INTRODUCTION

Studying History is a necessary and precise task at all times of our lives.
lives, because it helps us to reflect and understand our distant past
and even the recent, as we also think that this science is necessary because of the
the fact of being a science that significantly helps in the evolutionary process of our minds.

As it is a study centered on universality, we begin by making an approach

about the great revolutions the world has known so far, or rather we talk about the
Agricultural Revolution, how this practically gave rise to the other revolutions
like the English, the American, and the French, we treat them in a single chapter.

In this booklet, we briefly address the situation of the Opium War,

Berlin conference as well as Pan-Africanism. For it to be truly necessary
being comprehensive, we couldn't forget the two World Wars that the
the world encountered in the twentieth century, we also analyzed the situation of the socialist revolution
October in Russia clearly, Treaty of Versailles and the Creation of the League of Nations
topics that we consider necessary for this preparatory course.

We want our students or the general public to have this Handout, don't we?
as a simple support manual, but that it serves as a source capable of a
reading and questioning. Only then can we know the world we live in by looking.
to the past with eyes set on the present and fixed on the future.

HERE IS A NOTE NO LESS IMPORTANT AS A TITLE OF ADVICE. OR

BETTER, FROM THIS MOMENT ON, AFTER YOU TURN A PAGE AND READ
YOU WILL NO LONGER BE THE SAME PERSON, IF IT DOESN'T HAPPEN STOP AND THINK
VERY WELL IN THE WAY YOU STUDY. THIS IS IF YOU WANT TO HAVE ACADEMIC SUCCESS
LIKE MANY OF US.
 THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION (1650/1800).

During the 18th century, the landscape changed dramatically in certain places in Europe,
especially in England, when new methods of profitable agriculture were introduced.

The methods of European agriculture had not changed for centuries. But around the 18th century,
owners, botanists, and breeders, especially in England, discuss better ways to
manage the lands and grow the crops. Scientists investigated the breeding of animals, the
land management and the crops. The cities and industries were progressing and there was more money
affection for agriculture. As profits increased, the owners studied and
they experimented with more things. All of this led to the agricultural revolution.

New plows were designed, and in 1701, the English farmer Jethro Tull invented the machine for
horse-drawn sowing, which allows for the mechanized collaboration of seeds in rows, for
facilitate the weeding. By practicing crop rotation, soil fertility has increased, and
With rationalized breeding, the animals have improved. These methods required investment.
financial and fifth largest.

The rural landscape changed a lot during the 18th century. In many parts of England, the land
It has been cultivated in large and wide medieval fields. The villagers rented plots of these.
fields, where they worked alongside their neighbors. This system provided for the subsistence of
people, but did not produce surpluses to sell to the inhabitants of the cities, in order to
make a profit.

Land subdivisions
The landlords decided that their fields could be cultivated more effectively if they were
enclosed. Walls and fences were built in the open fields to create more units.
smaller and more easily workable. The subdivision laws approved by Parliament
between 1759 and 1801 also included the lands designated for pastures. In total three million of
hectares of land were delineated in England during the Agricultural Revolution.

Many tenants lost their livelihood and were forced to go to the cities. The
owners built huge farms with large houses. Many farms were
redesigned as beautiful parks by famous gardeners like Lancelot "Capacity"
Brown. These changes were supported by the government, made up of landowners. But
this brought a lot of suffering to the families of agricultural workers.

INDUSTRIALIZATION / THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1708-1835)

The industrial revolution, which began in England, in the textile industry, brought changes
never seen - a rapid growth of cities, mines, canals, and factories.
At the beginning of the 18th century, most people produced goods in a traditional way,
usually by hand, at home or in small workshops. The men were carpenters, blacksmiths
and the weavers. Others worked the land growing crops to feed the families.
The women worked at home, took care of the animals, carded and spun the wool.
the industrial revolution changed all of this. Many people moved to the cities to
working for a salary and the employers only thought about increasing profits starting
mass production. The industrial revolution began in England in the textile industry.
The machines, connected by hydraulic wheels, increased the speed of the looms and spinning.
and the finishing of the fabrics. Huge mills and factories were built. New cities
they appeared in areas such as Yorkshire and Black Country in England or in the Ruhr valley in
Germany. Industrial cities like Birmingham, Newcastle, Lille, Leipzig and
Rotterdam was rapidly expanding. A network of canals was built to transport the
products. Then came the development of steam engines. Newcomen built a
steam engine in 1712. In 1776, James Watt and Matthew Boulton built steam engines
to feed the machines. In 1709, Abraham Darby began to smelt iron in a furnace,
using coke. England became known as the "workshop of the world." The revolution
industry began there because the war had not caused such disastrous effects as in the other
the rest of Europe, had plenty of iron ore and coal reserves, a lot of labor
cheap labor (due to the abandonment of the lands) and quite a bit of money from the profits of the colonies.

The British Industry Advances

In 1815, the production of coal, textiles and metals in England was equal to that of the rest of the world.
It took a century to achieve this effect. The great social changes occurred
due to the migration of people from rural areas to cities - families and villages were separating -
and the workers were exploited by the powerful factory owners. A new class
The number of wealthy industrialists has been growing, as well as managers and professionals. London has become the
financial capital of Europe. Manufactured products were exported all over the world.
and the raw materials, such as silk, cotton, and wood, were shipped at ports like
Liverpool and salmon

The Agricultural Revolution and the first industrial occurred simultaneously. The factories
they provided new machines and tools to the farmers and they also became
businessmen who sold their products to the growing population of the cities. The
personal relationships involved in rural life and local commerce initiated the agreements
financial, intermediaries, and contract. It was the dawn of a new world of 'dark factories'

The AGE OF LOGIC / ILLUMINISM.

The quest for logic and reason during the seventeenth century led to the emergence of new
social and political ideas in the eighteenth century known as Enlightenment.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote, "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your reason."
intelligence!" People were no longer interested in traditional beliefs. The
Scientific investigations of the eighteenth century had initiated a vast process of
experiences and exploration of the world and, as a result, of the 18th century were published
great encyclopedias with records of knowledge.
Between 1751 and 1772, Denis Diderot in France compiled the Encyclopedia in 35 volumes, with 200
collaborators. In 1755, Dr. Johnson published the Dictionary of the English Language and, in 1768-71,
the Encyclopaedia Britannica was published.

The Enlightenment also meant the pursuit of happiness, justice, and knowledge in music, in
literature, travel, philosophy and politics. Many absolute rulers and landowners
powerful people had new ideas, but feared the consequences of ordinary people reading them
they will talk about them. These ideas eventually led to revolutions.

THE DIFFUSION OF IDEAS

The Enlightenment was led by philosophers such as Kant, Voltaire, and David Hume, and the economist Adam
Smith, the composers Haydn and Mozart, and political thinkers like Rousseau, Locke, and Paine.
Voltaire was a French writer who criticized intolerance, rewritten the history of the world,
as well as dramas and essays that focused on society and politics.

Adam Smith, Scottish economist, described the workings of modern economies and
free markets. The French political thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote about the
social equality and democracy. Thomas Paine, British revolutionary writer who visited the
America and France wrote the Rights of Man with strongly popular ideas.
influencers. It was also a time when people began to discover things
through scientific experimentation and observation. During this period, were established
the modern chemical bases and also made progress in biology. These developments
helped the scientists of the future. Literature became more realistic when the first
modern romances emerged. But more than ever, people knew how to read and the new ideas
they spread more quickly.

In a Europe full of wars, high taxes, inequalities, and oppressive governments, the
free thought and the pursuit of free aspirations were increasingly greater. The first result
this race for freedom ran outside of Europe, in the colonies of North America.
Unexpectedly, a revolution was beginning, which encouraged other radical changes in
the entire European continent.

The Foundation of the U.S. 1763-1789

The inhabitants of the thirteen colonies in America were not satisfied with the British government.
They fought for their independence, and a new nation was born.

At the end of the Seven Years' War, in 1763, the British government in London and the colonists
The English in America feel satisfied. They had defeated France and occupied territories in
Canada and also lands as far away as those of the Mississippi River. With the French threat removed,
the colonist no longer needed England to defend them.

But the British wanted to govern the old French territories and raise taxes to
pay the soldiers for the defense of these lands. They increased the taxes in the thirteen colonies. The
local assemblies of the colonies stated that it was unjust for England to impose taxes on
American colonies, after that could not interfere with the British government. They said
that the 'tax without representation abroad'. The colonies banned all imports
British and, on July 4, 1776, the representatives of the thirteen colonies adopted the
Declaration of independence, claiming the right to self-government.

The Independence
Guided by the ideas of Thomas Jefferson and influenced by the Enlightenment, the declaration of
American independence affirmed in 1776: 'we hold these truths to be self-evident, that...
that all men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator with certain rights
inalienable, among them life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

The American Revolutionary War began in 1775. At first, the British

they overcame, despite the problems of fighting 5000 km away from home. But the Americans
they had an advantage because they were fighting on national territory and believed in their cause.
Six years after the conflict, the British army surrendered in Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781.
defeated by the troops of George Washington. England eventually recognized the
American independence in the Treaty of Paris, in 1783.

The American Constitution.

In 1783, after the signing of the peace treaty with the British, the people of the United States
from America had to decide the best way to govern the country. They decided to elect a
president every four years. Would govern with the help of a congress (divided by a chamber
of deputies and a senate composed of representatives from the states, and a court
supreme. The text of the constitution (established in legal norms) for the new government
contnha três afirmações importantes sobre a nação Americana.

First, it should be a union. The colonists had fought against the British.
would govern their own country. Secondly, each of the states would have their own
assemblies and would manage a state government as he wished. Third, the president, the
Congress or the Supreme Court could never control the central government of America.
by themselves. A mutual control system guarantees that power would be shared among the three.
areas of government.

These were new ideas influenced by the Enlightenment, and never before tested. The constitution
The revolutionary became law in 1789. This new nation, with its brief history and its people
with many bad memories of his own past, it was the first republic
truly democratic in the world, governed in accordance with the laws
collectively agreed upon. Just 150 years later it becomes the leading nation of
world.

(The text of the constitution was worked on in several conventions in 1787. Of the 55 delegates
Presents, 39 signed the document. Once the text was agreed upon, copies were sent to
each State in order to be signed by its leaders.

George Washington 1732 / 1799 served in the British army in America, then was
commander of the new American army, fighting against the British. In 1789 he was elected
as the first president of the United States.
Thomas Jefferson 1743 / 1826 became the third president in 1801. He was a leader whose
ideas strongly marked American politics

The French Revolution 1789 / 1799

In 1789, the uprising of the people of France overthrew the king, demanding freedom and justice.
the revolution that followed changed France forever.

The French Revolution had been imminent for years. It was triggered by a poor government.
differences between the rich and the poor, the rights of people, and accelerated by the revolution
American.

In the 18th century, France was in crisis. Food was scarce, prices were high and the
the government was facing bankruptcy. To get more money, either Luís borrowed it or raised
the taxes. But first, he needed approval and support from a traditional assembly, the
general states, which have not met for 175 years.

At the assembly, the representatives of the professional classes revolted against the nobles and the
clearly. They voted to establish a new National Assembly and demand reform. They wrote
a new constitution abolishing the previous one, nationalizing the lands of the Church and reorganizing
the local government. Luís sent troops to try to dissolve the Assembly.

The struggle for power

Louis XVI fled but was captured and imprisoned. In 1792, the monarchy was abolished and the following year
Luís and his wife, Maria Antonieta, were judged and executed. At that time, the government
revolutionary was at war with the majority of the European states, which feared that the
revolution would spread to their countries.

As is almost always the case in revolutions, chaos arose and there was a struggle for power. the new
the revolutionary government began to gather its rivals, whether royalists or popular, calling them
(enemies of the revolution). There was a political battle between two groups, the Jacobins and the
Girondins, having been the first to emerge victorious. They then dominated a new body.
governing body called the Public Security Commission. The commission mobilized French troops.
against the invasion and from September 1793 to June 1794 executed all who opposed
to your system of Terror.

During the Terror, about 18,000 people lost their heads to the guillotine. Soon, a
man, Robespierre, controlled the dictatorial power. Even he was not safe and,
In 1794, he was accused of treason and executed.

The directory
In 1795, a new constitution was written and a weak government, called the Directory, was formed.
The war had already broken out and the French revolutionary armies had conquered the...
The Netherlands and southern Germany. A young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, led the army.
invading Italy, Switzerland, and Egypt. The Directory trusted him. He became popular and powerful, and,
In 1799, he destroyed the Directory and assumed power.

(After Louis XVI was executed in 1793, the commission began to target all suspects)
of opposition to the revolution. A tribunal was created to judge the enemies of the State, although
these judgments were, for the most part, rushed and unfair. Aristocrats, realists,
fathers and all the suspects were going to the guillotine. When Robespierre got rid of his rivals
in the public security committee, he governed alone for a while, until he was
sent to the guillotine in July 1794. the terror ended at that time and this Louis XVI
He became king in 1774 and was a very timid king who preferred the good life.

THE END OF SLAVERY 1792 / 1888

European colonies in the Americas depended heavily on slave labor. But in
In the mid-18th century, many people questioned the morality of such an act.

During the eighteenth century, England, France, and Spain enriched themselves with taxes and
profits from the colonies. Much of the wealth came from slavery. Denmark, Sweden, Prussia,
Holland and Genoa (Piedmont) were also trading slaves. The Africans were sold to
Europeans by local merchants and rulers who viewed the slave trade as a
form to punish criminals, freeing oneself from enemies and prisoners and becoming wealthy.

No one knows how many slaves were sold, but it is estimated that 45 million have been.
sent from Africa between 1450 and 1870, although only 15 million survived. Many
Europeans did not like the slave trade, but at the time they believed it was the only
way of providing work to colonial plantations.

Finally, some decided to protest, saying that it was against the law of God and decency.
human. Rousseau, a French philosopher, wrote in the Social Contract, in 1764: Man
born free, but is chained everywhere, the writings inspired the revolutions in
France and in America, individual freedom has become a social right, not a gift from
Rei. Rousseau's ideas also inspired people to fight for those who could not.
help themselves. Politicians, clergy, and ordinary people began to think about how they could
help the slaves. But the moral arguments did not have as much strength as the profits that the
slavery produced.

Before the abolition of slavery, slave ships followed an Atlantic maritime route.
triangular, bringing goods to Africa, slaves to the Americas, and other products, such as the
sugar, returning to Europe.

END OF THE SLAVE TRADE

Between 1777 and 1804, slavery was considered illegal in the Northern United States. The
Denmark stopped slave trading in 1792 and England in 1807. The navy
The British continued to live off the slave trade until 1815, but slavery was illegal.
A revolt in the French colony of Santo Domingo in 1791 / 1793 led to its abolition in
France, but in 1803, slavery became legal again. In 1831, a revolt of
slaves in Virginia, led by Nat Turner, resulted in new harsher laws and an increase in
support for slavery among white southerners.

The revolt of the slaves in Santo Domingo: The French Revolution spread to the colonies
French from overseas. In 1791, the National Assembly of Paris decided to grant the vote to
slaves in Santo Domingo (now Haiti), in the Caribbean. The plantation owners refused
to obey. When they learned of this, about 100,000 slaves revolted. Many owners
Slaves were killed, houses destroyed, and sugar and coffee plantations burned.
Napoleon sent troops to the island and a long civil war ensued led by
Toussaint L’Ouverture is a former slave who declared himself governor of the island in 1801.

Philanthropy
In England, Thomas Clarkson and William Wilberforce led a campaign
abolitionist and, in 1807, the trade was abolished. However, the slaves were not immediately freed.
freed. Wilberforce died before all the slaves belonging to the English had
had been freed. The Europeans were now against slavery, and the British navy
blocked trade, preventing slave ships.

Slavery continued in Cuba, Costa Rica, Brazil, and in the Southern United States. The large plantations
they maintained themselves at the expense of the labor of slaves and the owners were reluctant to
change. Europe also enjoyed cheap cotton and tobacco, cultivated by the slaves of
Southern states of the US.

In the U.S., the North supported emancipation and the Southerners did not. The revolt of 1831 in Virginia
originated stricter laws to control slaves in the Southern States. Slavery was
banned in the USA in 1863, in Cuba in 1886 and in Brazil in 1888. The slave trade
Arabs in Africa ended in 1873.

The Opium War (1839-1842)

The Opium War took place specifically in the mid-19th century (1839-1842), in a
the height at which England was the most developed European power. Therefore, it sought
an increasingly larger market for the placement of their products. China and India, countries
extremely populous exercised a strong attraction over the English markets. However, India
They openly traded with England, but China showed no interest.
none for European goods. Chinese products, such as Silk, Tea, and Porcelain
there are good prices in the European markets, but the same cannot be said about the
European products in the Chinese market or rather European products couldn't succeed.
enter the Chinese market. This trade was not very profitable for England. Only a
The product particularly interested the Chinese: (the Opium, Narcotic) that produces effects
sleep aids for the brain.

The English cultivated Opium in India and Burma and sold it in large quantities.
China, the abuse of the use of this product led the Chinese government to prohibit its trade.
same product, which at this time was the product that brought the most profit to England during this period.
market or region. Soon, the illegal drug trafficking took on alarming proportions that strived
the Chinese emperor to fight him vigorously.

The war began when a Chinese subject was assassinated by English sailors.
drunk. The imperial commissioner ordered that all boxes of opium be burned in total of
twenty thousand (20,000) and the expulsion of all the English from Canton, a city where it was strongest
Opium smuggling. It was the end of hopes for commercial expansion. Immediately the
England responded with the bombing of Canton in 1939.

The modest Chinese junks, propelled by sails, could not offer much resistance to the fleet.
English. British forces took important points along the Chinese coast, including HONG
KONG AND SHANGHAI, threatening BEIJING. Seeing themselves practically defeated, the Chinese
they signed the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, which ended this wave of conflicts (WAR).

This treaty or agreement (of Nanjing) granted the English the opening of five ports.
important Chinese and the right to trade in these zones. China was also forced to
pay compensation for unused Opium and cede the island of HONG KONG for domination
from England. The English began to enjoy a certain status, or rather during this
during this period, the English could not be tried in Chinese courts nor were they subject to
your laws.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

After the slave trade became unprofitable, European trade and industry
they began to live in a deep stagnation (MARASMUS) due to DEVELOPMENT
CAPITALIST ECONOMY. The search for new markets thus becomes a vital necessity
for the European powers that, in their expansion to Africa and Asia, sought the solution
for your economic problems. For this reason, at the end of the 16th century, the great began
movement of colonial expansion in Africa.

The Berlin Conference was convened as such by BISMARCK (chancellor) prime minister
from Germany and by JULE FERRY, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs. This conference
it aimed to deal with the colonies and establish geographical limits of African territories.

The conference took place from November 15, 1884 to February 26, 1885, participants
15 countries including France, Germany, Norway, Portugal, USA, Italy, Denmark, Spain.
Holland, Belgium, etc. at this conference where the sharing of Africa was at stake.
no representatives (Country) of the African peoples (kings or century) present
owners of the territories.

The Berlin conference aimed to revalidate in terms of bourgeois international law.

At that time, an imperialist expansion process that had already begun, the conference
from Berlin accelerated the share of Africa.

In Berlin, the European delegates presented their territorial claims. Meanwhile,

the agents or delegates wanted to define a map of Africa and justify the legal claim of the
your effective occupation. Thus, it can be concluded that the most debated subject at the conference was
to test the occupation of the territories occupied by the Belgians and analyze Portugal's plan regarding it
PINK MAP, THAT INTENDED TO UNITE ANGOLA AND MOZAMBIQUE, through the oceans
Atlantic Indians, hindered by the British through the ultimatum of 1890.

THE MAIN AGREEMENTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE:

Many points were addressed in this great conference for the countries.
Europeans, among the various points, resulted in some agreements and the main ones are as follows:

I. Proclamation of the Kingdom of Congo as an independent State (personal property of the)

King of Belgium LEOPOLD II

II. Freedom to trade in the Congo basin and adjacent territories.
III. Freedom to navigate the Niger and Congo rivers.
IV. Prove the occupation of any territory before declaring new annexations.
V. Submit the declaration that prohibits the trafficking of slaves and land operations and
traffic maritime.

The Partition of Africa

After the Berlin Conference, Africa was divided as follows:

Great Britain (England) took the southern and western parts that comprise the
the following countries: South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, or rather all the countries of

English phrase.
France retained Mediterranean territory, encompassing the following countries: the
Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In West and Equatorial Africa, France retained the
Senegal, Guinea-Conakry, Congo Brazzaville, Mali and part of Cameroon, and in
Indian Ocean with the major islands of Madagascar and Mauritius.
Belgium was left with the vast territory of Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo)

Congo DRC rich in minerals

Spain retained Equatorial Guinea.
 Germany ended up with Namibia, Togo, Rwanda, and Tanganyika (Tanzania).
And Portugal retained the territories of the PALOPs (Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau,
Sao Tome and Principe and Mozambique.

In fact, the agreements resulting from this conference served to ease or harmonize the
misunderstandings, but did not diminish or end the expansionist and conquering desire
of new lands. This was yet another conference among gentlemen to hide appearances.

The Berlin Conference and the Kingdom of Congo.

The reason for the Berlin conference was intrinsically linked to the dispute and division of the kingdom
Congo. In 1884 Portugal, England, the Franco-Belgian bloc, later Germany signed
a treaty on the kingdom of Congo. The Berlin Conference left the Congo divided like this
to the north, the territory of Ambriz, Soyo, and Cabinda (parallel 8°N), England recognized the
rights of Portugal but did not allow or accept the occupation of these lands in
consequences of reservations and diplomatic differences. Portugal had some factories in the
north coast and on both banks of the Zaire River, these facts gave rise to several
challenges.

The Portuguese defended their historical rights over both banks of the Zaire river, these
the same rights were challenged by Belgium, England, and France. This was one of the
factors that led to the convening of the Berlin Conference, called by Bismarck
(Germany) and Jule Ferry (France), from November 15, 1884 to February 26, 1885
where the Congo Free State was recognized as the property of King Leopold II of Belgium,
carved by Portuguese, French, and Belgians.

The rules for the suppression (abolition) of slavery were established and the concept of
Effective Occupation, which required colonizers to respect acquired rights.
In the conference, the minutes were signed in February 1885, and it was delivered to the administration.
Portuguese, the colony of Angola with borders between the parallels 5˚, 17˚ and 25˚ of latitude
South, including the left bank of the Zaire River and the Cabinda enclave. The Belgian administration
to access the sea it stayed with the Congo, including Boma, Banana and the right bank of the river
Zaire.

The principles of the colonial partition of Berlin were reaffirmed at the Brussels Conference.
from 1889 to 1890. The treaty that established the northern borders of Angola was only signed
on May 25, 1891 between Angola and the Congo Free State, represented by King Dom
Pedro V (Ntotela Ne Congo), also known as Ngudia Kama Futla.

The effective conquest of the continent and its consequences.

The conquest, or occupation occurred basically between (1885-1900). The effective occupation of
the continent brought drastic consequences for the African peoples, because beyond
they lost political sovereignty, they also lost natural resources, their economy was
structured according to the interests of European metropolitan centers. It was an economy
what benefited the outside (Europe) had as its function the profit of large companies
monopolists and not the economic development of the continent.

The population was cruelly exploited and stripped of their land, and in other cases they were
forced to work in the mines and plantations, far from their families. This provoked the
underdevelopment and depopulation of the continent.

Pan-Africanism.
Pan-Africanism is a term that derives from the Greek 'Pan' which means 'all' and 'Africanism' refers to
to African elements.

Pan-Africanism is an ideology that proposes the union of all African peoples as a way
to amplify the voice of the continent in the international context. It was also considered, a
political, philosophical, and social movement that promotes the defense of the rights of peoples and the
unity of the African continent within a single sovereign state, for all Africans.

Pan-Africanism was born in the late 19th century, in the British Isles and in the USA.
Africanism was initially a way to express solidarity and brotherhood among the
descendant of African slaves, his predecessor was a lawyer from the Island of Trinidad,
called, Sylvester Williams, he took the initiative to organize the I Pan- conference
African went to London (1890) with the aim of protesting against the arbitrary occupations of
African ancestral lands by the Europeans, it was at this conference that for the first time that
he spoke of Pan-Africanism. But the man who systematized the idea of Pan-Africanism was Dr.
Williams E. Burghart Dubois, also a descendant of slaves, and one of the most notable
intellectuals of their time (end of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century). Williams
Dubois was already part of the first black bourgeoisie and sought to address the issue of the struggle of
blacks worldwide, and no longer just in their country, and for this reason, he is treated as the
true father of Pan-Africanism. In all his writings, Dubois advocated for the rights of
Blacks from all over the world to live as free peoples, and their right to disobedience wherever
they were being colonized or discriminated against. And the man who sought to go further, and
The Jamaican Marcus Garvey, born, undoubtedly popularized pan-Africanism even more.
born in 1885 and passed away in 1940 in London, residing in the USA. Marcus Garvey professed a
aggressive pan-Africanism, in the sense that it sought confrontation with the world
white as a response to the discrimination and mistreatment inflicted on black people. He defended a
reverse racism, and government instructions created and directed by black people. After several
congresses, such as:

The congress of 1919 and 1921 held the historic Manchester congress where they were
African leaders such as: Kwame Nkrumah (president of Ghana later), Jomo Kenyatta
(becoming the president of Kenya) and the renowned writer from South Africa Peter
Abrahams.

The V Pan-African Congress.

The V Pan-African Congress took place in Manchester in October 1945, and participants included:
William Dubois, who is the patriarch of the movement, was also attended by personalities.
Africans such as the cases of Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, and the South African Peter.
Abraham.

George Padmore, advisor to Nkrumah and other personalities from around the world
formulated for the first time in the History of the Pan-African movement, the claims about
freedom and the independence of black peoples.

The Congress made one of the resolutions that stated that: the peoples of the colonies must have
the right to choose for oneself one's own governments, a government without limits
any foreign Power. Let us appeal to all the peoples of the colonies to fight for
your rights, by all means at your disposal. The struggle of colonial peoples for power
political is the first step forward and the necessary condition for complete emancipation,
social, economic and political... colonial workers must be at the forefront of the battle
against imperialism... colonies and dependent peoples of the whole world, unite.

To realize the ideals of Dubois, Sylvester Williams, George Padmore, and Marcus Garvey, the
Pan-Africanism, later led by the Africans represented by Kwame Nkrumah.

The Pan-African movement was led in three major periods:

I. Period of solidarity 1935 to 1957.

II. Liberation and independence period in Massa 1957 to 1960.

III. Integration period of Africa 1960 to 1970.

The First World War (1914 to 1918).

During the 19th century, imperialist nations dominated peoples and territories in various parts.

of the world. Thus, in just a few decades, they accumulated wealth and greatly increased their

capacity to produce goods. The competition for the market among nations was at the base

of the birth of the various rivalries among the European nations. And from this arises the first

World War.

Beyond the competition for new markets, there are other reasons for the outbreak of the war.

among European nations:

1) The Anglo-German rivalry: the rivalry between England and Germany, due to

industrial competition. In just three decades, Germany has become a major

 industrial power, the products of its factories have become globally

known, with a strong acceptance in the English market. Strengthened, Germany

began to pressure for a new repartition of the colonial world.

England, for its part, showed a willingness to maintain its colonies at any cost.

2) The Franco-German rivalry: in France, anti-German sentiment was very strong, due to

French defeat in the Franco-Prussian war (in 1871) and the loss of the cities of

Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. Another problem between the two countries was the issue of

Morocco. Germany wanted to occupy Morocco, but was prevented by the French and

English. In 1905, the German emperor openly defended the independence of

Morocco, it meant to oppose France. This attitude almost provoked a

between Germany and France.

To avoid confrontations, the Algéricas Conference was convened in Spain in 1906, which

guarantees France the maintenance of the protectorate over Morocco, committing to

to preserve the economic freedom of Moroccans. France, fearing a war, intervened in

the arms production race brought it closer to England.

3) The Austro-Russian rivalry: Russia wished to dominate the Turkish-Ottoman empire, in order to

to obtain an output for o Mediterranean Sea e also control a

Balkan Peninsula. To justify this expansionism, it created o Pan-Slavism

political movement, which has the right to defend and protect the small (peoples)

Slavic nations of the Balkan peninsula.

4) The rivalry between Germany and Russia: the Turkish empire was a quiet territory.

a large consumer market. And Germany intended to build a way-

train that allows you to leave Berlin through the Balkans and arrive in Baghdad

(Iraq), which belonged to the Turkish empire. The construction of this road was of interest to
 England that presents a threat to its possessions in India. Also Russia.

was worried about the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad.

5) Serbian nationalism: Serbia was a small independent Slavic nation,

located in the Balkan region that aimed to liberate and unify the territories for the people

Slavs of this region. Opposing the Austrians and the Turks. Serbia came closer each

once again Russia, which committed to support and protect her militarily. In 1907,

Europe was already divided into two political-military blocs:

1- The triple alliance - constituted by Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. This alliance

secreta began with Bismarck, who intended to isolate France and Russia, isolated and

threatened by the Triple Alliance, formed the Franco-Russian alliance. Later,

they united with England and created the Triple Entente.

Triple Entente - with England, France, and Russia.

While they were organizing into rival blocs, the main European powers.

They embarked on a frenzied arms race. They adopted military service.

mandatory, they created new weapons and started producing armaments and ammunition in

large quantity. Europe was living in an armed peace. (this period begins with the

Franco-Prussian War and goes until World War I

What accelerated the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in

1914. The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne (Francis Ferdinand) was assassinated.

by a member of the terrorist organization Black Hand in Sarejevo (Bosnia). A

Austria, believing that the attack had been prepared by Serbia, sent it to her.

an ultimatum with 11 points. It was evident from the content of the text that Austria wanted

war and would count on the support of Germany.

Serbia, supported by Russia, rejected the ultimatum. On July 28, 1914 the

Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia. Thus began the First War.

World (in the Balkans).

 Phases of the war

1st Phase of the war (1914), this period was characterized by movements

quick, involving large armies. Certain that they would surpass it,

penetrated into French territory as far as the vicinity of Paris. The French

they counterattacked and in the first battle of Marne, in September 1914,

they managed to halt the German advance. The German war plan was

traced by General Van Schieffemem 1905.

2nd Phase of war (1915-1916), on the Western front, was marked by the war

trenches, the armies defended their positions using an extensive

trench network that they themselves dug. Meanwhile, at the front

In the east, the German army inflicted successive defeats on the poorly trained.

Russian army.

In 1915, Italy, which had remained neutral, betrayed the alliance it had made with the

Germany negotiated with the countries of the Triple Entente, seeking to achieve

some territories that were under the account of Austria-Hungary. In

As the conflict spread, it became increasingly tragic.

They produced new weapons such as: the cannon and the submarine, which made a

increasing number of victims.

3rd Phases of the war - (1917-1918) in 1917 two decisive events occurred for

the outcome of the war. The entry of the United States into the conflict and the exit of the

Russia. The United States entered the war alongside England and

France. But during the first years of the war, the position of the States

United was neutral, just providing weapons, ammunition, food and giving

credits to fund military operations.

 The American support has a simple explanation: the Americans have

large investments in these countries (England and France) and wanted to ensure

your investments. Other nations have also gotten involved in the war

like: Turkey and Bulgaria that joined the triple alliance, while the

Japan, Portugal, Romania, Greece, Brazil, Canada, and Argentina positioned themselves to

side of the Triple Entente.

Russia's exit from the war has to do with the successive defeats against

exércitorusso (the Red Army). The Tsar-king of Russia claimed that the war

it was imperialist and that your country has many problems to solve. Therefore,

signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that provided an exit. Another factor was the crisis

Politics and social issues in Russia accelerated the revolutionary process, which ended.

with the Bolshevik Party (Lenin's Party) coming to power in 1917, with the

famous October Revolution making Russia the first Socialist Country in

world.

Objects of the Triple Entente

Destroy the economic power of Germany

2. Destroy the strong German navy

3. Annex the German colonies

4. Conquer strategic positions in the Middle East

5. Weaken Germany militarily.

In the year 1918, Germany made its last desperate attack against its enemies.

Entente before the arrival of the United States in Europe, the Germans were again

defeated in the second battle of the Marne forced to retreat. From this retreat, the countries of

The Allies were inflicting successive defeats on the Germans. Germany was still resisting when

was shaken by internal rebellion, which forced Emperor Wilhelm II to abdicate from the war in
November 9, 1918. On November 11, defeated on all battle fronts,

Germany ended the war by assassinating the unconditional armistice of Compiègne with the

Entente forces. Germany and its allies, from the Triple Alliance (except for Italy),

they were defeated in World War I.

Versailles Treaty and creation of the SND 1919

On January 18, 1919, at the former palace of Versailles, the conference was summoned.

Allied countries to draft the peace treaty. 27 countries were part of this conference.

The conference had a clear objective: to annihilate Germany, politically and economically, and to control.

the measures for the destruction of the young socialist country Russia that threatened its very own

hegemony of the West in the world. The Treaty of Versailles also included the creation of the

Nations, institution responsible for maintaining world peace. Organization that the UN,

later came to replace.

The Treaty of Versailles established that Germany was required:

To restore the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France, as well as part

from Prussia to the Baltic Sea to Poland in order to allow access to it

country to the sea.

Cede the coal mines of Saar to France and England for a term.

of 15 years.

Surrender your colonies, submarines, merchant ships to England, France.

and Belgium.

Pay the winners a fabulous compensation of 33 billion

dollars (to England and France)

Reduce the German military power, prohibiting it from having forces.

airborne, to manufacture weapons and have an army larger than 100 thousand men.
On July 28, 1919, Germany signed the peace treaty. According to the treaty, Germany...

that the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine be returned to France and ceded to the new Polish state the

previously conquered territories. Germany was also forced to give up the

administration of Namibia to the League of Nations. This meeting was attended by:

1. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America.

2. The English Prime Minister Lloyd George

3. French Prime Minister Clemenceau

4. Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando

5. And still the representative of Japan who only intervened in matters concerning Asia.

The Italian representative Vitorio Orlanda found himself when he realized that the allies did not

they intended to fulfill the promises made when their country entered the war.

Measures of the same nature were applied to the other countries allied with the Germans through

the establishment of pacts: Treaty of Saint Germain signed by Australia (1919)

Trianon Treaty signed by Hungary (1920), Neuilly Treaty signed by Bulgaria

(1920) and the treaty of servers signed by the Turkish Empire (1920).

With these treaties, Europe in 1920 gained a new political face, resulting from the

territorial readjustment that defines new borders. As a result, six new states emerged,

due to the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and of territories belonging to

Russia, which are: Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania. And lowered measures

in the sense of preventing a future union between Germany and Austria.

Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania. And measures were taken in the sense of

to make a future union between Germany and Austria impossible.

League of Nations - 1919

The League of Nations was born after the end of World War I, in the sense of

prevent conflicts and stop the emergence of another world war. The idea of the creation of

American President Woodrow Wilson, after several discussions. The SDN pact only

came into effect on January 10, 19120, the members of this international organization were

winning nations of the war and the neutral nations.

A SDN consists of three members:

General Assembly: where all members had the right to vote and unanimity prevailed

except for procedural matters.

2. Council: composed of 5 permanent members (U.S.A, France, Great Britain, Italy, and...

Japan), numbers that later increased to 9 in 1926.

3. Secretariat: this body aims to prepare all the documentation. Its

Secretary-General was Jean Monet (1888-1979), the man who launched the idea for the creation of the

European Coal and Steel Community - ECSC.

The first General Assembly of the League of Nations took place in Geneva between November and December.

1920 without the presence of the U.S.A and Germany. The task of this international organization was

resolve the issue of the incorporation of the former German colonies.

For this purpose, the League of Nations established the protectorate system for colonial peoples under the pretext

to help them govern. In this way, England received the guardianship of Palestine, of

Transjordan, from Iraq, etc.

Consequences of the War

The First World War brought the following consequences:

The war claimed about 10 million lives not counting the wounded.
 The trade was practically reduced to zero, the losses were incalculable.

3. The decline of Europe that was completely affected by the conflict and the rise of

United States of America.

4. The emergence of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, such as Fascism and Nazism.

5. The war ended with the crushing of Germany and the triumph of the countries of

liberal democracies.

This war changed the course of history. The four empires fell (Russian, Austro-Hungarian,

German and Ottoman), Russia lost all the gains of the two centuries, Finland, Estonia,

Latvia, and Lithuania that became independent. Russia also had to concede to

Bessarabia and Romania.

The Socialist Revolution of October 1917.

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was one of the most important movements in the world.

contemporary. It took place in a backward country in Europe due to the following reasons

factors:

I. The defeats of World War I.

II. The absolutism of government (a system of government in which the power of the leader is absolute).

everything is in the boss's hands. (tyranny despotism.)

III. The miserable situation of the population (more than 88%) of workers, soldiers, and peasants.

IV. The Anxiety of peace, bread, and land.

V. The existence of expressive political leadership.

Background for the Revolution of 1917 / Essays.

In 1905, Russia went to war with Japan for control of Manchuria and Korea and was

defeat. The Russian defeat and the death of many soldiers in the Red Army emphasized the

internal problems of the country. It was experiencing a food supply crisis in the cities and

for the troops. This led to a series of strikes. The objective of the protesters was to demand

better living conditions, the people were totally repressed by the Czar's personal guard (the

Cossacks), in this reprimand more than a thousand 1000 people were killed. This revolution was

called 'General Rehearsal for the Revolution of 1917.

In the early 20th century, there was no freedom in Russia, the press was censored, there was no

parliament or CZAR (king) commanded the State through decrees-law. The Orthodox Church assisted

The state dominated basic education, subordinate to the state.

In 1917, a revolution in Russia was already expected, due to the numerous demonstrations that took place.

That was when the troops joined the protests. In 1917, two major revolutions occurred.

In Russia, the first was the February Revolution (March 12 in the Western calendar and 27...

February in the Russian calendar) and the Second Revolution from November to October.

The February Revolution was democratic-bourgeois and ended the autocracy.

(absolute rule of a monarch) and implemented a regime never seen in Russia.

But the power was taken by the Bourgeoisie (a group of individuals who make up the

middle class of society) that was very well organized politically.

The Tsarist regime was overthrown and a provisional government was established, controlled by

liberal bourgeoisie that created a Constituent Assembly. The opposition parties and the

the press were able to operate freely.

The October Revolution was socialist and placed the Bolsheviks in power. before the

revolution, the Mensheviks presented themselves as the main force of opposition,

but they did not fight to immediately implement socialism. Therefore, they supported

the provisional government headed by Prime Minister KERENSKY. But it was WLADIMIR
 ILLICH ULIANOV LENIN (student of KARL MARX), EXTREMELY THOUGHTFUL

Flexible and a member of the PSDR who in 1903 convened (due to many not being

according to Lenin's program) its 2nd congress in London and divided the

Divided into two parts: the BOLSHEVIKS led by Lenin with the majority and the

MENSCHEVIKS AS A MINORITY. LELIN IMAGINED A STRONGER RUSSIA WITH

SOCIALISM AND NOT WITH CAPITALISM.

When the Czar fell, he was in exile (in Switzerland), packed his bags, and went to the country. As soon as

arrived in Petrograd (Russian city), gave a speech in which he denounced the government

provisional, saying: that it was an instrument of domination by the bourgeoisie and ended with the

All power to the Soviets. Soviets mean council, assembly, body.

of power directed by the people.

The October Socialist Revolution 1917

The October Revolution in Russia, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution or

Red Revolution, was the second phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, after the Revolution of

February of the same year (it happened after Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk)

that allowed you to leave World War I)

It was led by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, against the provisional government, on the 25th of

October 1917 (according to the Julian calendar) and November 7 according to the Gregorian calendar. It was the

first Marxist communist revolution of the 20th century and gave power to the Bolsheviks.

In the early morning of October 25th, the Bolsheviks led by Lenin, Zinoviev, and Radek,

with the help of anarchist elements and Revolutionary Socialists, they surrounded the capital, where

the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet were in power. The role of the Bolsheviks was

or to convince the Soviets to accept the proposals for taking power.

The Bolsheviks began arming the workers, and gained popular prestige.

Trotsky, a Marxist intellectual with significant leadership among the workers, entered the

he was elected president of the Petrograd Soviet. Bukharin, another prominent intellectual,

will be elected president of Moscow. It is these figures that will greatly contribute to the

development of the revolution

On the night of November 6 to 7, 1917, the Bolshevik forces began to mobilize.

soldiers and armed workers (Red Guards), followed the plan outlined by Lenin (in

Smolin Palace, headquarters of the Bolsheviks). There was hardly any resistance, the main points

strategic decisions were made without struggles; the train station, the telephone exchange, the telegraphs

And the government palace, Kerensky fled.

The overwhelmingly majority Bolsheviks in the congress of the soviets take power on the 7th of

November 1917. They create a council of People's Commissars, presided over by Lenin. Leon

Trotsky assumes the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Joseph Stalin, the Ministry of Nationalities

The Russian revolution is victorious and establishes the first Socialist State in the world.

The new government, led by Lenin, adopted a series of radical reforms, based on

Marxism is executed through the dictatorship of the soviets. The objectives of the communists do not

they were only trying to overthrow the provisional government: They sought to create a new society based on

socialism. This is how the Bolsheviks begin to implement certain reforms, through

a decree eliminated the latifundia immediately, the lands were distributed to the

peasants. Thus. Lenin creates the Socialist regime.

SOCIALISM: it is the political regime that advocates collective ownership (for the people), the not

existence of classes, and the regulation of economic and social activities by the

State. (The socialist doctrine has its origins in the 18th century, as soon as it became consolidated.

effects of the industrial revolution on modern societies. It is an ideology that criticizes the
economic liberalism and goes against notions that the market is the organizing principle of

economic activity

The importance of the October Revolution

The October Revolution (Russian) of 1917 was an important event for the world. The great

The October Socialist Revolution had enormous international significance because

influence the global labor movement, as it showed to the oppressed peoples (of Africa and the

Asia) of the world, the path to national liberation and colonialism. The Russian revolution was not

Just a national movement marked a turning point in the history of humanity.

Stalinist period

Lenin could not see the success of the USSR. In 1922, when he was leaving a cinema, he was caught in an attack.

of a terrorist, from then on his health worsened, until he died in 1924. After the death of

Lenin, the leadership of the Communist Party became contested between Stalin and Trotsky. Trotsky

I believed that socialism would never be victorious if it remained confined to Russia. I advocated for

advance of the Red Army across Europe, to support revolutionary movements

(was based on the theory of the Revolution).

He already had another idea, which was to keep the USSR intact and, later, to spread it.

socialism. Stalin believed in the theory of socialism in one country. The dispute between the two was

crescendo. She held many powers and prestige among the party members due to her position.

(General Secretary of the Communist Party). Little by little, he is gaining control of the party.

Trotsky was pursued and ended up exiling in Mexico (in 1929), where he died in 1940.

Stalin assumed full control of the country and in the name of communism, would come to lead one of the

largest dictatorships that the world has ever known.

From 1927, when he eliminated his rivals, to 1953 when he died. Stalin became the leader.

absolute of the Soviet Union. The name USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,

represented a federative State. Apparently this State was democratic, according to the

Article 6 of the 1936 constitution All power emanates from the people, in fact, it did not happen

that.

The same constitution stated that the Communist Party had the hegemony of the state and of the

society. It was up to him to lead. The single party was the engine and the true holder of

Soviet party, small in number compared to the population. The members of the party were

Chosen by the management, they must be disciplined and obedient, always subject to the chief.

They had many privileges such as: luxury homes in large condominiums, good salaries,

holidays and other privileges. Taking advantage of the assassination of Kirov, Stalin under the pretext of

to combat the counter-revolution, he implemented police terror, began to eliminate his last

opponents through the Moscow process (1936-1938), all those who were part of the

The central committee of the party were imprisoned and executed.

The cult of personality

Stalin, to secure power, also had great popular prestige. His word was

indisputable and sacred, heralded as the brilliant guide of the peoples. All communist parties

they inspired from Russia. Stalin was a model for all leaders and all chiefs.

It was said that it was the conception of Russian communism to defeat Nazism and fascism.

The rise of the U.S.A. and the Economic crisis (from 1929 to 1932)

The economic crisis of 1929 to 1932 and the situation in Europe

The First World War ends, the U.S. has become the largest economic power.

of the world. Despite the small economic crisis it experienced in 1929-21, called (crisis of

conversion), caused by the decrease in exports to the recovering Europe and

was returning to produce. Several factors contributed to the United States becoming so

quickly into a power, despite having been an English colony. The factors were:

1. The size of the territories - The U.S.A is as vast as Europe, 9,363,000 km and only

surpassed on the surface by Russia.

2. The demographic dynamism - Caused by the first European colonists who populated

in search of a free life, adventure, and fortune. This population, culturally

diversified, transformed America into a great country.

3. Growth of transport networks - The construction of railway networks

will constitute a structuring factor of development. The efficient network of

transport allows for extraordinary geographical mobility, favoring the

domain of space and economic development.

4. The financial power - There was an industry built by giant companies, in the form

of trusts and holdings.

The 1920s were the years of economic prosperity for the United States.

North American agriculture was the most mechanized on the planet and the industries (of

automobiles, oil, coal, steel, copper, and aluminum), produced goods in quantities,

it seemed that everyone, from the millionaire to the humble worker, would become a great

consumer. The great economic growth of the United States is also a result of the

profits from the export of food and industrial products to allied countries in

post-war period. This was the American situation at the end of the 1920s. Despite this,

most of this national income was concentrated in the hands of a minority of the

population, preventing the development of the internal consumer market. The export

for Europe it becomes difficult, because most European countries were recovering their

production capacity and without conditions to import American products.

The 1920s were also marked by the emergence of Stock Exchanges, where the
 quotations were manipulated by large players. The New York Stock Exchange (New York)

was moving millions of dollars, investing daily in stocks. But on the 24th of

October 1929, the so-called (Black Thursday) occurred, the crash of the Stock Exchange

New York. This fall created a panic, on the 29th more than 16 million titles were

Cleared from the market, millions of dollars in titles were reduced to zero. This star

destroyed the heritage of millions of people.

The economic crisis of 1929

Thus begins the great crisis of American capitalism, which would come to affect capitalism

worldwide. In the following years, the value of production in the United States fell again, the

the number of unemployed grew sharply, showing the aspect of misery. Some

they committed suicide and others went insane. All the countries of Europe suffered the effects.

The United States, investors and creditors of European countries, withdrew their capital from

Europe, causing the fall of banks and industries and consequently the increase of

unemployment across the entire continent that had just emerged from war. This crisis also affected

the countries of Latin America, the colonies of Asia and Africa, as they were producers and

exporters of raw materials and food products.

In search of the way out - The NEW DEAL

In 1932, a new president Franklin Roosevelt takes office. He created a plan

economic called New Deal (a new method), a vast reform program that aimed to

to give the country a new social foundation and fight to prevent the catastrophe they were experiencing. The plan

economic covered 4 points: Agriculture, unemployment, social security and

administration. This plan required the state to intervene directly in the economy to prevent

as crises.

The birth of fascist countries

 The crisis of capitalism and democracy after World War I created a new regime and

a new series of movements known by the name of Fascism. The first country to

Establishing a fascist regime was Italy, where Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) organized

a strong and antidemocratic state. They were fascists:

The regime established by Francisco Franco (in 1939) in Spain.

The Salazarist regime established in Portugal by António de Oliveira Salazar in

Portugal (in 1933);

The German Nazism implemented by Adolf Hitler from 1933 to 1945

Certain totalitarian parties emerged in the 1930s. But the German Nazism led by

(Hitler) was the most extremist and terrorist. Fascism became a myth and transformed

men, chiefs, in demigods, who embodied the aspirations of society and with a

strict discipline required the nation to work together.

Fascism: it is a totalitarian (or dictatorial) political regime inspired by corporatism.

implanted in Italy (from 1922 to 1945) by Benito Mussolini (1883-1945).

Fascism in Italy

Italy was the first to suffer under fascist dictatorship. Italy entered World War I on the side

of the Entente, with the objective of gaining colonies and territories, but gained nothing, due to the

contrary lost more than 600 thousand lives and a debt to the USA. The result of this brought a

devastating economic crisis: with hunger, strikes, and unemployment. President Giolit was losing the

control of the country. There were fights in factories and companies. Concerned, the bourgeoisie began

to finance a fascist movement, the leader was Mussolini who began to organize squads

of the fighters, all volunteers. With the help of the army and the complicity of the police, the

fascists began to violently repress strikes and beat or kill socialists and leaders

unions. In the year 1921, the National Fascist Party was founded, attracting the middle class.
youth, former socialists, ex-combatants and adventurers. The military were called

Black Shirts.

March on Rome

In October 1921, 40 thousand Shirts marched to Rome. The king, army, and police did not.

they managed to detain them. The following day, King Victor Emmanuel II appointed Mussolini to form the

new government. In 1924, there were general elections that gave the fascists 65% of the votes and

Mussolini manages to be elected Prime Minister. Starting in 1925, the regime was completely closed.

All parties were banned from exercising political activities and power was centralized.

They introduced censorship and the death penalty. The only force of the opposition was the Catholic Church.

Once in power, fascism began to undertake large public works,

monuments, communication routes, palaces, and social works.

Nazism in Germany

The German fascism was called Nazism. As soon as the First World War ended, the

Germany has plunged into a terrible crisis, the defeat of Germany has caused great depression.

economic and a staggering inflation.

The instability of the Weimar Republic (Germany)

The social-democratic party was the strongest socialist party in Europe, having many

representatives in parliament and controlling the largest unions in the country. In January

In 1919, the Constituent Assembly in the city of Weimar drafted our constitution, which

established a liberal democracy regime. Thus was born the Weimar Republic, led by

Social democrat ERBERT lost power after the Nazis took power.

led by Adolf Hitler in 1933 (leader of the National Socialist Workers Party

Germans).
Taking advantage of the lack of unity among communists and social democrats, in 1933 Hitler

(1889/1945) took on the role of chancellor, (prime minister) leaving Hindenburg in the

presidency. With the support of the Nazi deputies, who were the majority, Hitler was accumulating

powers and building a Totalitarian state. In 1934, a major incident caused to disappear

the other members of parliament. A fire occurred in the parliament, they were assigned

he blamed the communists, accused of causing political instability, Hitler ordered arrests

all the communists and socialists. As a consequence of this, Hitler purged the politics and the army,

dissolved the opposition parties, as well as the unions and associations. In 1934, the

The Nazi Party occupied all state positions, and with the death of Hindenburg, Hitler took over.

also the presidency of the country.

The Nazi Ideology

The Nazi ideology was based on the book 'Mein Kampf My Struggle' which presented

all Nazi thought.

First Point: it was revenge against the decisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

2nd Point: it was the lebensraum (living space), to crush the arch-enemy of Nazism, communism

from Russia.

3rd Point: the superiority of the Aryan race, imposing on the world that Aryans were stronger and

pure ones, and that all races should serve the Aryans.

4th Point: it was anti-Semitism, Hitler had a huge hatred against the identified Jews.

with capitalism.

The Nazi doctrine was also a fascist doctrine, based on racism, the Nazis

they believed that there are superior races and inferior races. The superior race according to Hitler,

they were the Arians whose purest representatives were Germans, who had the right to
dominate the world. Among the inferior races, they considered the Jewish race, guilty of all the

In the male society, Jews were excluded from the army, education, and administration.

public. They also saw their businesses boycotted and their synagogues destroyed. Many

murdered and burned alive. The genocide eliminated millions of Jews in the camps of

concentration.

In fascism, critical intelligence was despised, books that criticized the regime were burned.

Physical education and military preparation were propagated. The combatants were considered

superiors and inferior intellectuals, militarism was the main concern. Fascism was

anti-democrat, considered democracy incapable of defending the nation, because it breaks the

unit of the country. In this way, different opinions and political parties ceased to exist. The motto

In fascism, it was 'Everything for the State, Nothing against the State.'

World War II

International tensions

After the First World War, the world was divided into two groups:

1st Group of capitalist countries (led by the USA);

2nd Group of socialist countries (led by Russia).

Within the 1st group, there was a certain division. The 1st was the winning countries of the 1st war, which

they divided among themselves the colonies, for this they have sources of raw materials and a wide market for

circulation of your products, these countries were: USA, England and France. The 2nd group were

defeated countries in World War I, these were semi-advanced, lacking raw materials

and markets for the circulation of their products, among them were: Italy, Germany and

Japan.
The consequences of World War I were disastrous in all areas of society,

demographic, economic and political. This reality led American President Wilson, in

to propose the idea of creating an international organization that would oversee world peace and security

at the Versailles conference. This idea was accepted and they decided to create the League of Nations.

The action of the League of Nations was hindered due to the absence of the USA, Germany and

USSR. The other factor is related to the decisions that were made unanimously and not

the existence of an armed force (by the army) for the maintenance of peace, this harmed

quite the intervention of the League of Nations in the resolution of the conflicts that were

happening. In the 1920s, after the Treaty of Versailles, peace seemed to be

definitely assured by the SDN, but in the 1930s international political life was

seriously shaken by the Great Depression. With the weak capacity of the League of Nations, Germany violated

the Treaty of Versailles, occupying Lorraine and Alsace (French territories), with the aim of

implement your Virtual Space policy, in 1935, Hitler establishes military service

mandatory and in 1936 allied with Italy. In March 1939 demanded rights over Poland:

of free passage through the Danzig corridor. In November 1936, Hitler signed a pact

with Italy (Rome-Berlin Axis Pact) and in the same year, a pact with Japan (Anti-Pact

Komintern) created specifically to combat the Communist International and the Union

Soviet. In 1935, Japan invades Manchuria (China) because of the sabotage of its line.

ironclad by the Chinese, in 1931, Italy occupied Ethiopia (Africa) and in 1939, it broke out the

Spanish Civil War that served as a rehearsal for World War (due to the weapons used in it)

war).

Factors of the war

The factors of World War II were:

The First World War

2. The emergence of Fascism;

 3. Discontent of the fascist countries (Germany and Italy);

4. Denial of the plan presented for a new division of the world by the powers;

worldwide (USA, England, and France);

5. Global economic crisis of 1929;

6. The Pact of the Rome-Berlin Axis;

7. The rise of Socialism.

The character of war

World War II began on September 1, 1939, and ended in August 1945.

lasting 6 years. The war had an imperialist and expansionist character. At the beginning, with the

occupation of various independent countries by Germany, its character changed when the

Occupied countries decided to fight. The war took on an anti-fascist character and became a

liberation war.

The German victories

Poland was the first country to be occupied by Nazi troops in September 1939.

Allies took a defensive position under the Maginot Line, a set of fortifications.

built on the French border. This situation continued until 1940. But between April and June, the

German armed forces invaded Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. Obtaining

spectacular military success. For a year, Hitler's troops launched powerful offensives

through armored columns and rapid movement and firepower supported by

air bombings, this first phase was called 'blitzkrieg'.

Summer of 1940 in Northern and Western Europe only the neutral countries were: Portugal,

Spain, Switzerland, and Sweden, these did not suffer the German attack. England isolated

resist to Nazi expansionism led by Prime Minister Winston Churchill, with his

Royal Air Force, which dealt with the German aviation Luftwaffe (on the British island and in the channel
In 1941, the globalization of war occurred with two major conflicts in areas

distant from the globe:

In the east of Europe on June 22, 1941, the crusade against Bolshevism. The invasion.

from Russia for three million men, ten thousand armored vehicles and three thousand airplanes, this

deeply weakened the poorly armed Russian army.

2. In the Pacific, on December 7, 1941, the Japanese aviation unexpectedly attacks the force

American in Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. A few days later, Germany and Italy

according to the axis pact, they declared war on the U.S.A, this deep blow to

American forces in the Pacific allowed Japan to easily conquer the Philippines and the

Malaysia.

In the first months of 1942, the advances of the Axis troops reached their peak. The forces

Japanese threatened India and Australia, Germans attacked and tried to occupy the city.

Stalingrad Russia, while in North Africa the German troops reached the gates of

Cairo (Egypt) and Suez. Still in 1942, German dominance extended almost throughout

Europe, attacking Norway. This dominance is felt in the following aspects:

The export of goods and the use of labor.

The repression extermination, especially the Jews. However, the countries

submetdos to the Hitlerian dictatorship organized resistance against the occupying army and

to the collaborationist governments.

Position of the USA in the War

While the European imperialists fought and ruined each other, the USA declared itself

neutral regarding the war. The reasons for its neutrality during World War II are linked to
if with the advantages you expected to obtain from the conflict, you were just ordering weaponry and

food genre to European countries. However, three main reasons led the USA to

they will abandon their policy of neutrality:

1. Reclaim your possessions that were with Japan and safeguard the

your interests that were threatened by fascism;

2. To make the Western allies believe that the US was strong from a certain standpoint.

economic, political and military;

3. To form an anti-fascist, anti-Hitler alliance to measure the liberation of

Europe by the Soviets (USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).

The letter from the South Atlantic

The South Atlantic Charter was signed on August 12 and published on August 14, 1941.

Many nationalists believed that once World War II was over, there would be a

new world order in which freedom and equality would replace racism and

Decolonization or the indecency of countries would be a gamble by the powers of World War II.

The following leaders have signed this letter:

1- President Roosevelt (USA);

2- Prime Minister Wilston Churchill;

3- France, General Charles de Gaulle.

But however, the English Prime Minister Winston Churchill was quick to declare days

then, the principle of self-determination refers only to peoples still subject

the fascist rule and the colonies of the English colonial empire would remain as they were. These

The statements of the English Prime Minister outraged Pan-Africanist leaders, mainly

Kwame Nkrumah, Williams Dubois, Jorge Pandmon were supported by the President.
Roosevelt and the French General Charles de Gaulle and the 26 allied States in the war against the

fascism (World War II)

The Anti-Fascist Coalition

Fearing to face the powerful Japanese army alone, the US persuaded England that

was in agony, decided to have conversations with the USSR with a view to forming a

joint anti-fascist coalition. The USSR, interested in opening a second front in Europe

Western with the objective of disabling the support bases of the Germans. Thus, between May and

June 1942, the USA, England, and the USSR met in Moscow and signed the agreement

that created the coalition. The agreement contained the following decisions:

1. Form a joint coalition integrated by the USA, USSR, England, and France;

2. Mutual assistance in the continuation of the war against Germany and its allies;

Cooperate after the end of the war;

4. Create a collective peace among the powers.

The defeat of Germany and the end of the Third Reich

In July to August 1943, the Nazis launched a counterattack. But they were

massacred (at the Kursk salient), this was considered the largest confrontation of the entire II

world war. The Russian attacks and the famous rockets surprisingly showed

superior German weapons. In the same year, the Germans were surprised by a winter

Terrible with a temperature of minus 30 degrees affects the movements of the German troops.

The Germans suffered very high losses of their soldiers (more than 1.5 million soldiers)
they decided to change strategy. They went to the South towards the Caucasus, a very rich region

in oil to be able to attack Moscow (Russia), in the rear.

The Germans intended to reach Stalingrad, but the Russians put up a strong resistance.

The battles dragged on from September 1942 to February 1943, at the end of this time the

Germans were exhausted. Soviet Marshal Zhukov dealt the final blow: he sent in troops.

Prepared for the cold, the German army found itself surrounded with nothing more to do,

German commander surrendered to the Red Army, Hitler had no way out and committed suicide on the 8th of

May, Germany surrenders. In Italy, Mussolini was captured while trying to escape to Switzerland.

condemned and executed by firing squad. His death occurred on April 28, 1945.

After the fall of Germany, it is Japan's turn. In the Pacific (this in 1943), the Japanese

they began to have numbered days. Fearing that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan and

occupied their territories, the USA (this on August 6, 1945), dropped a bomb

atomic over Hiroshima (Japanese city) trying to defeat the Japanese before the USSR.

Still on the 8th of the same month, the USA dropped another bomb on the city of Nagasaki, Japan.

having no more strength to fight, he surrendered (on September 2).

The meetings between the allies: (The Yalta Conference and Potsdam Conference)

The Yalta Conference: was held in May 1945 in the USSR, after the liberation of the countries

from Western Europe. Its objective was to examine the issues of the world during the period

after war and take measures for their resolution. Three participated in this conference.

countries, represented by their heads of state: The USSR represented by Stalin, USA

represented by Roosevelt and England represented by Winston Churchill.

The conclusions found in this conference were as follows:

1st Definitely crush Germany at its unconditional surrender.

2nd Disarm Germany politically, economically, and militarily.

3rd Establish democratic regimes in the liberated European states.

These measures aimed to prevent the resurgence of fascism in Germany and establish

democracy in Germany.

The Potsdam Conference: this took place after the unconditional surrender of Germany,

better said, after the unconditional surrender of Germany, the powers gathered in

Potsdam near Berlin, this on July 17 to August 2, 1945, and made the following decisions:

1st Transfer of power from Germany to the hands of the powers

2nd Division of Germany into four (4) zones, Berlin remained in the USSR zone.

3rd Completely demilitarize Germany.

4th Create an international court to judge the major guilty or war criminals,

etc.

The Consequences of the Second World War

The Second World War was distinguished by two main characteristics: it was a war

total and fueled by ideological motivations. It was total due to the fact that it affects all sectors,

social, economic, political, and military. The population, (the elderly, the children) and the military.

suffered from the bombings, damage, destruction, and ruins. The systematic elimination

of prisoners held in Nazi concentration camps and the supply crisis

essences that affected the countries involved in the conflict, with the death of thousands of men, the

woman was called to intervene more in the active life of society.

The cities were totally destroyed, the roads, the factories, the railways and

consequently the economy. In the political field, the influence of Europe, (England and the
France declined due to the emergence of two new global powers: the USA and the USSR. The 2nd

The world war also brought the emergence of new socialist countries in Eastern Europe.

like: Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia and Albania. Germany was already

divided into two: the Eastern part remained with Russia which implemented a socialist regime and

It was called the German Democratic Republic (GDR), in the Western part was the Republic

Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) with a government led by the USA, France, and England. And in 1949,

Through a Chinese Revolution led by Mao Tse-tung, China will also become

communist. These facts will constitute a danger for capitalist countries.

The Conference of St. Francis

After the end of World War II, the second plan was the creation of an organization.

international. Winston Churchill (England), Roosevelt (USA), and Stalin (USSR) agreed.

to convene a conference in the city of San Francisco (in California, USA), it took place

from April to June 1945, where 51 countries or victorious nations participated and approved the

United Nations charter, thus creating the UN with the objective of guaranteeing peace and security

in the world

The doctrine and the Marshall Plan for the recovery of Europe

In 1947, Harry Truman, president of the U.S., established the Truman Doctrine, which proposed the

American intervention in countries where its interests were threatened by

Soviet or socialist expansion. This doctrine stated the following: 'What is mine does not

can be negotiated, what is yours can be negotiated.

The economy was weak and prices were rising in a speculative manner, this was not only experienced

in capitalist countries. The USSR was also in a disastrous situation, none

Another country was so chastised by the German army. With the fear of this poverty stimulating

the political growth of communist and fascist countries, the USA decided to support the
economic reconstruction of Europe. In June 1947, General Marshall proposed to the countries

Europeans a program of economic reconstruction, which offered aid of billions of

dollars. In 1947, the USSR, in response, created the Kominform (information committee

of communist and workers parties) for the coordination of party activities

communists, exchange of experiences and information. The Marshall Plan was very successful,

unlike the Konminform. In a short time, the countries of Western Europe recovered the

its economy and the third world countries (many of them supported by the USSR), continued

the same.

Creations of the United Nations - UN

The UN is the highest entity of the intergovernmental world organization. Founded by the 51

allied governments in World War II on June 26, 1945 in San Francisco, California

(USA). The UN was officially established on October 24, 1945, when it was ratified.

Charter of the United Nations proposed by the following countries: USSR, USA, GREAT BRITAIN, and CHINA.

The United Nations (UN) is responsible for maintaining peace and security.

international.

The UN is an organization of States that committed, by signing the Charter, to maintain the

peace and international security and cooperate in establishing political conditions

economic and social. The UN intervenes in the internal affairs of States through the

authorization of the Letter.

b) UN objectives

The UN has the following objectives:

1. Maintain international peace and security.

2. Prevention and annulment of threats to peace and suppression of aggressive acts.

 3. Develop friendly relations among nations, based on respect for the principle

of rights.

The main bodies of the United Nations are: General Assembly, Security Council,

Economic-Social Council, Fiduciary Board of Directors, Court of Justice and the

Secretariat.

The Declaration of Human Rights

In 1948, on December 10th, the UN, motivated by the horrors of World War II

happened in various parts of the world, such as in concentration camps (Germany), the

genocide of gypsies and Jews, and the millions of dead, will draft the letter or document of

human rights.

The crisis of Europe and the rise of the two superpowers (U.S.A and U.S.S.R)

After the Second World War, Europe was completely destroyed. This crisis in

Europe brought the bipolarization that ended eurocentrism. The major decisions of

world, they passed to the U.S.A and the Soviet Union.

The Cold War and the Disintegration of the Soviet Bloc

Block Policy

After the war, the USA and the USSR began to dominate the world. The USA led the bloc.

capitalist and the USSR the socialist bloc, this brought a deep division in Europe. Thus,

In 1946 from North to South of Europe, the Western countries established an iron curtain.

with the objective of isolating the USSR and Eastern Europe, the USA took another measure (the

Marshall Plan), in order to combat the misery of capitalist countries in Europe and halt the

expansionism of the USSR.

Cold War: it was an ideological struggle between the US and USSR (which began in the 1950s and

ended with the fall of the Socialist bloc in 1989). The Cold War triggered a race

armament race between the superpowers threatening world peace several times.

The Military Blocks

During this period, Europe was divided. On one side, the capitalist countries led by

throughout the United States, and on the other hand, the countries of popular democracy, that is, the countries

socialists.

In 1949, the United States and other countries (England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands) made

part of this organization, Italy, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Portugal, this in

1952. This organization aims to defend political and economic interests.

social, cultural (ideological) of the capitalist world. The objective of NATO was the union of forces

Western military against communism.

Warsaw Pact: it was a military pact created in May 1955 by Russia and the countries of

Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania). Its objective was

defend the political, economic, social and cultural (ideological) interests of the socialist world.

The arms race and peaceful coexistence

The two countries represented by the organizations (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) accelerate the

arms factory. They created rockets equipped with powerful bombs like the V-2 (created

German philosopher Werner Von Braun used by Hitler in the bombing of London in 1944

The advancement of nuclear technology allowed for the reduction in size of the atomic bomb: in 1955 the

the bomb could already be transported in the warhead of a rocket.

In 1957, the Soviet Union inaugurated long-range missiles. In October, they launched a

rocket that placed into orbit the first artificial satellite in history, Sputnik-1. In
November of the same year (1957), Sputnik-2 was launched (with a dog of the Laika breed)

inside, which remained in space for ten days). Still in November, the Russians, in Moscow

They held an exhibition of short-range nuclear missiles, the so-called tactical missiles.

The success of the Sputnik project highlighted Russia's military potential. Behind

At the forefront of all military and technological advancements was Nikita Khrushchev, successor to Joseph Stalin in

Soviet Union commander, owner of a charismatic personality, he took advantage of the

Soviet conquests to promote the regime. He liked to cast doubts about the

the United States' capability to contain the advance of socialism.

The Americans, in response, accelerated their arms program to the maximum. It was logical.

of the Cold War. In January 1958, the United States launched the satellite Explorer.

In October, they announced the creation of NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration, agency

in charge of coordinating research for the development of rockets and artifacts

special. The Soviet and North American projects followed two parallel paths and

complementary.

One of them was nuclear research, with the production of increasingly smaller and more...

powerful. The other aspect was the construction of rockets that were increasingly faster and more precise. The

The Soviet Union and the United States developed underground bases and mobile platforms.

including submarines, for the launch of missiles. They also created anti-ballistic missiles.

capable of detecting enemy rockets before they reach the target. During the Cold War both

The U.S. and Russia developed chemical and biological weapons, these which began

to be manufactured in the period of the First World War.

Method of struggle (cold war)

It consists of the indirect confrontation between the two superpowers, involving more of their

allies. That is, they supported regional conflicts with funding, military material (weapons),

military council and troops, etc.

examples: The war between North and South Korea, the struggle of liberation movements

From Asia and Africa, here we have examples of the struggle between MPLA, FNELA, and UNITA.

The Bandung Conference

Bandung marks the beginning of the rapprochement between Asians and Africans in the formulation of the strategy.

against the common enemy, colonialism. This conference took place from April 18 to 24.

1955 in Indonesia.

The leaders of 29 Asian states (Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia) were present.

Burma, Ceylon, Philippines, Lebanon, People's Republic of China, Japan, Cambodia Republic

democratic of Vietnam etc.) and Africans (Ethiopia, Libya, Liberia, Ghana, Sudan and Egypt). And the

observers of the national liberation movements of these two continents. They were

presentes os seguintes líderes:Sukarno(indonésia), Nehru (índia), Nasser (Egipto), eChu Enlai

It was from Bandung that the Non-Aligned Movement was born.

development or rather, countries that did not adhere to the socialist bloc nor the capitalist one)

consisting of underdeveloped countries in Africa and Asia, known as the third world.

the object was to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation

The ten principles of the Bandung Conference

Respect for fundamental rights, in accordance with the UN Charter.

2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations.

Recognition of the equality of all races and nations, big and small
 4. Non-intervention and non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries (self

determination of peoples

5. Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself, individually and collectively from

in accordance with the UN Charter

6. Refusal to participate in the preparations of the collective defense intended to serve the

particular interests of the superpowers.

7. Abstention from any act or threat of aggression, or the use of force against the

territorial integrity or the political independence of another country

8. Solution of all international conflicts through peaceful means

9. Stimulus to mutual cooperation interests

10. Respect for justice and international obligations.

The non-aligned (Third World Countries)

The non-aligned are the result of the Bandung Conference. The message of Bandung was

taking shape through various international meetings. The Movement of non-

aligned was born thanks to the following leaders: Nehru President of India, Nasser of Egypt and

Tito from Yugoslavia. This movement affirmed a peaceful and anti-colonial current.

the movement was not aligned with either Russia or the United States, with a view to

establishment of world peace. In practice, the objective of this movement was the fight against the

colonialism.

This group condemns at the UN General Assembly the actions of the French in Algeria,

Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique and the action of the U.S. in Vietnam. The first

The meeting of this movement took place in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, from September 1 to 16.

1961. 24 countries were represented, which showed enormous differences both in

social and political point of view. The other meetings took place from October 5 to 10.
In 1964 in Cairo (Egypt), the third conference took place in 1970 in Lusaka (Zambia) on the 10th.

In September, the fourth one was in Algiers (Algeria) from the 5th to the 9th of (month) 1973 and the last one from the 16th to the 20th of

August 1976 in Sri Lanka.

The New International Economic Order - NIEO

It was imposed by a set of proposals elaborated and expressed by the general assembly of

Non-Aligned Countries in the declaration of the establishment of a new economic order

worldwide. Resolution 3.201 (May 1, 1974) and action plan for the establishment of

a new World Economic Order. Resolution 3.202 (May 1, 1974). And letter of

rights and duties of states - Resolution 3.281 (December 12, 1974). The objective was

reduce the power disparity in economic relations between industrialized countries and

developing countries. The proposals were centered around some

specific claims of developing countries, among which we can mention:

price stability, transfer of resources from rich countries to poor ones, industrialization

technology, multinational corporations, access to markets, reform in the monetary system

international and greater power in international discussions. The conference led to the

called the Bretton Woods system, which created two permanent international financial institutions,

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (International Bank for)

reconstruction and development.

The End of the Socialist Bloc and the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)

In 1958, the relations between the Soviet Union and communist China deteriorated exactly

At the moment when Mao Zedong launched the Great Leap Forward in order to modernize the

Chinese economy. In 1960, there was a rupture between the two powers. Albania and some
communist movements in the developing world followed Mao's leadership

TseTung, and the communist world was divided between the Moscow alliance and the Beijing alliance.

In Western Europe, communist parties have become highly critical of the

authoritarianism of the Soviet model. Until 1980, communist nations were forced to adapt the

realities of a more prosperous West. In 1985, the new leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail

Gorbachev embarked on a new policy of openness and restructuring (glasnost and

perestroika) to try to introduce a reformed communism with greater freedoms

economic. The reform of the Soviet Union influenced other populations of the Soviet bloc to

we will question the communist system.

In 1989, when Gorbachev demanded that other communist regimes accept change,

there was no widespread movement.

The fall of the Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall (in German BerlinerMauer) was a physical barrier, built by the

German Democratic Republic (East Germany) during the Cold War, which surrounded everything

Western Berlin area, separating it from East Germany. This wall, in addition to dividing the

the city of Berlin in the middle, symbolized the division of the world into two blocks or parts: Republic

Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), which was made up of capitalist countries led by

United States; and the German Democratic Republic (GDR), constructed by socialist countries

sympathizers of the Soviet regime.

Built in the early morning of August 13, 1961, it consisted of 66.5 km of

metal grating, 302 observation towers, 127 electrified metal nets with

alarm and 255 racetracks for fierce guard dogs. This wall caused the death of
80 people identified, 112 were injured and thousands imprisoned in the various attempts to

cross. This separation is also called the iron curtain.

During a revolutionary wave that swept the Eastern Bloc, the government of Germany

Oriental announced on November 9, 1989, after several weeks of civil disturbances, that

All citizens of the GDR could visit West Germany and West Berlin.

Crowds of East Germans climbed over and crossed the Wall, joining the Germans.

westerners on the other side, in an atmosphere of celebration. Over the following weeks,

parts of the Wall were destroyed by an euphoric crowd and souvenir hunters, more

In the afternoon, industrial equipment was used to remove almost the entire structure. The fall

the Berlin Wall opened the way for German reunification, which was formally celebrated

on October 3, 1990. Many point to this moment as the end of the Cold War.

The Berlin government encourages visits to the fallen wall, having prepared the reconstruction of

sections of the wall. In addition to the reconstruction of some sections, the path is marked on the ground.

what the wall did when it was raised.

The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 constitutes a victory for the Western world and the outcome

of the Cold War. The Cold War began to cool during the 1980s. In 1989, the fall

the fall of the Berlin Wall was the symbolic act that marked the end of a decade of disputes

economic, ideological and military between the Capitalist block, led by the United States

United and the Socialist led by the Soviet Union.