TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES, XVIe-Eighteene

CENTURY

Introduction: the world in 1491

the first discoveries

In the Far East and in Asia

Two notable movements are:

first embassies of Franciscan brothers in the middle of the 13th century, for

trying to untangle geopolitical issues related to the great extension of

the Mongol empire (Jean de Plan Carpin, Guillaume de Rubrouck)

Marco Polo in the 13th century opens the door of Asia to the Genoese merchants thanks to the

Silk Road. Polo also contributes to the momentum of great discoveries.

thanks to his "Description of the World"

In Africa

For a long time, Europeans have known and explored North Africa.
Thus, many Italian merchants are established in Marrakech, Tunis, Alexandria...
Ceuta has been a Portuguese fortress since 1415. But beyond the Sahara lies the black continent.
is unknown to Europeans (unlike the Muslims), except for the western coast
gradually explored.

It is Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) who plays a major role. Son of John I of
Portugal, he is the financier and advisor of the Portuguese expeditions of the 15th century. His
the priority is the exploration of the African coasts south of Morocco in search of gold
of the kingdom of Prester John (legendary Christian kingdom). It is attributed to Henry the Navigator
(1394-1460) the exploration of Madeira in 1418, the Azores between 1432 and 1457, of the Rio de
Gold in 1436 and from the coast of Senegal in 1445.

In 1415, he settled in Sagres, in southern Portugal, and founded the academy in 1431.
Sagres, an institution for navigator training. Navigation is studied there but
also geography and astronomy. He brings together an important collection of books and
maps in order to facilitate shipments. Its architects build the caravels.
Thus, starting from 1416, an expedition is funded every year. Each
discovery, the captain plants a two-meter high stone (limestone) pillar,
the prado, in order to mark their progress and to let the next one know that someone is
already passed and they are on the right track.

And America? Newfoundland

Vikings

The southern coasts of Newfoundland are explored towards the end of the 10th century by Leif.
Eriksson (son of Erik the Red), a Viking from Iceland (Thule). According to the tales
Scandinavians the last expeditions to Vinland (the Scandinavian designation for Land-
Nine) will take place in the 12th century.

Fishermen and European explorers.

Since the beginning of the 15th century, many European sailors set out to fish for cod in
large Canadian coasts and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (Breton sailors)
Paimpol and Saint Malo, Norman sailors from Barfleur and Dieppe, sailors of the country
Basque, Irish and Portuguese navigators. Thus, we find their presence in the
payment made to the king of France on "the Fisheries of Newfoundland". From this
In this era, maps and portolans circulate among European navigators. Islands are
indicated to the West of the Atlantic Ocean; island of Antilia, island of Brazil, island of Bacalao.

In 1472, the Portuguese explorer João Vaz Corte-Real traveled to the island of Terra.
New of Bacalhausur where Portuguese fishermen have been fishing for cod since
a long period.

the state of forces in Europe

In the late 15th century, the Italian peninsula triumphs in Europe through its wealth and brilliance.

civilization. But the Turks who arrived in Constantinople are a threat to their
prosperity.

In Spain, the marriage in 1469 of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon prepares
the unification of the two kingdoms. Thus:

- we conclude the reconquista (capture of Granada), end of the movement initiated in the 8th century

century

- We patron the first voyage of Christopher Columbus.

In Portugal, John II (1481-1495), of the Aviz dynasty, continues the exploration.

methodical exploration of the coasts of Africa started at the beginning of the century.
 and in the meantime Aztecs, Mayans, Incas, ...

By the end of the 15th century, the American continent is very unevenly occupied: 80% of the population is on

the plateaus of Mexico to Peru. Three civilizations emerge:

→Mayans (Yucatan). The empire is very divided into several small states that

will offer only very little resistance.

Aztecs (Central Mexico). The empire is recent but powerful (Tenochtitlan)

The economy is based on crops (maize, cocoa, cotton...) and metals.
(or, silver, copper). The society is very hierarchical. The religion is dominated by
Huitzilopochtli to whom human sacrifices must be offered. The neighboring tribes are
the victims, which will make the empire very fragile.

Incas (Quichua empire). Most of the land is exploited through labor.

the company is very regulated by numerous officials, to the point that it has been possible to
qualify the Inca regime as communist. The religion is based on the worship of the sun. The
The pantheon of the Incas is obviously different from that of the peoples of Meso-
America.

These civilizations display, alongside archaic traits (ignorance of the wheel, of iron,
absence of writing, few domestic animals), very evolved characters (forms
organization, astronomy, architecture...)

However, one must not believe that the rest of America has remained at the stage
prehistoric. Very advanced forms of organization have been uncovered. (For example, some
Mississippi companies
I- Late 15th - early 16th century: from opening to
world to its share
We can mention François Lebrun: "Great discoveries are driven by
economic and religious mobilizations. They lead to the establishment of a
global economy of which Europe is the engine and the beneficiary.

A - The levers of great discoveries

1- Instruments

-the compass. It has been used since 2600 BC by the Chinese. The
the first representation is made in the 'Book of Wonders'.
But it is transmitted only later to the Europeans by the
bias against Arabs.

- the astrolabe. A priori invented by Hipparchus, this instrument is used for

calculating the time by observing the sun and the stars. It is also
used by the Arabs of Islam, just like the armillary sphere which
shows the apparent movement of the stars.

the compass

the marine workbench

2- The knowledge

Pierre d'Ailly takes up Ptolemy's ideas about the Earth in his Imago.
Mundi, printed in 1483. His work is said to have been read by Columbus.

-portulans. A type of nautical chart primarily used to locate ports.

and to know the dangers that could surround them: currents, shallows... The portolanos
were roughly drawn, the details only focusing on what had
the importance for navigation. The establishment of these nautical charts was based on
a mode of coastal navigation.

3- The caravels

They were developed in the early 15th century by the Portuguese (maneuverability, navigation by all)
the times).
 The motivations for the great discoveries: the weight of
rivalries

1- Geo-economic motivations

The Silk Road is blocked. We are forced to imagine other routes.

The rivalries between states are a driving force. We enter into competition for our prosperity.

in Europe. But why is this need to leave so strong?

precious metals shortage, exacerbated by economic growth. Columbus and

the discoverers are driven by the gold fever (cf. Cathay - China, Cipango - Japan,
Eldorado

search for spices to mask the taste of poorly preserved meats and the
pharmacy. Competition is strong between Italian and Portuguese merchants.

- for the Portuguese, need for slaves for their sugar plantations (cf.
Madeira, Azores

2- Spiritual motivations

spirit of resignation: to win new souls to the faith.

- spirit of the cross. This is the case with Isabella of Castile who appointed in April
1492 Christopher Columbus viceroy of all the lands he will discover.

The plurality of actors

Discoverers.

-Conquerors. They are often sometimes to be differentiated. Thus Cortes part

in the discovery of Mexico, but mainly to conquer some

territories.

Sovereigns who often become financiers and patrons.

-Ports, shipowners and sailors. Ex. of the crew of the first voyage of
Colomb.

Clergy. They participate but are not at the center of it.

 -Chroniclers. They are often clergymen, intellectuals.
Several figures emerge such as Bartolomé de Las Casas, Bernal Diaz
del Castillo or Bernardino de Sahagun (first chronicle in Nahuatl)

-Scientists, intellectuals.

The others (victims or beneficiaries)

The great discoveries operate like a system. All the fringes of the
European societies are more or less affected (e.g. by the introduction of plants)
news, the consequences of the monetization of the economy...)

D-Main exploration trips, improvement of

knowledge and sharing of the world

1 - The discovery of the African coasts and the route to India

The aim of the Portuguese sovereigns is to take Islam by surprise and to win.
rich regions, in gold, spices... With Jean II unfold the decisive stages:

→1487: Bartolomeu Dias, with three caravels, reaches the coast of Natal,
discover the Cape of Storms (cf. Cape of Good Hope).

→1497: Vasco da Gama sets out with four caravels and 160 men. He
double the Cape of Good Hope then follow the eastern African coast to Calicut
in India.

2 - The discovery of the New World

As early as 1500, the Portuguese Cabral recognizes and takes possession of the Brazilian coast.

But the continent is gradually being explored by the Spaniards:

Cuts

Pizarre

Almagro (Chile)

De Soto (Mississippi)

Coronado (California)

-Orellana (Amazon)...
Competition is strengthening between European nations. Jealous, English and French
they are looking for the passage to Asia in the north of the continent:

-1497: expedition of the maringénois Giovanni Cabotto, in the service of the English (cf.

John Cabot

-1523-24: expedition of Giovanni da Verrazzano, on the order of Francis I

-1534: Jacques Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence, which he navigates up to the site of

Montreal

-Late 16th century: numerous other attempts by Hudson, Baffin...

3 - The first round the world

On September 25, 1515, Balboa, after crossing the Isthmus of Panama, discovers
the Pacific Ocean. But we still have to get around the American obstacle.

Magellan, Portuguese in the service of Charles V, will accomplish it:

Departure from San Lucar on September 20, 1519.

Rio de Plata reached in January 1920.

On November 28, 1521, after a terrible voyage of 38 days, he

at the ocean that he names Pacific because the sea appears calm there.

On March 16, 1521, he touched the Philippines but is little time.

after by indigenous people.

The only surviving ship arrives in Spain on September 6, 1522.

Cape of Good Hope, with 35 survivors.

This voyage is the experimental proof of the sphericity of the Earth.

Annex: Columbus and his four voyages: from naive contact to racism

A few interesting points about Columbus for our study:

The origins of Columbus. His resonance is characteristic of the time. He proposes

services offered to several kingdoms, to John II who refuses, then to Isabelle of
Castile. Even today its origins are disputed; everyone wants
to appropriate Columbus.

the knowledge of Columbus; Christopher Columbus settled in Portugal in 1476, in

the moment when the project to reach India by circumventing begins to take shape.
Africa. Inspired by the cosmographer Toscanelli, the reading of Pierre d’Ailly..., he thinks
that Japan and China are close to Europe (≈ current California), to the West.

-the 1erjourney of discovery, but where the first temptations appear

colonialists. Columbus will depart from Palos on August 3, 1492 with three caravels, a
hundred men. After a stopover in the Canary Islands, a Spanish possession, he reaches land
On October 12 in San Salvador, convinced he had reached Asia. He discovers Hispaniola.
(Saint-Domingue) and Cuba. He returned to Palos on March 15, 1493. Received in
Triumphant, the Spaniards obtained from Pope Alexander III a bull declaring
Spanish all "the lands or islands discovered or to be discovered" beyond
the meridian passing a hundred leagues to the west of the Azores. But on June 4, 1494, John II,
by the Treaty of Tordesillas, the line was moved further west.

the three other voyages whose goal is colonization, the exploitation of

all the resources. During the next three voyages, Columbus discovers some
the large and small Antilles, the delta of the Orinoco, part of the shores of
Central America. At his death in 1506, he does not suspect that he has discovered a new
world. America is named in honor of Amerigo Vespucci, navigator
of Florentine origin.
II- 16th - 17th century: conquest and exploitation of
new worlds

To the conquest

The exploitation of America is less the work of the Spanish sovereigns than of
conquistadors. The logic is very often military. We note three stages:

→ conquest of the Antilles (1492-1519), quickly emptied of their indigenous people

(microbial shock, violence...)

→conquest of Mexico starting in 1519. In two years, among other things thanks to

to his horses, to his cannons, with the help of the Tlaxcalans he has subdued, Hernan Cortes
will definitively take possession of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) on August 12, 1521 and to
"destroy" the Aztec empire. He is appointed by Charles V in 1522 as captain general.
from New Spain.

→ conquest of the Andes by Francisco Pizarro (1531-1533) taking advantage of

divisions of the two sons of the Inca. Cuzco is taken on November 15, 1533: the Inca empire
collapsed.

After the looting of Aztec and Inca treasures, the exploitation of mines will constitute at
The great wealth of the Spanish Indies (cf. silver from Potosi in Peru and
Zacatecas, Mexico.

In the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese primarily want to establish trading posts.
(Mombasa, Zanzibar...). But they clash with Muslim merchants: so we will therefore
also move to a military logic. From the Azores to the Indies of the colonial empire
Portuguese is made up of a series of fortresses dominating their hinterland and
serving as support points for a military fleet. The Estado da India is created.

The rational exploitation of the colonies

1 - Spanish America
The occupation is very discontinuous. It was divided into 2 viceroyalties, 9 audiencias, with:

- New Spain (capital Mexico)

- Peru (capital Lima)

The viceroys in Spain fall under the Council of the Indies. However, due to the distance
The authority of the King leaves much to be desired.

The exploitation for the exclusive benefit of the metropolis takes precedence immediately. All the ships

must go through the Casa de Contratación in Seville. The King collects the fifth or
fifth.

Forced labor is imposed on the Indians (encomienda system) despite

protests of the Dominican Las Casas. Spain provides the manufactured products of which the
Colonization is needed. The Indian population collapses from 30 million to 10 million in the 16th century.

So we are going to call on black labor.

The Christianization remains superficial. The Jesuits in the 17th century will create some

reductions (communities), notably in Uruguay.

2 - Portuguese Brazil

In the 16th century, colonization is limited to a few settlements in the Northeast around Bahia.

Recife. We are under threat: from French

- but especially the Dutch (temporary creation of a Brazil

Dutch

Coastal Brazil, based on sugar, is prosperous. The cycle of gold succeeded it around 1700.
(cf. Minas Gerais)

3 - The Antilles

They were quickly decimated and abandoned in favor of the continent by the Spaniards.
So:

- arrival of deflibustiers

colonization of certain islands by other powers:

Dutch (cf. Curaçao)

English, seizing Jamaica

French with settlers engaged in the West of France and

black slaves
4 - North America

Throughout the 16th century, the French ventured (cf. sailors from Saint-Malo) but did not

do not install. Then:

In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec, wanting to create a

New France. But the results are mediocre for a long time. Around 1660, the colony has
in 1663, Colbert gave it the structure of a province with
governor and administrator.

From 1669 onwards, it was decided to explore the South to the Mississippi.
Cavelier de La Salle takes possession in the name of Louis XVI (cf. Louisiana). But the
English are firmly established along the Atlantic.

On November 9, 1620, near Cape Cod, the passengers disembark.

Mayflower, dont42 "Pilgrim Fathers", English Puritans who took refuge in Holland. From
From 1630 to 1640, 20,000 of them moved to Massachusetts. Then were founded some
independent colonies. A New England is formed, turned towards the sea.
Boston, founded in 1630, becomes a major port.

This pressure from the colonists forces the Dutch (Breda Treaty) who are established in a
series of trading posts in the Hudson Valley (New Amsterdam becomes New York in
France has space on its side, but the English have numbers on theirs.
(400,000 against 15,000 Franco-Canadians).

C-The benefits of metropolises

the material consequences with the introduction of tobacco, quinine, corn,

potato...

The economic consequences. Precious metal stocks are increasing.

strongly. The bourgeoisie takes great profit from merchant cities, while the classes
The popular ones are impoverished due to the increase in prices. Similarly, not all countries...

do not equally benefit from this wealth: Charles Quint and Philip II can
maintain their armies, fleets... The Spanish monarchy becomes the first
power of Europe.

the intellectual consequences with the debates on the 'savages', good or

bad?
 The consequences of the conquests: new sharing of
world and first globalization
In 1519, the King of Spain, who is 19 years old, becomes Emperor Charles V or Charles the Fifth.

Its power, over the possessions of which "the sun never sets" seems
considerable. Influenced by Erasmian humanism, "he dreams of realizing the monarchy
universal and Christian, the imperium mundi:

spiritual power of the Pope

temporal power

The reign of Philip II (1556-1598) will be the Spanish golden century. The son of Charles
Quint owns three quarters of America, the Philippines. Moreover, beating the
supporters of Antoine de Crato, he is proclaimed king of Portugal. It comes to fruition.
the union of the two largest colonial empires.

By moving with his government to Lisbon, he seems to want to make this port
the center of Iberian domination over the world. But as early as 1582, he left for Madrid
in Castile. The king has money thanks to the mines of Potosi, which allows for the maintenance of
the best fleet in Europe.

The European economy, limited in the 16th century to Northern Italy and the Netherlands, explodes:

- promotion of the Atlantic frontage (Lisbon, Seville)

Antwerp, a major financial and redistribution center.

exotic products
Appendix: Cortes and Pizarro, the Destroyers of Empires

Two interesting points about Cortès and Pizarro for our study:

the two conquistadors greatly contribute to the sharing of the world, to the establishment

in a very quick establishment of New Spain. With a few hundred men

only, they quickly overcame two well-established civilizations:

technical superiority? (weapons, armor, strategy, role of the horse...)

weight of dissensions on the two empires (oppression of neighboring peoples of

Aztecs, Inca Empire split in two

plus other factors plus contextual (Moctezuma's cowardice in the face of the Gods,
role of the Battle of Cajamarca in the Aztec conquest, fatalism in the face of
signs...)

microbial shock (smallpox, flu)

the two conquerors certainly have personal motivations but the desire
to bring additional prestige to the Spanish Crown is omnipresent.
In the letters of Cortes, we find the same traits as in the correspondence of
Colomb.
III-The eighteenth: new discoveries, new
rivalries, new practices
In Europe, the 18th century is the century of population growth, production,
inseparable from the growth of trade exchanges with the rest of the world.

Gradually new power dynamics

favorable to Northern Europe

1 - The role of the 'forerunners'

For the Spaniards at the end of the 16th century, maritime relations deteriorated with
England:

→looting in New Spain, Panama, by Francis Drake, then in Chile, in Peru,

where he intercepts a convoy loaded with gold and silver (during the 2tharound the world) .

Philip II, having become king of Portugal, wants to eliminate this English danger.

the Atlantic, wishing to invade England. The Invincible Armada departs from Lisbon on the 20th
May 1588: it will be the debacle. Spain has lost all chance of defeating its rival.

Under the first three Bourbons, Spain experiences a recovery after the decline of
17th century. Philip V and Ferdinand VI develop trade with America and
oppose the encroachments of the English. With Charles III (1599-1788), we have a role
new played by Barcelona which is engaging in exchanges with America. The monopoly
from the House of Trade is suppressed: American trade is free with all
ports.

Portugal has seen its colonial empire diminish since the end of the 16th century. It lived from

the exploitation of Brazil (Lisbon rebuilt in 1755 thanks to Brazilian gold).

2 - The assertion of Northern Europe

The big winners are, at first, the Dutch:

 →1hevoyage to the Spice Islands (1595-96)

installation of theCieof the East Indies in the

Moluccas, in Java (Batavia – 1619), Malacca…

Until 1692, nothing hinders the extraordinary rise of the United Provinces, of which the great
wealth comes from maritime trade. The closure of Lisbon to the Dutch has
launched on the seas:

vast colonial empire in the Indian Ocean. The East India Company has the
monopole

- huge capital, impressive profits

- numerous counters

thousandsoffishers...

- the French West India Company engages in the plunder of Spanish ships and
Portuguese, and temporarily settle in America (New Amsterdam,
Brazil

The Dutch are also the masters of transit trade. The abundance of gold and
The money deposited in the banks of Amsterdam actually makes it the largest center for metals.
precious from Europe.

Then the English takeover becomes obvious. We have a very great economic boom.
a rising population. London is experiencing spectacular growth, becoming a
large shopping center

- with its trading companies (East India Company)

- with its port, its shipbuilding

London sees the creation of the Board of Trade in 1696, a true ministry of Commerce.
and the Colonies.

The French are less dynamic. Colbert promotes shipbuilding and creates
trading companies, like those from the Eastern and Western Indies in
1664.

The war that broke out in 1672 leads to the disappearance of Companies except for those of the Indies.
Easterners. Moreover, the working class hesitates to invest in commerce.

However, there are some successes: Commercial tonnages and volumes on the rise
 Saint-Malo, Rouen, Nantes, La Rochelle
Bordeaux begins to engage in trade with the New World and the ocean.
India

B-" Finish the world the new spaces of

discoveries

1 – New levers

We note decisive progress in the art of navigation:

sextant (for measuring latitude)

chronometer (for longitude)

→ larger, faster, more maneuverable ships...

It is very significant to see that it is the English who developed the first ones.
sextants and chronometers.

2 - Discoveries in the 17th and 18th centuries

Partly because conflicts on the continent are relatively numerous,

voyages of discovery are few in the 17th century (cf. Dutch Abel Tasman) and one
rather continues the exploration of the continents. But they resume in the 18th century because we have a

desire to know the configuration of the world without its entirety. The goals are scientific.
with crews doubled with scientists, naturalists...

The main goal is the exploration of the Pacific.

→1766-1768, the English Wallis and Carteret, then Bougainville, are in

Tahiti...

The three voyages of James Cook (1729-1779) contribute to the discovery

of the Pacific

→François de La Pérouse (1785-88) completes this list. His voyage...

tragically ends

C-Various purposes: from political pragmatism and

commercial to the advances of science
1 - Always geopolitical and geostrategic objectives...

Rivalries are always exacerbated. The example of the Franco-British rivalry.

is evidenced. Despite balanced positions (Antilles, India), the Treaty of Paris (1763)
brings the superiority of the English, especially in North America.

In North America, fertility is high among the French, but not immigration.
Despite the Indian peril, the difficult relationships with the metropolis, the threat
French...the 13 English colonies (1732) are united.

On July 8, 1755, France and England broke off their relations, following the capture of
more than 200 ships by the English admiral Boscawen. Poorly monitored by the metropolis, the
French must surrender on September 8, 1760, in front of Montreal: it is the end of the
New France. The English even take Guadeloupe and Martinique.

In India, they immediately take the advantage. In February 1761, the last trading post, Mahé,
surrenders.

With the Treaty of Paris (1763) France:

-ceded it to Canada

cedes all territories east of the Mississippi

find Guadeloupe, Martinique and five Indian trading posts

This is received differently on each side of the Channel. For Choiseul, these
conditions are unexpected (keeping the sugar islands ≠ yielding the 'acres of snow')
Canadians.

2 - Always commercial purposes

Direct commerce with America is amplifying, within the framework of exclusivity, each
colony that can only trade with its metropolis in principle. But there exists
smuggling or interference. Moreover, England, by the Treaty of Utrecht (1717), secures the
trade with the Spanish and Portuguese colonies.

France is gradually enriching itself not with Canada, but with the Caribbean colonies,
especially Saint-Domingue.

3 - The strengthening of the slave trade

The major fact is the existence of a dual current of slave trade:

the oldest in the hands of Arab merchants from East Africa

supply the Turkish empire and Southwest Asia.
 →European uncourant born in the 16th century for the mines and plantations of the New

World. The Portuguese are gradually being ousted by the Dutch, then from around 1670-80.
by the English and the French. We exchange the captives for goods.

Then the slave trade intensifies (6 million Africans in the 18th century):

53% towards the Caribbean

31% towards Brazil

10% in New Spain

6% in North America

The boats leave from Liverpool, Nantes, or Bordeaux, heading towards the Gulf of Guinea or
Angola, then leave for America with the captives to return to Europe loaded with
colonial products: it is the triangular trade.

4 - Strengthening scientific travel

These journeys are relatively numerous. At the end of the period, one can even observe
that the Russians embark on exploration trips.

Cf.Wikipedia article
Appendix: The travel narratives of Cook and Bougainville

A few words about Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811):

- Son of a merchant, but his uncle is an administrator at the Post Office, friend

d'Alembert. Curious young bourgeois from Paris interested in sciences and the world

Scientist. At 22, he published a Treatise on Integral Calculus.

- In 1756, it strengthens Montcalm's troops in Canada.

teach the elements of navigation and command at sea. first
contacts with the Indians that shake the myth of the noble savage

- Embarks on a personal adventure upon his return: to recognize and

to colonize the Falkland Islands in order to relocate Acadians, to open
a counter in South America, stop commanding the Strait of Magellan. Acts
also in the spirit of scientific discovery (Terra Incognita to ensure
the equilibrium of the globe). Three voyages between 1763 and 1767 but the Bourbons
Spaniards must cease the adventure

- We must compensate for this failure. He must convince Choiseul to finance it.
"Voyage around the world". Louis XVI gives his approval. Missions
multiples

return the Falklands

recognize the unknown lands of the Pacific

 to take possession of several

• bring back plants (nutmeg, clove...)

• find a counter opposite the coasts of China

Armela Boudeuse, a frigate (warship) and the flute L'Étoile (ship)

of commerce for the supply). The very diverse crew consists of:

two writers

two surgeons

enlightened amateur

cartographer engineer: Romainville

unnaturalist: Commerson

an astronomer: Véron

four musicians

- the journey: December 1766 - March 1769. Did not really see anything
discovered. Few landscape illustrations. No plants brought back. None
counter.Commerson dies after his return. However, made to the
geography of Oceania made great progress, discovering new islands, specifying
the situation of many others, concerning the customs of the indigenous people
interesting information.

Conclusion: ENLIGHTENED AMATEURISM

A few words about James Cook (1729-1811):

born into a poor family of farmers (8 brothers and sisters). Rudiments

school education. Become an apprentice at a shipyard.

- he joined the British Royal Navy. He learned what would serve him:
algebra, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy. In Canada, it shows
talents for topography and cartography.

- participates in three major expeditions:

-First expedition (1768 – 1771). In 1768, the Royal Society

charge James Cook, on board the HMB Endeavour, to explore the ocean
 South Pacific with main missions being the observation of transit of
Venus of June 3, 1769 and the search for a hypothetical continent
Australmais Cook will not discover it. The Endeavour was a three-masted ship.
barque of the same type as those that Cook had already commanded,
solid and ideal embarkation in terms of storage capacity as well as
for its shallow draft, an essential quality to approach the
numerous reefs and archipelagos of the Pacific.

second expedition (1772 – 1775). Cook is promoted to the rank of

commander before being tasked by the Royal Society to go to
new in the southern seas in search of the southern continent. At
during his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated that New Zealand
was not attached to any land and estimated the size of Australia. Cook
on board the HMS Resolution, accompanied by Tobias Furneaux at the
head of the HMS Adventure.

third expedition (1776 – 1779). For his last expedition,

Cook commanded the HMS Resolution again while the captain
Charles Clerke took command of the HMS Discovery. Subsequently navigating the
along the American continent, Cook described in his journal the tribes
Indigenous peoples of Vancouver Island, the coasts of Alaska, the islands
Aleuts and from both shores of the Bering Strait. Cook dies at
Hawaii.

his legacy is immense, unlike Bougainville. The twelve years

what Cook dedicated to navigating the Pacific brought a lot of
knowledge of the region to the Europeans. He discovered several islands and
cartography with precision of large portions of the coast. From its first
During the voyage, he was able to calculate longitude precisely, which was not the case.
quite obvious at the time because it requires knowing the time with precision.

Cook was accompanied by painters (Sydney Parkinson created 264 drawings before
his death at the end of the first voyage, William Hodges represented numerous
landscapes of Tahiti and Easter Island) and renowned scientists. Joseph
Banks (who discovered the Banksia) and Daniel Solander collected 3,000 species.
of plants.

Cook was the first European to establish close contact with several
peoples of the Pacific. He concludes, rightly, that there is a connection between them,
despite the thousands of miles of ocean that sometimes separated them.

Scientific Methodology