introduction to the Old Testament THE BOOKS OF WISDOM
— 287

thatgoesbacktothetimebeforethestate.Formanycenturiesitalso wisdom,themostrecentwisdominvertstheperspective:itspeaksofthatthesa-
continuingtobethecriticalandsensitiveguardianoftheidealsofsolidarityandjustice bedoriaisaninherentmysteryofCreationandhistory,whichcallsforacceptance.
thedesireforeveryone,whenitdevelopedinthecities,particularlyfrom actionandwelcomebyhumanbeings.Thus,finally,wisdomis
thecapitalsSamariaandJerusalem,aclasssociety,inwhich personified.UnderEgyptianinfluence,butalsoincontinuitywiththemes
Theyboldlychampiontheoldidealsoffamilysolidarity.Thecritiquepro- IsraelitetheologiansformtheconceptionofLadyWisdom,who,asaface
theethicsofAmosandMicah,butalsothesocialcommandmentsgroupedin theGodofIsraeliskindtopeopleandgood,seeks,loves,nurturesandcon-
TheDecalogueisrootedintheethosofclanwisdom. only the beings hum years (cf. especially Pr 8:22-31; Sr 24; Sb 6:22-11:1). In this-
inthemostrecentwisdomtheology,theartoflivingisnolongeranachievement
ofpracticalreason,andratheradivinegift.Wisdomtransformsintosa-
2.2. The palatial-urban wisdom ('school wisdom') revelationbed

Alsourbanculture,whichinIsraelwaslinkedtotheemergenceof 2 - A distinct current of post-exilic wisdom theology considers the

monarchyandtheorganization,necessaryforit,ofanadministrativeapparatus Torah of Israel as the greatest and true divine gift of wisdom.
differentiatedpurposeandthecultivationofdiplomatic,legalinternationalrelations itwilbringwisdomasthemysteryoftheGodwhoruleseverything—thisisthethesisofthis
andeconomic,createdandcultivateditsspecificexperientialknowledge,whichdealtwiththe current—whotransformstheTorahintoamaximoflife.Inaformulation
themesandproblemsoftheurbanandpalacecontext.Herewisdomwastaught classicalfindsitselfthissapientialtheologyalreadyinthemostrecentlayerof
nothingliterallyinschools,thatis,intheeducationandtrainingoftheking'schildren Deuteronomy,inDt4:6-8,andespeciallyinthebookofSirach(seebelow,D.VIII)and
employees. Consequently, their language and their figures reflect in Baruch 3:9-4:4 (see below, E.III.3). In rabbinic theology, this idea leads to
thelivingenvironmentofthecity.Theydenoteartisticandcomplexelaboration. theunderstandingthatYahwehcreates,asthefirst"workofCreation",theTorah,whichbecomes
Yourtopicsrangefromrulesofgoodmannerswhenbeinginvited tobetheconstructionprojectaccordingtowhichitcreatestheworld.
atcourt,andoffrequentwarningsagainstwineconsumptionandlaziness,
uptotheprofessionalethicsofjudges,clerks,andkings.Theiridealsarepointedout
twoforthestabilizationofthecurrentstateorderandrevolvearoundloyalty- 3. The literary forms of wisdom
of,wealth,enjoymentoflifeandhonor.Thepalatial-urbanwisdomofIsrael
issingularlyintercultural.Itstudiesandadoptsthetraditionsofwisdomof Biblicalwisdompresentsitselfinfourmainliteraryforms:
neighboringcountries,especiallythewisdomofEgypt.Thus,forexample,itfinds- proverb,didacticspeech,didacticpoem,didacticnarrative.Theseforms
There is a longer passage in the book of Proverbs (22:17-23:11) that re- sapiential expressions are found in the Bible as well as outside the 'books of the
presentsatranslationoftheEgyptianwisdomdoctrineofAmenemope. wisdom" (e.g., in prophetic books).
Let'sassumethatintheacademyofprincesandofficials
from Jerusalem they translated, read, and taught Egyptian wisdom writings and
3.I. The proverb
Egyptian poetry, especially Egyptian love lyric.
Theproverbconstitutesthedensestformulationofexperienceatservice
Theologized wisdom oftheguidanceoflife.Itspurposeistohelpremovefromasituationthedi-
mentionoftheunexpectedandthreatening,duetothefactthatintheProverbthesituation-
AsthewisdomofIsraeluntilthetimeofexilemovedbefore isnamedasusualand,ingeneral,recurring.Theproverbisconciseand
dominantly,notinatheologicalfocus,withinthepossibilitiesofimagination- brief,almostalwaysprovidedwithapeakthatservesasasupportforthememory
andgeneralexpressionoftheEast,beginsinthepost-exilicperiodagrowing ria. Its basic poetic figure is oparaiellismus membrorum, that is, the paren-
theologizationofwisdom,whichcanberecognizedintwoproperties: figurative,orcontent,oftwoconsecutive"members"(rhymeof
images, rhyme of ideas) :
1-Theoriginalorderthatunderlieseverythingbeginstobeunderstoodeach
"Whoeverdigsapitwillfallintoit,"
onceagainasaformofrevelationofGodYahweh.Whileinwisdom
butolderpeopleareencouragedandinstructedtoseekandlearnto and whoever rolls a stone, it will fall on him" (Pr 26:27).
288 — In t r the education to the Old Testament THE BOOKS OF WISDOM
— 289

Accordingtotherespectivelinguisticformorcommunicativeintention, onewayoranotherthelinkbetweenactionandwell-being/malaise.Therefore,
fiveformsofwisdomproverbscanberecognized,whichmany itisintheexhortativeproverbthatthepedagogicalintentionisfullymaterialized
six appear in series. giftofwisdom.
Pr 23:12 (implicit justification); 23:19-21 (explicit justification);
1 - 0 saying (popular): it formulates, often in a figurative way and 31.2-9(aprogrammaticcollection).
drastic,thelifeexperienceofthepeople.Thesayinghasapanoramicview
ofmanysimilarexperiencesandcondensesthem,almostlikeasum,
3.2. The didactic discourse
abriefproverb.Althoughitsintentionisdidactic,thesayingdidnotform
theteachingexplicitly,butleavesituptothelistenertodraw
Initscompleteform,thedidacticdiscourseaimedattherecipient(or
personallyfromthesayingthepracticalconsequences.Almostalwaysthesayingis
Theinstructionallectureiscomposedofthreeparts.Itbeginswithacall.
ofasingleline,butitcanalsooccurasatwo-lineproverb.The
initialfortheinstruction,whichaimstodirectlyaddress"thestudents"("myson-
thesayingaddressesexperiencesfromtherealmofeverydaylife.However,italso
"Lho, my daughter" and give a motivation for the teaching to be transmitted.
it serves to interpret, with sudden emphasis, political situations.
Thisteachingisusuallypresentedinamixedstyleofexposition.
Examples: Pr 9:17; 14:4; Ez 16:44; 18:2. theexhortativeand/oradmonitoryinterpellation.Afavoritethemeisthequestion
Forjusticeandthemeaningoflifeinlightofthefateofthewicked.Asathirdpart
2 - The sentence (or verdict): contrary to the saying, which does not explicitly mention
onlytheactualfactaimedat,inthesentencetherealityfocusedonisaddressed,andge-
(conclusive)usuallyfollowsthereminder(like"moralofthestory")ofthecon-
sequencesofwiseorfoolishbehavior,oftenexplainedbyobservations
ralmisinterpretedthroughanexplanatorycomparisonor
nature'svacationsordailylife.Thedidacticdiscourse,configuredas
contrasting.Lifeisrecordedjustasitis(asitactuallyis:
monologue,canalsobeexpandedtoformarefineddialogue,a
"truehere","verdict").Itsintentionistoguardagainstillusionsandempower.
typeofsapientialcontroversyofteachinganddispute.
forarealisticpracticeofdailylife.
Examples:Proverbs1:8-19(warningagainstbadcompany);5:1-23(warning)
Exemplos: Pr 12,4; 14,15; 16,1; 18,2.
tendencyagainstadultery);Job32-37(didacticspeechesintheformofmonologue-
go); Job 32-27 (didactic discourses in the form of dialogue).
3 - 0 enigmatic proverb: through its interrogative form,
whichpresentsitselfasakindofpedagogicalenigma,theenigmaticproverb
Thegoalistostimulatereflection,thusmotivatingbehavior. 3.3. The didactic poem
visa.Withitsartisticallyrefinedidiomaticform,butalsowith
thefieldsoflifeitrefersto,theenigmaticproverbrevealsthatitcomesfrom Inthiswisdom-basedformofdiscourse(centeredonthemaster,withoutaddressing
oftheupper-classenvironmentandthatprobablyhadits"livingplace"by thestudent),thewiseonereflects/meditatesonthefundamentalquestionsoflife,
excellenceintheclassroomtrainingofofficers. perceptionoftheworldandhistory-insearchofthehiddenoriginalgoodorder.
Examples: Proverbs 23:29-35; 30:4-5. SuchdidacticpoemsareparticularlyfoundinEcclesiastes(seebelow,
D.V).AlsointhebookofPsalms,thereisaseriesofdidacticsapientialpoems.
4 - 0 numerical proverb: presents in a numbered form a series of facing the experience of so-
phenomenaorsituations,withcountingbeingastylisticresource sufferinganddeath,thewisdomprayersmeditateonmeaningandsuccess
tohighlightthephenomenonrankedlast.Theemphasisonthelast of life (cf. SI 37; 49; 73). 2 - Based on the observation of Creation and its laws,
Theseriesmemberingeneralisalreadyindicatedintheintroduction(n..,n+1..). theyaimtomotivateconfidenceindailylifeandfora'yes'
Examples: Prov 6:16-19; 30:18-19, 21-23. fundamentaltothisworld(cf.SI104).3-Meditingonthehistoryofthepeople
underthewisdomperspectiveofactionandwell-being/misery,onetriestounco-
5 - 0 exhortative proverb: while the proverbs listed so far I gave- tocreateameaningfromthisstoryandtracetherespectiveconsequences(cf.SI78;
Thepracticalconsequenceisexplicitlyformulated. 4—The wisdom poetry also meditates on the Torah as a wonder
intheexhortativeproverb.Itcallstoacertainaction,urging lightguidanceforlife,givenbytheGodofIsraelwholovesHispeopleandthe
orwarning.Oftenaddsajustification,whichinstillsin world (cf. SI 1; 19; 119).
290 — In t r the education to the Old Testament The Books of Wisdom — 291

3.4. The didactic narrative 4.22a.25).ItismainlythegospelofLuke(cf.onlyLk7:31-35)thatdepicts

Jesusasamessengerofwisdomandasthepersonificationofwisdom,in
The didactic narrative aims to, based on a particular story, fullcoincidencewiththealreadydescribed'theologizedwisdom'(seeabove,2.3).The
transmittingas'true'auniversallifewisdomorateaching PaulhimselfresortstoJewishwisdomtheologytoelaboratehisChristology.
aboutlifeinaconcreteandconvincingway.Thisnarrativebecomesa thelogiaofJesusasthewisdomofGodinoppositiontowisdom
educationalandpracticalexemplarystory,whichaimstosimultaneouslyawaken ohtfsiwordl(c1f.Cornihtains1-3).

acceptabilityandmotivationthroughthescenarioandthepeopleactinginit. ThesapientialtraditionsoftheFirstTestamentcouldofferim-
That'swhyanidealcharacterisgenerallyplacedinthecenterwho,through pulsesandsignificantaidsforChristianexistencetoday:1-Wisdomis
ofcontrastingnegativecharacters,istransformedintoanimitablepersona. rootedinabasictrustintherealityofCreationandtheworldandaims
Didactic narrative of wisdom, whose aim is to lead to the correct practice, tomotivateforafundamental"yes"tolifeandforthe"enjoyment"oflife.Itdoesso.
canbepresentedindifferentways,namely: notthroughablindidealizationoftheworld,butthroughconcreteconfrontation
withtherealityofeverydaylife.2-Wisdomstrivesfora
1 - Legend (emphasis: the individual character; e.g., Job in Job 1-2; 42, see in- multipleperspectiveoftheperceptionoftheworldandlife,andappealstothecomp..
fra, D. II) aretheirown,totheirownexperiencesandtheirowndiscernmentoftheindividual.
2 - Novel (emphasis: the individual event; e.g., Ruth, see above, C.V) Atthesametime,shemaintainsacommunityperspectiveand(generally)argues
3 - Romance (emphasis: human life in a complex world; e.g., Tobit, comeswithalifeconceptthatemphasizessocialinterdependenceand
suv.par,CX
.) historicalofindividuals.3-Wisdomseekstohighlightwhatiscommonto
allhumanbeings.Inthisaspect,itdenotes,asanintellectualactivity-
a true, an intercultural passion. With its ethics connected to people and life, it
4. Relevance constituted,fromahistoricalperspective,oneoftherootsofhumanrights,expli-
citedonlyintheModernAge.4-Itssobernature,tothe
Whilewisdomaspracticalknowledgeoflifeholdsgreatimportancein sometimes even skeptical, is a good corrective against all forms of exhalation
JewishethicsenjoyshighregardinChristiantheology,especiallyinthehori- religious ceremony.
FromthetraditionoftheReformation,reservationsagainstwisdomalwaysarise.
generalandagainstsomebooksofwisdominparticular.Amongotherthings,itisstatedthat:
1 - Already within the AT, wisdom is positioned 'on the margins,' because it would lack II. THE BOOK OF JOB
thespecialconnectionwithYahwehandwiththehistoryofsalvation.2-Wisdomwouldbe Ludger Sch
expressionofabourgeoisreligiosity,orientedtowardsthisworld,orwoulditbein
largepartprofane.3-Theexhortationsforethicalactionwouldbepartof,interms
Comentários:F.Delitzsch (BC), 2aed. 1872; B. Duhm (KHC), 1897; G. Fohrer (KAT), 1963,
theological,fromthesphere"ofthelaw",particularlybecauseofthementalityofrea-
2aed. 1989;F.Horst (BK I), 1968; M. H. Pope (AncB), 3a ed. 1974; R.Gordis (1978);F.Hesse
meritorious utilization contained in the relationship of action and result, that is, the sphere that, sharpened
(ZBK), 1978; N. C. Habel (OTL), 1985; H. Groß (NEB), 1986; T. Mende (GSL.AT 14/1), 1993.
Intheend,JesusandPaulwantedtoovercome.Aboveall,theoptimisticethicsofwisdom.
wouldconstituteacontrastwiththeNewTestamenttheologyofthecrossandwiththejusti- Monographs: K. J. Dell, The Book of Job as Sceptical Literature (BZAW 197), Berlin/New
justification"onlybygrace".4-Howespeciallyproblematicsometheological York1991;J.Ebach,Art.Job/BookofJob:TRE15,1986,pp.360-380;G.Fohrer,Studies
Christian logos consider the books of Ecclesiastes and Job. In their aporias would be ontheBookofJob(BZAW159),Berlin/NewYork,2nded.,1983;G.Fuchs,Mythand
patentorthefailureofsapientialthought. Jobpoetry.ReceptionandreinterpretationofancientNearEasternconcepts,Stuttgart
1993; R. Gordis, The Book of God and Man. A Study of Job, Chicago/London 1965; O.
AgainstthistypeofChristiandepreciationofJewishwisdomtraditions Voice, Yahweh's response to Job. An interpretation of Job 38-41 against the background of
ItisworthrememberingthattheNewTestamentisdeterminedinapractically.. contemporary visual art (FRLANT121), Göttingen 1978; R. Kessler, "I know that
myRedeemerlives."Socialhistoricalbackgroundandtheologicalsignificance
constitutedbyJewishwisdom(cf.H.-J.Klauck,Christ,God'spower,
theconceptoftheredeemerinJob19:25:ZThK89;1992,pp.139-158;C.Kuhl,RecentLiterature
pp.3-22).TheearliestrecordofJesusalreadyshowshimasamasterofknowledge. Critical review of the book of Job: ThR.NF21, 1953, pp. 163-205; R. Laurin, The Theological
doria,whichspeakslikethewisdombooksoftheFirstTestament(cf.so- StructureofJob:ZAW84,1972,pp.86-89;J.Lévêque,JobandhisGod(2vol.)(EtB),Paris
someamongthewisesayingsofJesusinMark2:17b,19bc;3:21,24,27; 1970; V.M a a g, Job. Transformation and processing of the problem in novella, dialogue-
292 — In t r introduction to the Old Testament THE BOOKS OF WISDOM
— 293

poetry and late version (FRLANT128), Göttingen 1982;T. Mende,Through suffering to 1.2. The dialogue section
Completion. The Elihur speeches in the Book of Job (Job 32-37) (TThSt 49), Trier 1990; H.-R Müller,
TheJobproblem.ItspositionandemergenceintheAncientOrientandintheOldTestament. Inthesectionofdialogues,thespeechesofJobandhisfriendscanbegrouped
ment (EdF 84), Darmstadt, 3rd ed. 1995; idem, Theodicy? Additional discussions on the subject padosinthreerounds:
Book of Job: ZThK89, 1992, pp. 249-279; J. van Oorschot, God as Limit.ALiterary
and editorial historical study on the speeches of God in the Book of Job (BZAW 170) 3 monologue of Job: lament
Berlin/New York 1987; L. G. Perdue/W. C. Gilpin (eds.), The Voice from the Whirlwind.
InterpretingtheBookofJob,Nashville1992;L.Schwienhorst-Schönberger/G.Steins, Theround 2ndround 3rdround
Ontheorigin,shape,andmeaningoftheJobnarrative(Job1:42):BZ33,1989 4-5 Eliphaz 15 Eliphaz 22 Eliphaz
pp. 1-24; C. Westermann, The Structure of the Book of Job (CTM 6), Stuttgart 1977; M. Witte, 6-7 Good 16-17 Years 23-24 Jó
Philological Notes on Job 21-17 (BZAW 234), Berlin 1995. 8 Bildad 18 Bildad 25 Bildad
9-10 Good 19 Good 26 Good
11 Sofar 20 Sofar _
12-14 Years Old
21 Good 27-28 July
1. Structure
29-31 Job's Monologue: A Challenge to God
ThebookofJobisstructuredinthreeparts:
32,1-6 Elihu's presentation
32.7-33.33 first speech of Elihu
I Prologue 1-2 34 second speech of Elihu
11 Section of the dialogues 3-42.6 35 third speech of Elihu
III Epílogue 42,7-17 36-37 fourth speech of Elihu

Theprologueandtheepiloguewerewritteninprose,formingtheframeworkin 38-10.2 first speech of Yahweh

40.3-5 first response of Job
returnfromthedialoguesection,formulatedaspoetry. 40.6-41.26 second speech ofYahweh
42,1-6 second response of Job

1.1. The prologue

TherearedivergencesastowhetherJob'sfirstspeech(ch.3)constitutestheopeningofthepri-
myroundofspeechesorifappearsisolated,likeamonologue.Likein
The prologue relates a dual approval of Job, in suffering and in a sub-
InJob3,thereisnoreferencetothethreefriendspresent;itshouldbeaccepted.
subsequentvisitofhisthreefriends.Itissubdividedintoanexhibitionandin
takethethesisofthemonologue.Thus,Job3and29-31formaframearoundthe
five dinners: threeroundsbetweenJobandhisfriends.Intermsofcontent,thediscourseoffine-
Job'sjustification(chapters29-31)pointsforward.JobchallengesGodtoprovidearesponse.
The faith and happiness of Job post(31,35).However,beforethat,therearefourspeechesfromthefourthami-
go, Elihu, who until then had not been mentioned (32-37). Only in 38-41 doesYahweh
1,6-12 First heavenly scene: after that 2,l-7a Second celestial scene: after that
Satan doubted the selfless faith Satan questioned beforeYahweh whether Job respondtoJobfromwithinthestorm.Ifweinitiallyleaveoutofconsideration
of Job, he obtains from Yahweh the permission to will stand firm in faith when hit by the ration 40.1, the response ofYahweh is given in two major speeches (38-39; 40.6-
"to touch" everything he possesses. sickness, he obtains permission to 41:26), to each of which follows a brief response from Job (40:3-5; 42:1-6).
"to harm him", while respecting, however, his life.

1,13-22 First test and approval of Job: 2.7b-10 Second Test and Approval of Job: 1.3. The epilogue
in four blows Job loses his cattle and Jo is afflicted with pustules, but persists
your children, without rebelling against Yahweh. in faith, despite his wife's request,
to curse God. Theepilogueunfoldsintwoscenes:
2,11-13 The three friends Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite
42,7-9 thejudgmentofYahwehonthethreefriends
Shüah and Sofar from Naamah visit Job to comfort him
and express his sympathy. 42,10-17 the restoration ofJob
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— 295

The chaining of ideas in the dialogue section forthefactthatitisnottheinnocentbutthewickedwholiveinhappiness.

Thisiswhereitbecomesclearthathe,Job,theunfortunateone,isnotawickedman,butarighteousone.

Contrarytothewidelyheldopinionthatthespeechesinthedialoguesection In the third round of speeches (22-28), Eliphaz for the first time openly accuses
theywouldcirclearoundand,asaresult,wouldnotallowtoperceiveanykind itpleasesGodtohavecommittedserioustransgressions,explainshissufferingasahusband
inadvancingideas,wedefendherethepositionthat,despitethemesgoing I have this guilt (22,2-11) and challenge him to repentance (22,21-30). Job, however-
manytimesrepeatedandofpermanentargumentationschemes,canbedis- he declares once again his innocence (23:10-12; 27:2-6) and laments the absence of
covera'progressionofideas'inthesequenceofeachroundofspeeches. God (23:8-9) who, if he judged it, would recognize that it is just (23:10).
A general noticeable movement of the sequence of speeches can be described. Acentralpositioninthecompositionisoccupiedbythechantaboutwisdom(28),
asaprocessofincreasingalienationbetweenJobandhisfriends,andhowa probablyincludedatalatertime.Byitsfinalverse,whichby
increasinglyintenseinclinationofJobtowardsGod,expressedinthelamentandinthe yourturnmayhavebeenaddedlater(v.28:"ThefearofYahweh,
hope.Heinitiallyinvokeshimasjudge(9,33-35),thenaswitness. thisiswisdom,andtostayawayfromevil,understanding),thesongmakesre-
nha(16,19-21)andfinallyasredeemer(go’él:19,25).Finally,itchallengeshimtogive- referencetothebeginningofthebook(1,1b)and,withitstheologicalredefinitionofwisdomas

giveananswer. amagnitudehiddenfromhumansanduniquelyaccessibletoGod,hereveals.
thelookatGod'sspeeches.AtthesametimeJob,inwhoselipsisplaced-
thechant,isrehabilitatedaswise,foritpreventsagainsttheimpressionthat,
Inthethreediscoursesofthefirstround(4-14),JobmovesfromcriticismofGod(7,20)tothatof
byrepellingthetraditionalwisdomofhisfriends,Jobwouldberejectinganyformof
accusation of God (9,14-35), to the request for God to acknowledge his innocence
Butofwisdom.Connecting28:28backto1:1b,Jobhimself...
(13,23). In the speeches of friends, one can also observe an intensification. clearattheendofthecontroversywithherfriendsherinitial(1,1b)andneverabandoning
Eliphaz explains Job's suffering from the fragility of the human being as
nothingintheattitudeoffearofGod(1:22;2:10;27:2-6)asbeing(thetrueform
creature (4,17-21), he appeals to his fear of God (4,6) and recommends that
wisdom.Inthisway,itanticipatestheattitudeitwillexplicitlytakeattheend
presentyourpleatoGod(5,8).Jobrejectstheideawiththeobservationthatthepro-
twospeechesofGod.Thus,thesongaboutwisdombridges"Job,
first God, to whom he addresses the word for the first time in 7:14-21, positioned himself "thesufferer"fromtheprologuewith"Job,therebel"fromthedialogues.
against him (6,4). Job wishes to be completely annihilated by God (6,9) and expresses
forthefirsttimehisdisappointmentwithfriends(6,14-30).Afterthat,Bildadspeaks Inthegrandclosingspeech(29-31),Jobfirstcontrastsapast
in a tougher tone (8.2). He positions himself in the faith that believes in the reward happy(29)tothepainfulgift(30).Hethenreiterateshisinnocenceonceagain.
forbothsides(8,20).AssumingthatGoddoesnotdistortthedi- before God (31:1-34) and challenges him to give an answer (31:35-40). However,
Reito (8,3), he assumes that Job sinned and that is why he has to suffer (8,4.6). If he... Then,whenYahwehanswers,afourthfriendspeaks:Elihu.
humblyreturnedtoGod,onecouldcountonHisrestoration(8:5-7).Inthere-
Job asserts that he is innocent (9:21; 10:7), accuses God of breaking justice (9:22) InElihu'sspeeches(32-37),boththefriendsandJobarecriticized.
anditissuesthedeclarationthatGodrulesovertheearthlikeawickedperson(9:24). friendsarecensoredbecausetheywerenotabletoconvinceJob(32:1-22).
After that, Sofar attacks vehemently (11,1-6). He teaches Job that he does not have InlightofJob'sposition,Elihutakesaverydifferentapproach,straightforward-
capacity to understand the unfathomable deliberation of God (11,7-10).Amu- commanding his statements (33.8-11.13; 34.5s.9; 35.3) and rejecting them one by one.
dancecanonlybeexpectedifJobturnsawaytheevilthatsurroundshim,turningbackagain
to God (11,13-19). Job categorically rejects the words of his friends (12,2-6; Inthefirstspeech,ElihurefutesJob'saccusationthatGodwouldbesilent:
13,1-12), challenges God to a legal dispute (13,3.13-28) and expresses his lack of God speaks to people often, but they do not pay attention to Him (33:14-22).
hopewithaconclusivelamentabouthumanlifedestinedforsuffering sufferingconstitutesaformofdivineexhortation,withtheaimofpreventingthe
sorrowanddeath(14;cf.3).ThediscoursesofJob(16-17;19;21)inthesecondround humanbeingtoleadlifeincorrectly,inordertosavetheirlifefromdeath
(15-21) are marked by a challenge to God that becomes increasingly intense. Job (33,19.29s). In the second speech(34), Elihu responds to Job's statement, God tells him...
repel the 'ragged' words of friends (16:2-5; 19:2-5), reiterates his innocence shedeniedtheright.AgainsttheaccusationthatGoddoesnottakethesideoftheoppressed
he cries out for help and mercy to the God who brings justice to the unjust Elihu indicates in his third speech (35) that God, in His sovereignty, infi-
deeply persecuted (16,19-21; 19,23-27), against God ("enemy God", cf. 13,24; Nitawouldpersonallydefinethemomentofherintervention.Inthefourthspeech.
33,10) that persecutes him without reason (16,6-14; 19,6-U.21s). In the opposite line, the friends (36-37),Elihuonceagainstatesthatsufferingisatrial(36:21)anda
theyincreasinglyexpressthesuspicionthatJobhimselfwouldbea themodalityofGod'ssavingaction(36:15).HewarnsJobnottoturnto
impious(15,4-6),describingwithillustrativefiguresthedisgracethatbefallstheimpious bad(36,21).ItrelatestotheinscrutablemysteryofGod(37,23),beforewhichtheonly-
pio (15,17-35; 18,5-21; 20,4-29). Job, in turn, points out in a parodic style (21,7-21) theappropriateattitudeofahumanbeingistofearGod(37:24).
296 — In t r The teaching of the Old Testament The Books of Wisdom — 297

Comparedtothethreefriends,itisclearthatElihuaskswith alongside a series of themes, results as

moredeterminationbythepurposethanbythecauseofsuffering,althoughthis correspondencewiththebookofJob,especiallyintheformofdialogue.Ajustmanwhoso-
thisaspectshouldnotbeignoredbythethreefriends(5,17s).Thespeechesof Hecomplainsabouttheinjusticeintheworld,whileinverselyhisfriend,ofbad-
Elihuleads,butinitsfinalpart(36:22-37:24),tothespeeches comparabletothefriendsofJob,pointstotheorderoftheworlddeterminedby
ofGod,sincetheysingularlyhighlightthegreatnessandthemysteryof God is inaccessible to human beings (line 256; cf. Job 11:7-9), inviting the so-
GodandHisactions.TheyrepresenttheattempttosolveJob'sproblem. toturnbacktoGodwithhumility.
drawingfromtraditionalwisdomthroughtherecognitionofthelimitsthatthe 4 - From Egyptian literature: the category of sapiential controversy (Papyrus
God'sspeechesputyou. Anastasius I, end of the 13th century) (ANET, pp. 475-479), in addition to the so-called literature of
confrontationafterthefalloftheancientempireattheendofthe3rdmilennium:lamentation
of the farmer (ANET, pp. 407-410), the dialogue of the person tired of life with their soul
2. Emergence (ANET, pp. 405-407), the words of exhortation from Ipu-Ver (ANET, pp. 441-444).

5 - In Greek literature, a reference is made to the discussion of human suffering in

2.1. Parallel texts in the ancient East tragicwriters,suchas,amongothers,PrometheusandThePersiansbyAeschylus(525-
456 B.C.), besides the dramas of Euripides (circa 480-406 B.C.) (cf. M. Hadas,
FromaseriesofparalleltextsfromtheancientEast,itisinferredthatthe Hellenistic culture, Vienna 1981, pp. 157-165.
ThebookofJobdoesnotdealwithagenuinelyIsraelitetheme,butratheronethatiscommontotheOrient.
Thereare,todaydocumented,textsfromthe3rdmillenniumtothe5thcenturyBCthataddressthe
"Job'sproblem"indifferentwaysandwithdifferentthematicemphases.Not 2.2. The pre-literary form
itcanbeexcludedthat,amongothers,throughthecanaanitetransmission,suchtextsor
OtherssimilarwereknowntotheauthorsoftheBookofJob.Thecharacterizes- InamannersimilartotheproceduresoftheGreektragicpoetsorthemodernpoets
Job'sstatusasanon-Israelite(fromthelandofUzintheEast:1:1,3)couldbere- us(e.g.,Goethe,Faust),theauthoroftheoldestformofthenarrativeofJobmust
flexoorevenanindicationofthiscircumstance.Thescholarshippointsinthesamedirection. tohavegatheredapopularlegendtoworkonyourtheme.Themostrecentreference..
three it is found in Ezekiel 14:12-23.Alongside Noah and Daniel, Job is seen in this
bytheauthor(s)who,amongothers,expressesthemselvesbyresortingtocircumstancesoutside
textasajust.ThecontextandthementionofthepeopleNoahandDaniel(thereference
from Israel (hippopotamus, respectively, river horse, crocodile). themade-upisfromthetraditionofDaniel"Ugaritic")makeitlikelythattheliteraryform-
theoldestria,nolongerreachableforus,ofthisnarrativecouldhavehadthe
AsparalleltextstoJobarecited,amongothers,thefollowing(otherreferences
featuresofJob,duetohisreligiositypossiblyprovenin
texts in H.-P. Müller, The Job Problem, pp. 49-57.69-72):
suffering, could save his sons from death (like Noah) or bring them back
1 - 'Man and God' or the 'Sumerian Job' (around 2000 BC) (ANET, pp. 589- oftheunderworldofthedead(likeDaniel)(thisishowR.Gordisthinks,p.69,referring-
The text begins with an invitation to praise God. see also Gn 22).
theunnamedmemelamentsitsgreatsuffering,asksforsalvation,isanswered
andfinally,praiseshisGod.Amongotherthings,thecauseofsufferingispointedout,
wepleadforthedignityofallhumanbeings,givenbynatureitself 2.3. History of literary growth
mana ("since birth") (lines 101-103; cf. Job 4:17-21; 9:2; 15:14-16; 25:4-6).
2 - Ludlul bei nemeqi ('I will exalt the lord of wisdom'), I also knew -
2.3.1. The basic model according to literary criticism
under the designation 'Babylonian Job' (around the 12th century BC) (ANET, pp. 596-601;
RGT, pp. 160-163): the text begins with an exaltation of Marduk, the 'lord of sa- WhenanalyzingthebookofJobaccordingtoliterarycriticism,itissaid
bedoria."ThepoetrecountshowGodabandonedhimfornoreason,likeallofhis generallyinresearchwiththefollowinggrowthprocess,despitenu-
parents and acquaintances have distanced themselves from him (cf. Job 19:13-22; 29-31), but he in subtledivergencesinthedetails:
finalexperiment-previouslyannouncedbydreams-thesalvationofyouran- Theoldestcoreisinthebasicsubstrateoftheframenarrative(1-2;
gustbymeansofMarduk. 42,7-17). The first significant expansion occurred with the incorporation of the section of
3 - 0 "dialogue of a sufferer with his religious friend," known for the desig- dialogues(3-27;29-31;38-42,6).Later,theadditional...
nation of "Babylonian theodicy" and "Babylonian Qohelet" (around 1000-800 B.C.) Elihu's speeches (32-37).
298 — In t r the education to the Old Testament THE BOOKS OF WISDOM — 299

Infavoroftheaforementionedemergencehypothesis,thefolowingevidencesupportsit: 2.3.2. Other differentiations of literary criticism

observations:
Startingfromthebasicmodeloftheemergencestoryoutlinedabove,
Tensions between the frame anarrative and dialogue anarrative:
Many other differentiations of literary criticism are processed often.
Stylistic tensions: a - The framing narrative was composed in prose, with excep-
On1.21,thesectionofdialogues,inpoetry,exceptfortheexcerptfrom32.14.b-Inthenar- 1 - The narrative of the frame is generally told with a growth process.
ThenarrativeoftheframeusesthenameofGod,Yahweh,23times,andthedesignationofGod. Itchangesintwooreventhreephases.Althoughthereisstillnoconsensus,thetrend
Elohim, 11 times. In the dialogue section, however, 'Javé' occurs much more extensively. theresearchisheadingtowardsconsideringthetwoscenesintheskyaslitera-
only 6 times: in 12.9b, as a citation of Is 41.20al3, besides the introduction to secondaryruins(L.Schwienhorst-Schönberger/G.Steins).
God's speeches (38:1; 40:1,6) and Job's responses (40:3; 42:1). Additionally, the section
In dialogues, it brings 'Adonai' once (28,28), against 45 times 'El', 41 times 'Eloah', 2 - Inside the double block of dialogues, the third round of speeches (22-28)
31 times "Shadai" and 6 times "Elohim". itpresentssomeirregularities,incomparisonwiththetwopreviousones.
Socio-historical tensions: Job in the frame narrative is described as a sheikh Comparedtoallthepreviousspeeches,Bildad'sspeech(25,1-6)
patriarchalofnomads(1,3;42,12);theJódasectionofdialogues,inturn,as it's very short. Moreover, Sofar no longer receives the word. We could presu-
anurbancitizenofhighsocialstanding(29). inthisfactanoriginalintentiontoexpresssomething,namely,thatalreadyinthe
Inaformallevel,itisintendedtoshowthatJob'sfriendswereleftspeechless.
Theological tensions: Job in the frame narrative accepts his submissive suffering attheendofthediscussionwithhim.Oneoftheseunveilingswouldcorrespondtothere-
God ('Job, the sufferer'), while the Job in the dialogue section revolts against the
theinjectionofyourspeechesbyElihu(32:1,3,7-19)andYahweh(42:7-10).However,some-
suffering,complains,andchallengesGodtoprovideajustifyinganswer("Job,"}
morefindingspointtothelikelyfactthatthiswasnottheintention
therebel)
originalversionofthepoetofJob.Forintheexistingtexttherearethreediscoursesof
2 - For the thesis that Elihu's discourses are literarily later in the blo- Theysaiddirectlyoneaftertheother,twicewiththeintroductoryformulation,
Asforthedialogues,twoargumentsaremainlyputforward,alongsidetheobservations. divergentfromtheotherspeeches,"andJobcontinuedtospeakhispoe-
idiomaticandstylisticchoices:a-Elihuisnotmentionedinthenarrativeofthemold but he said:
ra,unlikeJob'sotherthreefriends.b-Elihu'sspeechesinterrupt-
But the connection between Job's plea to God (31:35) and God's response (38:1). If the
Then Job answered and said:
speechesweresubsequentlyadded,onemustaskiftheyaimto
correcttheoverallmessageofthebookinthesenseoforthodoxy,orifinthemitisapprehended And Job continued to pronounce his poem and said:
atheologythat—inanalogytothepositionofthethreefriends—mustbecharacteristic 28: song of wisdom
characterized,inthecontextofthebook,asunsatisfactory.
And Job continued to pronounce his poem and said:
However,therearealsoanumberofargumentsthatsupporttheideathatthe
Elihu'sspeechesareanoriginalconstitutivepartofthedialoguesection,orthat Therearealsocontentreasonsthatindicatethefactthatthe3rdround
wereaddedbythesameauthorinalaterphaseofthework(R. The speeches were interfered with. What Job claims in 27:13-23 does not match.
Gordis, pp. 104-116). In this case, Elihu would be leading, on one hand, as withwhatwassaidonotheroccasions,butwiththetheologyoffriends.Fora
criticoffriendsandofJobaswell,forthetheologyofGod'sspeeches, side, formally oceanic of wisdom(28) is part of Job's discourse that
highlightingaboveallthemysteryofGodandHisactions,butbyor- startsat27.1.Ontheotherhand,substantiveandformalreasonsendorsethevi-
theothersidewouldbecomplementingthistheologywiththeideaofthepedagogicalfunction
theyareoftheopinionthatthesongmustbealateraddition.Whomadetheaddition
ofsuffering.Unlikethespeechesofthefriends,thoseofElihuareneitherre-
inserted it in Job's speech, which he resumed in 29:1.At the same time
untestednorconfirmedin42.7-40.Independentofhavingbeenpart
directsinthiswaytheconcludingspeechofJob(29-31)forward,to
originalconstitutionofthebookoraddedatalatertime,thewords
thespeechesofGod.
Elihuassumesacentralpositionfortheoverallunderstandingofthebook.Not
doesjusticetohispositionandroleinthebookofJobtheyjudgewhileonecanfind Inthecontextofspeechrounds,manyareoftenprocessedop-
todofrequently,thattheywouldbeatotallyunnecessaryrepetitionof literarycriticismthatgoesbeyondtheseobservations,concerning
whatthefriendshavealreadysaid. especiallytothespeechesofJob.However,thetensionscanalsobeexplainedbythe
300 — Introduction to the Old Testament THE BOOKS OF WISDOM — 301

thepossibilityofrelyingonironicquotes:Jobquotesironically,butwithout There is an intensification in the sequence of Job's two responses.

therespectiveintroductionofthecited,theopinionsexpressedearlierby inmyresponse(40,3-5)hedeclaresthathewillnotcontinuetospeakashediduntil
yourfriends,refutingtheminthisway,orthenexplicitly,as, Here.Inthesecond(42,1-6)ittakesastepforwardbydepictingwhatitstated.
for example, in 12:7-25; 24; 27:7-13 (R. Gordis, pp. 81-85.98). until then.

3 - The numerous analyses of literary criticism of God's discourses

theycanbesummarized,accordingtoJ.vanOorschot,infivemodels: 3. Historical context

1 - God's speeches are not part of the initial complex of the Book of Job. 3.1 - It is possible that the basic layer of the narrative of Job (1,1-21*; 42,12-17*)
ThebookoriginallyendedwithJob'schallengespeeches(29-31)orwith
itmayhavearisenbeforetheexile.However,itismorelikelythatitemergedshortly
a theophany without words (cf. 38:1), which was followed by a brief reaction from Job
aftertheexile.The'hero'ofthenarrativeisanon-Israelite.Thistheologicalbreadth
(42.5s; F. Hesse)
Gica,withitsimplicittendencytowardsuniversalmonotheism,fitswellinto
2 - God's speeches and Job's two responses form a unity and make currents of exilic and post-exilic theology, as they are evident, among or-
partoftheoriginalvolumeofthepoemofJob(V.Kubina). throes,inthebooksofJonah,Ruth,andDaniel.Indicationofthetimeimmediatelypost-
3 - The speeches of God and Job's two responses, except 40:1 (ditography [dupli- Beforetheexile,itisalsotheexpansionofthenarrativethroughcelestialscenes,
] and copy error of 40.3), constitute a unit (38.1-39.30; 40.2+40.3-5 becauseinit"Satan"(accuser),similartoZechariah3:1,designatesabeing
and 40.6-41.28+42.1-6), being part of the original text of the poem of Job (F. Stier; celestialinhostileintentionstowardshumanbeings,butitisnotyetused,asin
R. Gordis; O. Keel. ICr21,1,asapropername.
4-TheoriginallyautonomouscompositionendedwithaspeechfromGod,
at 38,l*.2-39,2.5.19.26s.Alater revisionAwould have cut the speech of 3.2 - The poem of Job problematizes and reflects, in a literary form and lin-
God,alaterrevisionBwouldhaveplacedinitsplace40.6-14,anotherrevision highlyartisticlinguistics,thetraditionalsapientialdoctrineoftherelationshipofaction
secondaryCwouldhavereplaceditagainwiththespeechesofElihu,andonly andwell-being/ill-being,whichiswhyitcouldnotbecountedamongtheworks
thefinaldraftwouldhaveprepared,ofthefourrevisionsthatwerecirculating, olderonesofJewishwisdomliterature.Thecriticalconfrontationwitha
thecurrentMasoretictext(V.Maag). traditionalsapientialtheologypointstotheproximitytothetimeof
Ecclesiastes.TheidentificationbetweenwisdomandfearofGodinverse28:28
5 - 0 the original speech of God consisted of 38.1-39.30; 40.15-41.3; 40.2.8-14. De-
Then follows a response from Job in 40:3-5; 42:2, 3b, 5s (K. Budde). (cf. 37,24), probably added at a very late time, touches on a
themethatismanifestedinthefinalwritingofthebookofProverbsandisaddressedto
Inessence,itisonlytheintroductionofthespeechesin40.1thatprovidesa marginbyEcclesiastes,anddetailedbySirach,butinthe
trueconsistencyproblem.Onecanrelyoneitheradictography thebookofJobitselfhasyettotakeonacentralrole.
of 40.3, later corrected, or with the stylistic figure of inclusio (38.1/40.3),
Otherargumentscitedtoinsertthebookchronologicallyaftertheexi-
whosepurposeistoindicatetheendofGod'sfirstdiscourse.Accordingto
They are: a - the language strongly permeated with Aramaic; b - Job 12:9b cons-
O. Keel, the two discourses of God address two distinct accusations: the first
I most likely quote from Is 41:20a (3; c - Job 14:7-22 rejects it
God's speech particularly addresses the complaint made in Job 3, that the earth
opinion,whichpossiblyhasjustemerged,thatthereislifeafterdeath
itwouldbeachaos,demonstratingthroughtheindicationoftheCreatorGod(38,4-38)andwith
forthehumanbeing,thusassumingthesame'proto-position'inthismatter
withthehelpofthefigureofthe'Lordoftheanimals'(38,39-39,30)theorderoftheworldthat
"Sadducees" that Ecclesiastes (3:16-22; 9:5-6,10).
itthrivesdespitetheexistenceofchaoticforces.God'sseconddiscourseres-
respondingtotheaccusation,launchedespeciallyin9:24,thatthelandwouldbe 3.3 -The probably most distinctive attempt at historical localization of the
plaguedbythepowerofawrongdoer.Pointingtotheever-renewedstruggleof differentlayersofthebook'sgrowthwerepresented,inthemostre-
Godagainstthewicked(40:9-14)andfortherepresentativefiguresofevil,thehi- center,byTh.Mende.Itdistinguishes,withtheexceptionofsomeglosses,sixbed-
thepopotamobehemofthecrocodileleviathan(40,15^11,26),thisspeechhighlights theliterarypractices,inwhichonewouldbearticulating,inthedistinctcharacterizationofthefigu-
thejusticeofYahweh. theexperienceofsufferingofIsraelineachnewhistoricalsituation.
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— 303

0terminus post quem non is the end of the possible deadline for writing. God'scourses,Jobasks(rhetorically)ifheeverreallydid...
2nd century BC, since Aristéas assumes the book with the speeches of Elihu fulfilledtheroleoftheCreatorGodandwillbeabletoassumeit(40:9-14).Ask-
Sr 49.9 does not constitute a reliable reference for existence. askhimifhewaspresentattheoriginalactofCreation(creatioprima)andif
fromthebookofJob,becauseitispossiblethatthetextrefersonlytoEzekiel14:14,20.By Doyouknowthelawsofitspreservation(creatiocontinua).Correctedbythespeech.
weshouldsituatetheemergenceofthebookofJobmostlikelyinthe divine, Job confesses that he spoke with ignorance about matters too high up and
period between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC toowonderfulforhim(42.3.6).Thus,crossingthelamentandfinding
engaging withYahweh (42.5), he rediscovers the position of silent acceptance (40.4s),
alreadypresentedintheprologueasexemplary.
4. Theological Emphases
4 - The question of the correct attitude in suffering, however, is developed
ItisunlikelythatthetheologyofthebookofJonahcanbesummarizedinasinglestatement. inthebookofJobnotonlyinthefigureoftheprotagonist,butalsointhecomposition
Theyrevealthemselvestobeusefulforthepresentationoftheologicalemphases thetreatmentofyourfriends.Theyarerepresentativesofawisdomtheology.
twodefinitionsmostfrequentlyestablished,thatthebookdealswitha thatcanbebasedonarelativelybroadconsensusofATtraditions.
timeofthequestionofhumanbehaviorinsufferingandhowit- However,intheconcretesituationofJobwhosuffers,theyfail,becausehis'doctrine...
thesecondpoint,regardingthecauseandpurposeofsuffering. "TrinadeDeus"continuestobeaspeechaboutGodanddoesnotbecomea"speaking".
Godwho,inthesolidarityofsufferingwithJob,addresseshimlamenting(accusing-
questioningandpleading.Histheologythusbecomesanexpression
4.1. The correct behavior in suffering are due to the lack of involvement with human reality, the cynical disregard of
humanbeing.Thatiswhytheyobscurepreciselythefaceoftheonetheytryto
1 - The narrative of the frame considers as a realization of the hu attitude-
defendingsodiligentlyinhistheologyagainstJob'saccusations.
JobacceptssufferingwithsubmissiontoGod.
FromJob'smouth,nowordofcriticismandcomplaintcomesout(1:22).Heacceptsthe
IsufferasifcomingfromGod,withoutaskingwhyandforwhat. 4.2. Cause and purpose of suffering
In deep sorrow, he performs the mourning ritual dictated by the
tradition(1,20)andofferspraisetoYahweh(1,21b).Thetraditionalunderstanding 1 - In the narrative form of the frame, possibly the oldest (without the
JewishandChristianperspectivesoftheBookofJobprimarilyfocusonthenarrativeframe,in twoscenesinheaven),thequestionofwhyandforwhatthesufferingisnotaddressed
Job,asapioussufferer,ispresentedbeforethereaderasper- However,thewaythefourcasesofmisfortunearedescribedin
imitable sound. thatmetaphorsofGod'sjudgingactionareadopted(cf.1:16:"fireofGod"),
LetitbeunderstoodthatthemisfortunethatbefallsJobcomesfromGod.
2 - Dialogues are problematized. The block begins with JobconfesseshiscalamityascausedbyYahwehandacceptsitassuch.
agrandsettlementofJob(3),whichleadstotheaccusationagainstGod(9,14-35).
Drawingonthewisdomtradition,EliphazurgesJobtostophislament. 2 - In the form of the narrative of the frame expanded by the two scenes of the sky
(5,1-2; cf. Pr 29,11). Eliphaz seems to recommend to Job that he accepts the solution of the pro- thequestionaboutthecauseandpurposeofsufferingisreflectedahead.Theanswer
theproblemalwaysarisesthroughtheframenarrative.Jobrefusestoadopttheattitudeoftheso- developedinanarrativemannerfullyalignswithwhattraditionstates
submissive fear of God (6:1-13; 7:11; 10:1). How does the epilogue characterize the "speech Theologicalconsiderationontheissue(cf.ThomasAquinas,SummaTheologica,vol.1,2,3)
aboutGod God allows suffering. Suffering does not come directly from
whattheauthorofJobisrecognizingasahumanlylegitimateattitude God,itisnotevencausedbyHisinitiative.TheonewhotakestheinitiativeisSatan,and
sorrow in suffering. healsoexecutesthedisgrace,yetbyconcessionandalsounderclo-
thedelimitationsofsufferingbyGod.Thepermissionofsuffering
3 - In God's speeches, Job is criticized in the aspect that in his lamentations ForGod,however,meetsthepurposeofrefutinganaccusationraisedcon-
heraisedtheaccusationthattheworldwouldbeachaos(3;21,7-11)andthis- Job,namely,thatJob'sreligiositywouldnotbeselfless.Thus,
deliveredintothehandsofacriminal(9.24).Withthisaccusationhesurpasses asparadoxicalasitmayseem,intheframingnarrativethecalamity
yourpersonalhumanexperienceandarrogatestoitselfanalmostdivineright.We... causedbySatantohumans(Job)isallowedbyGod"becauseofthe
304 — Introduction to the Old Testament The Books of Wisdom — 305

dignityofthehumanbeing."Goddoesnotdoubttheselflessnatureoffaith YetGod'sspeechesalsodonotrefertoJob'ssuffering.
on the contrary: bets on her. Intermsofcontent,naturalphenomenaandthe
animalworld,whicharebeyondtheircapacityforunderstandingas
3 - In the speeches of friends, a total of four responses can be distilled. alsotoyourpowerofinterference.Theanimalsmentionedinthesecondspeech
asksthequestionaboutthecauseandpurposeofsuffering: ofGodliveinthejungle,donotbelongtothedomainofhumanbeings.
ThusthespeechesofGodinacertainwaydivertJob'sgazeawayfromhimself.
a - Suffering is the result of human guilt. The purpose of suffering is seen priority for nature that, although accessible as an experience, is not its.
astheneedforhumanguilttobepunishedandredeemedandthesin- penetrableinitscauses(andisbeyonditscommandpower).It
may be urged to repentance (36:10). This explanation is part of... ispresentedastheCreationofYahweh.Ithaschaoticelements,butitdoesnot
entitledtotheso-calleddoublereward,accordingtowhichthefaithfulreceivethe
it'stotalchaos,butachaosalwayscontrolledagainbytheCreator.Theor-
rewardforyourbehavior,butthewickedmustwaitforpunishment(15:20-35;
18.5-21; 27.7-10.13-23; 36.5.14). This vision was unfolded in the doctrine of retribution.
therepeatedlyimposedchaoscannotbeproducednorits
action, in which the cause was inferred from the consequence: the happy person acted morally causesfullyscrutinizedbythehumanbeing(Job).Itisatthesametime
Well,theunfortunateoneactedmorallywrong. wonderful,terrible,andmajestic.
Thus, God's speeches in a way free (redeem) Job, still
b - Suffering is part of human nature, it is a consequence of its condition. before its explicit 'restoration', of a self-contained anthropocentrism
of creature (4,17-21; 5,7; 9,2; 15,14-16; 25,44). For being created with corruptible matter-
own.Inthisway,theycorrespond,inapredictable-unpredictablemanner,totheir
thelifeofthehumanbeing,regardlessofany
IlongforananswerfromtheAlmighty.Themovementdevelopedhere
ethicaltransgressionisladenwithsuffering.
canbedescribedasanevolutionofanthropocentrismthroughcosmocentrism
Suffering is a form of education and discipline by God, through which the person trismtothetheocentrism.Ifthefriendstriedinvaintobreaktheattitudeof
soispreservedfromdestruction(5:17-18).Thisexplanationofsufferinggoesthrough Job,God'sspeechescan,indirectly,freeJobfromhisne-
educationalexperiences.Justasaparentimposesstrictdisciplineoutoflove consentform,bringingbeforeyouthemysteryofCreationas
to his children (Pr 3:11-12; 13:24; 23:12-14), thus misfortune is also a sign metaphorofyourownsuffering.Yourquestionsandcomplaintsarenotanswered.
ofloveanddivineconcernforhumanity.Thispointofviewisdefen-
givenbyimpassivethirdparties,butsatisfiedbytheGodwhomysteriously
especiallyinElihu'sspeeches:thehumanbeingis"rebukedbypain,inthe
is present in Creation and gives you answers (42.5).
"bed" (33,19), "to take his existence out of the pit" (33,30).
The misfortune is a test for the faithful. This opinion had already been developed.
lifeinthenarrativeframeisalsodefendedbyJob'sfriends(36:21).Theso- 5. Relevance
frimentoisthetestofapprovalofthefaithful.Insufferingisshownifyourfaithandyour
justice is authentic. 1 - The book of Job questions all theology that is no longer able to
toadmitthepain,theopenquestions,andthecomplaintandaccusationdirectedatGod,for
SinceintheepilogueYahwehcondemnsthe'speakingaboutGod'ofthethreefriends
feelingthreatened,throughthem,yourdoctrineaboutGod.ThebookofJobcons-
(42.7s), the author of Job seems to reject the explanations of suffering provided Iheldapleainfavorofthehumanbeingwhosuffers,directedagainstatheologian.
byfriends.Thus,todiscoverthetheologyofthepoetofJob,wearereferredto
too excessively affirmative. In this regard, it is a special warning.
fromGod'sspeeches. forChristiantheologytoconsiderthatredemptionhasnotyetarrivedtothe
conclusion.ForChristians,Job'squestionremainsasrelevanttodayasitwasinthepast.
4 - It is significant that God's discourses (38:2; 10:2; 40:6-41:26) do not annoy
(differentthinksF.Hesse,ZBK20).
"However,itisnotatallthetheologyofthethreefriends.Inparticular,itdiscusses.."
courteouslyoverthefriends'suspicion,initiallyonlysuggested, 2 - In the criticism of the attitude of the three friends, the book contains an implicit instruction.
butlatersaidclearly,thatJob'ssinfulnesswouldbethecauseofhis acalltobesupportiveofthosewhosuffer.Itisnotaboutunderstanding
suffering.Inthisfact,theremustbeseenaveryimpressiverejection,in thesuffering,andyesofbeingapprovedinit.
stylisticterms,fromthetheologyoffriends.Theiropinionsarenotconsidered-
theworthyofcommentsinthespeechesofYahweh.In42:7-10,finally,thetheology- 3 - However, in the book, there is also the articulation of the hope that Yahweh is a
theactoffriendsisexpresslycondemned. Godwhodoesnotleavethesuffererforeverinmisery.TherestorationofJob,
306 — In t r introduction to the Old Testament THE BOOKS OF WISDOM — 307

oftencaricaturedas'happyend',constitutesanexpressionofthees- Fromhisthrone,helooksdownonalltheinhabitantsoftheearth.
hopethatYahwehwillultimatelyrevealHimselfasaGodwhowants EditorialhistoryandcompositioncriticismofthePsalmgroup25-34,in:FSO.
andcanbringabundantlifespecificallyfortroubledpeople Kaiser, Göttingen 1994, pp. 375-388; O. Keel, The World of Ancient Near Eastern Iconography
untildeath. and the OldTestament. Using the example of the Psalms, Zurich, 4th ed., 1984; M. Kleer, "The
lovelysingersofthePsalmsofIsrael."StudiesonDavidasPoetandPrayer
the Psalms (BBB 108), Weinheim 1996; L. Leijssen (ed.), The Psalms. Prayers of
III. THE BOOK OF PSALMS the humanity of Israel, of the Church (Texts and Liturgical Studies XI), Leuven 1990; C. Le-
Vin,TheBookofPrayeroftheRighteous.LiteraryHistoricalObservationsonthePsalter:
Erich Zenger
ZThK90,1993,pp.355-381;N.Lohfink,SongofthePoor(BiblicalLoyola),SãoPaulo2001;
Comments: F. Delitsch (BC 4,1), 1859; S. R. Hírzsch, 1888; F. Baethgen (HK II/2), 1982 = idem,PsalmsPrayerandPsalterEdition:ALM/34,1992,pp.1-22;idem/E.Zenger,The
3rd ed. 1904); B. Duhm (KHC 14), 1899 (= 2nd ed. 1922); C. A. Briggs/E. G. Briggs (ICC), God of Israel and the Nations. Studies on the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms (SBS
1906.1907; H. Gunkel (HK II/2), 1926 (= 6aed. 1986); H. Schmidt (HAT 1,15), 1934; A. Weiser 154), Stuttgart 1994; H.P. Mathys, Poets and Pray-ers. Theologians from Late Old Testament-
(ATD), 1935 (= 7aed. 1966); H.-J. Kraus (BK), 1960 (= 5aed. 1978); A. Deissler, 1963.1964.1965; Mentaltime(OBO132),Freiburg/Göttingen1994;J.C.McCann,Jr.,ATheological
M. Dahwod (AncB), 1966.1968.1970; M. Mannati, 1966.1967.1968; M. van der Ploeg (BOT), Introduction to the Book of Psalms. The Psalms as Torah, Nashville 1993; idem, The Shape
1973.1974; L. Jacquet, 1975.1977.1979; J. W. Rogerson/J. W. McKay (CBC), 1977; G. Ravasi, and Shaping(v.acima); M. Millard, The Composition of the Psalter. A Form-Historical
1981.1983.1984; R Craigie (Word Biblical Commentary), 1983; L. C. Allen (Word Biblical literalapproach(FAT9),Tübingen1994;P.D.Miller,TheyCriedtotheLord.TheFormand
Commentary), 1983; E. S. Gerstenberger (FOTL), 1991; M. E. Tate (Word Biblical Com- TheologyofBiblicalPrayer,Minneapolis1994;J.vanOorschot,Post-CultPsalms
mentary), 1990; F. L. Hossfeld/E. Zenger (NEB), 1993; J. L. Mays (Interp.), 1994. andlatebiblicalrollpoetry:ZAW106,1994,pp.69-86;J.Reindl,Wisdom
Editing of the Psalter.AContribution to the Understanding of the Psalter (VT.S 32), Leiden
PanoramicViewsofResearch:J.Becker,PathsofPsalmExegesis(SBS78),Stuttgart
1975; D. M. Howard, Jr., Editorial Activity in the Psalter: A State-of-the-Field Survey, in: 1981, pp. 333-356; J. Schreiner (ed.), Contributions to Psalm Research. Psalm 2 and 22
J. C. McCann, Jr. (ed.), The Shape and the Shaping of the Psalter (JSOT.S 159), Sheffield (fzb 60), Würzburg 1988; K. Seybold, The Psalms. An Introduction (Urban TB 382),
1993, pp. 52-70; F. L. Hossfel/E. Zenger, The Psalms I (NEB), Würzburg 1993, pp. 17-25. Stuttgart1986;idem/E.Zenger(eds.),NewPathsinPsalmResearch(HBS1),Frei-
burg, 2nd ed., 1995; H. Spieckermann, Salvation Present.ATheology of the Psalms
Monographsoncomprehensiveissues:G.Brunert,Psalm102inthecontextoftheFour- (FRLANT 148), Göttingen 1989; C.Westermann, Praise and Lament in the Psalms, Gö-
TenPsalmsbook(SBB30),Stuttgart1996;C.Barth,Concatenationinthefirstbookof Tingen 1977; G. H. Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter (SBL.DS 76), Chicago 1985;
Psalters, in: FS E. L. Rapp, Meisenheim 1976, pp. 30-40; J. Becker, Israel interprets his E. Zenger, With my God I leap over walls. Introduction to the Book of Psalms,
Psalms. Original form and reinterpretation in the Psalms (SBS 18), Stuttgart 1966; G.
Freiburg,4aed.,1993(=HerderTB8810,Freiburg1994);thesame,Iwantthedawn
Braulik,ChristologicalUnderstandingofthePsalms-alreadyintheOldTestament?,in: awakening.Psalminterpretations,Freiburg1991(=HerderTB8811,Freiburg1994);idem,
B. Kranemann/K. Richter (eds.), Christology of the Liturgy (QD 159), Freiburg 1995, pp.
A God of Vengeance? Understanding Enemy Psalms, Freiburg 1994.
57-86; W. B rueggem ann, The M essage of the Psalms. A Theological Commentary,
Minneapolis 1984; idem, Israel's Praise. Doxology against Idolatry and Ideology, Philadelphia
phia 1988; F. Crüsemann, Studies on the Form History and Thanksgiving Songs in Israel (WMANT
32), Neukirchen-Vluyn 1969; H. Gese, The Origin of the Division of the Psalter 1. Designations and structure
from Sinai to Zion, Old Testament Contributions to Biblical Theology
64), Munich 1974, pp. 159-164; H. Gunkel/J. Begrich, Introduction to the Psalms. The 1.1.Number and form of counting the psalms
Genres of Religious Lyric Poetry of Israel (HK II complement), Göttingen 1933 (reprint)
in 1975); E. Haag/F. L. Hossfeld (eds.), Joy in the Instruction of the Lord. Contributions to TheBookofPsalmsisacompositionof150poetictexts('psalms')ofdifferent...
TheologyofthePsalms.FSH.Groß(SBB13),Stuttgart,2nded.1987;W.L.Holladay,The rentsgenres(mainforms:lamentation,supplication,praise,gratitude),originates
PsalmsthroughThreeThousandYears.PrayerbookofaCloudofWitnesses,Minneapolis gendersanderas.These150psalmsdonotconstitutetheonlypsalmsintheBible.Thus-
1993; F. L. Hossfeld/E. Zenger, "Blessed is he who considers the poor" (Ps 41:2). Observa- Well, in other books there are psalms, generally in a structured location.
ContributionstotheTheologyofthePeopleofGodfromtheFirstDavidPsalm:JBTh7,1992,pp.21-50; highlightedpsalm(e.g.,thesongofvictoryattheseaofreeds:Ex15:1-18;
same,"WhomayascendthemountainofJHWHs?"Ontheeditorialhistoryand thesongofMoses:Dt32;thesongofDeborah:Jz5;the'magnificat'ofHannah:
TheologyofthePsalmgroup15-24,in:FSN.Lohfink,Freiburg1993,pp.166-182; 2Samuel2:1-11;thefarewellsongofDavid:2Samuel23:1-7;thehymnofgratitudeof