Animal Nutrition and Feeding

Professor João Carlos Mayer

Chapter I - Basic Concepts

NUTRITION: It is a series of processes by which animals ingest and assimilate

the foods to promote growth or to replenish worn tissues or
affected.

2) FOOD ACCORDING TO ALBA: "It is a specific part of nutrition. This

nutrition involves a series of scientific and empirical knowledge to
making pets more productive through the proper use of
foods

3) NUTRITION AND FOOD ACCORDING TO BORGIOLI: "Food is the choice, the

preparation and supply of food for the animal, while nutrition is the
digestion, absorption, and the metabolism of this food.

4) IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION:
The animal only manifests its genetic potential when properly
fed;
Nutrition becomes an indirect factor of improvement;
Economic factor (search for cheap but efficient food);
Sanitary factor (disease prevention).

5) TYPES OF FOOD:
Concentrated;
bulky.

I) BULKY: Provides a lot of fiber and little energy per unit of volume.
food, being more commonly used as feed for ruminants.

Fertilizer and Silage, pasture.

II) CONCENTRATED: Provides little fiber and a lot of energy per unit of volume,
being more used as feed for monogastrics. The concentrated feed is
divide into two categories:
Energetic or basic foods (up to 20% crude protein);
Protein foods (more than 20% of CP).

EXAMPLES:
Energy sources: Corn, sorghum, rice bran, wheat bran, etc.
Proteins: Blood meal, feather meal, fish meal, earthworm meal, sunflower meal and
of soy, etc.

6) FOOD: It is all material that, when ingested by the animal, can be digested.
absorbed and used.

7) EXAMPLE OF NON-FOOD: Plastics, gravel, fur, etc.

8) PARTS OF A FOOD: It is basically formed by 2 parts: Water and Matter

Dry Matter is divided into 2 parts: Organic (Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins and
Vitamins) and the Inorganic which are Minerals.

NUTRIENT: Part or parts of foods with the same chemical composition

and that participates in the maintenance of life.

Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Vitamins, Minerals, Water, Air, etc.

10) DIGESTIVE NUTRIENT: Part of the nutrient that can be digested and
absorbed. The term digestible only applies to protein, carbohydrate, and lipid, not
applies to minerals and vitamins. It does not apply to minerals because some
are re-excreted. It does not apply to vitamins because some are synthesized.

11) FEED: It is the amount of food consumed by an animal in a period of

24 hours in one or more times.

12) BALANCED FEED: It is one that provides various nutrients in quantities

of proportions so that the animal has adequate nutrition.

13) NUTRITIONAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS:

Plants have cell walls made of carbohydrates, and animals have

proteins and lipids;
- Vegetables use carbohydrates as a form of storage, while
animals use fat;
Plants use energy through photosynthesis and animals take advantage of it.
indirect energy when they consume vegetables.

14) COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODY (NUTRIENTS):

Water, fat, vary according to the age and nutrition of the animals

EXAMPLE:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Calf Milkmaid at the Rise Dairy Cow
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Percentage of Water 74.2 59.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Body Fat Percentage 2.8 17.7
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Percentage of Protein 18.9 18.3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Percentage of Mineral M 4.1 5.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Note: Carbohydrates do not appear in the composition of the animal, as they are constant in
all degrees around one (1) percent.

16) WEENDE SCHEME: composed of 5 analyses:

Water Humidity;
Crude Protein;
Ethereal Extract;
Crude Fiber
Ashes;
Non-Nitrogenous Extractives.

16.1) WATER HUMIDITY: It is done by a device called an oven to a

temperature of 100 to 105 degrees C.
Bulky foods need pre-drying at 55 to 60º in a ventilated drying chamber.
before they go to the permanent greenhouse.

PROBLEM: Some substances like Sugars and Organic Acids are lost.
ALTERNATIVE: Use of a vacuum oven at a temperature of 75 degrees
or distillation with Toluene, but these methods are very time-consuming and expensive.

IMPORTANCE OF MOISTURE DETERMINATION:

It is the first analysis done, as the composition of the foods must be compared.
in Dry Base;
Dry foods:
Food preservation status; prevents fungi (aflatoxin) and further deterioration
fast;
The drier it is, the more expensive; price paid to producers
Food should not be completely dry;
Silage process 70% moisture;
Grains should have about 12 to 13% moisture.

16.2) CRUDE PROTEIN: It has 3 distinct phases through which the food passes:
Digestion;
Distillation;
Titling. NPx 6.25 = PB
Function of the protein: production of tissues and products;

PROBLEMS:
Not all protein has 16% Nitrogen;
Not all Nitrogen is protein (Amines, Nitrates, Anitrates, Amides).

Ruminants transform non-protein nitrogen into protein through the action of the flora.
ruminal.

16.3) ETHEREAL STRIP: It is the determination of the fat content. The substance used
to know the fat content, it is Ether, which can be Sulfuric or Petroleum (more
(used). The device used is called a Soxhlet, whose protein determination
it is done in Kjeldahl and the fat determination is done in Soxhlet.

SUBSTANCES WITH ENERGY VALUE: Triglycerides, Lecithin, and Fatty Acid.

SUBSTANCES WITHOUT ENERGY VALUE: Chlorophyll, Aldehydes, Esters, etc.

FOR WHAT REASONS SHOULD FAT DETERMINATION BE MADE?

Fat produces 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates and proteins;
Depending on the amount of unsaturated fatty acids, the food will spoil.
more or less
Make a Pelleted feed using fat;
Fat makes food more appealing and with greater acceptance (taste).

16.4) BULK FIBER: It is very important because it facilitates peristaltic movements; it is

called fiber digester, we will have 3 substances:
Cellulose
Hemicellulose
Lignin.

# PROBLEMS:
It is a quantitative analysis and not qualitative;
The higher the concentration of Lignin, the less the food is utilized, because
it's not carbohydrate, it's not digestible, containing more in old pasture=more fiber.

16.5) ASHES: It is the determination of minerals through a device called

Mulfa, at a temperature of 550 to 600 degrees C.

PROBLEM: it is a Quantitative and not qualitative determination.

EXCEPTIONS:
Some foods like Bone Meal contain 2 minerals (Ca and P);
Two parts of Calcium to one part of Phosphorus (Qualitative and Quantitative).

## EXERCISE 1: A bone meal has 42% ash. What is the mineral content?
existing in this feed ingredient.

42/3 = 14% Phosphorus 14x2 = 28% Calcium

16.6) NON-NITROGENATED EXTRACTIVES: it is not an analysis but part of the

Scheme of
Wendee; it is calculated by the difference of 100 minus the other 5 analyses.

ENN = 100 - (UA + PB + EE + FB + C)

PROBLEM: Any error in the other 5 analyses will result in an error in the ENN.
Rice Straw
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient Dry Base Wet Base
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Humidity 11 ------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Crude Protein 4.49 4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fat 1.1 1.23
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Crude Fiber 37 41.57
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ENN 39.9 44.87
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ashes 7 7.86
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

100-11=89

89 --- 4 89 --- 1.1 89 --- 37 89 --- 39.9 89 --- 7

100 - x 100 - x 100--x 100 -- x 100 -- x
x = 4.49 x = 1.23 x = 41.57 x = 44.83 x = 7,86

EXAMPLE B: Corn Silage

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrientes Base Úmida Base Seca
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Humidity 70 ------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Protein 2.4 8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fat 0.8 2.66
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Crude Fiber 6.5 21.66
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ENN 18,6 62
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ashes 1.7 56.66
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: The calculation is done exactly the same as the previous one.

EXERCISE 2: A food has the following composition of Wet Base:

Gray: 3.3%
- FB: 9%
1.5%
14.5%
4.7%
0.3%
0.18%
125mg/Kg
4.36 mCal/Kg

1) What is the percentage of water in the food on a wet basis?

100-33 = 67%

What is the percentage of ENN in the Dry Matter?

33 --- 14.5
100 - x
x = 43.93%

What is the percentage of ENN based on 90%?

33 --- 14.5
90 --- x
x = 39.54%

## EXERCISE 3: A calf consumed 7 Kg of feed and excreted 10 Kg of feces.

Food and feces have the following chemical composition:
--------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient Food Feces
--------------------------------------------------------------
Gray 5.7 1,3
--------------------------------------------------------------
FB 30.6 12.91
--------------------------------------------------------------
EE 2.9 1.11
--------------------------------------------------------------
ENN 40 8.23
--------------------------------------------------------------
PB 12.3 2.10
--------------------------------------------------------------
a) What is the percentage of Dry Matter in the food?
91.5%

b) What is the percentage of water in feces?

100 - 25.65 = 74.35%

c) What is the percentage of Dry Matter that the animal consumes?

100Kg --- 91.5
7Kg --- x
x = 6.40%

d) What is the amount of Dry Matter in the feces that the animal excreted?
100Kg
10Kg --- x
x = 2.56%

e) What is the percentage of Crude Fiber of the food expressed in Dry Matter?
91.5 --- 30.6
100 --- x
x = 33.44%

17) VAN SOEST METHOD: It is a quantitative and qualitative method used with
ruminants that divide the plant cell into 2 compartments:

1) CELLULAR CONTENT: more soluble substances such as Sugars, Starch, Protein,

Lipids and Organic Acids.

CELL WALL: less soluble substances and compounds.

FDN (Neutral Detergent Fiber): separates the Cellular Content from the cell wall.
FDA (Acid Detergent Fiber): separates Cellulose from Hemicellulose, through a
mixture of Potassium Permanganate and Sulfuric Acid applied to Cellulose and
Hemicellulose.
Note: There is an inverse relationship between FDN and Dry Matter Consumption.
IMC=120 x ANIMAL WEIGHT
 FDN 100

EXERCISE 4: What is the consumption of a 600kg cow fed with ryegrass,

knowing that this Ryegrass has 56 FDN?
IMC=120 x 600
56 100
12.85 Kg

EXERCISE 5: A 600Kg cow consumes Papuã with 72FDN; What is its

purchasing power?
120 x 600
72 100
IMC=10Kg

!!!!!!!!==== Calculate the DMS (Digestibility of Dry Matter) of a tropical pasture

(Papuan) with an FDA of 45.
DMS=88.9-(FDAx0.779)
DMS=88.9-(45x0.779)
53.845%

## EXERCISE 7: Calculate the DMS of a tropical pasture (Ryegrass) with FDA of 32.
88.9 - (32 x 0.779)
64%

Chapter II - CARBOHYDRATES

I) Concept and Characteristics:

They are organic substances composed of Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon (1:2:1);
They usually do not appear in the tables because they have a more or less constant value
(1%);
Carbohydrates make up about 3/4 of vegetables, fats, and fruits;
Carbohydrates on the Weende Scale are part of Crude Fiber (Cellulose);
Carbohydrates are part of ENN (Starch);
The less soluble Carbohydrates are part of the FB.

II) FUNCTIONS:
Energy (to be oxidized to CO2 and Water);
Fat formation.
Protein economy

III) FOODS RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES:

Corn, Rice Bran, Wheat Bran, Grass, etc.

IV) CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES:

MONOSACCHARIDES (Glucose);
DISACCHARIDES (Maltose and Cellobiose);
TRISACCHARIDES (Raffinose, Melado, Sugarcane, Cottonseed, etc);
- POLYSACCHARIDES (Starch and Cellulose).

V) DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CH IN MONOGASTRICS: there are 2 types of Starch:

um
is amylase (about 10 to 20% with linear chain and Alpha 1.4 bonds), the other is the
Amylopectin (about 80 to 90% with a linear chain with Alpha 1.4 and 1.6 linkages);
about Amylase, the enzyme Pancreatic Alpha Amylase acts producing Maltose, which
it in turn is acted upon by Maltase and produces 2 molecules of Glucose; about the
Amylopectin acts a Pancreatic Alpha Amylase generating Maltose e
Oligosaccharides; maltase acts on maltose and produces glucose and on the
Oligosaccharides act on the enzyme Oligo 1,6 Glycosidase, which ultimately produces Glucose.
Note: Isomaltose may still appear; in this case, the Isomaltase Enzyme will act.

VI) DESTINATIONS OF GLUCOSE IN MONOGASTRICS:

Energy (to be oxidized to CO2 and Water);
To be converted into fat;
To be converted into Glycogen;
Apart from being carbonized, it will form Non-Essential Amino Acids.

VII) DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CH IN RUMINANTS: in the rumen it is produced by

ruminal microorganisms the Cellulase that in turn breaks down Cellulose into
Cellobiose; this Cellobiose undergoes the action of Cellobiase resulting in Glucose; the Cellobiose
ferments until it reaches Pyruvic Acid, which through Glycolysis goes to Pyruvate; this
Pyruvate through the Krebs Cycle reaches Volatile Fatty Acids (main source of
energy), ultimately resulting in secretion products or losses (CO2 and CH4).

VIII) FATTY ACIDS FORMED BY THE ORDER:

Acetic Acid - related to the fat content in milk;
Propionic Acid - related to growth and fattening degree;
3) Butyric Acid.

IX) CONSEQUENCES OF EXCESSIVE USE OF CONCENTRATE:

- Lowers the pH of the rumen, causing acidosis; To reduce the acidosis, one uses
buffering substance (Sodium Bicarbonate).
With acidosis, the microorganisms in the rumen will be harmed;
Increase of propionic acid;
Decrease in salivation of ruminants;
Ionophores reduce Methane and increase Propionic acid;

Note:
The main food for Monogastrics is Corn;
When grains are provided along with pasture, there is an increase in Propionic Acid;
Easy fermentable carbohydrates are mixed with Urea;
With Propionic Acid there are fewer losses since it has the same number of carbons as the
Ác.Pirúvico
The AGVs provide about 60 to 70% of energy for ruminants;
Carbohydrates are a great source of SCFA.

Chapter III - FEED CALCULATION

2) ALGEBRAIC METHOD
3) PEARSON SQUARE METHOD
4) COMPUTATION METHOD

## EXERCISE 8: Calculate using Pearson's Square, a feed for chickens with

18% of Crude Protein; use Corn and Soybean Meal which have respectively 8 and
46% protein content.

38---28 Corn
100--x
x=73.68 Parts, Kilos or Units of Corn

38---26.32 Soy Meal

100--x
x=26,32 Parts, Kilos or Units of Soybean Meal
REAL PROOF: 73.68 + 26.32 = 100

PREMIX: is the mixture of a set of Vitamins, Minerals, Calcium, and Phosphorus, which
varies according to the species of the animal being fed (e.g., Pig Premix
different from the Equine Premix) and according to the phase the animal is classified in
(Ex: Premix of Piglets different from the Premix of adult Swine).

## EXERCISE 9: Calculate using Pearson's Square a feed for pigs with 16%
from PB; uses 3% Premix, Sorghum at 10% and Soybean Meal at 43% protein content.
100-3=97
81
100--x
x=16.49% of protein

33---26,51
97---x
x=77.92 Sorghum Parts

33---6.49
97---x
x=19.08 Parts of Soybean Meal

REAL PROOF: 77.92 + 19.08 = 100

## EXERCISE 10: Calculate using the Algebraic Method a chicken feed with 18%
PB; use corn and soybean meal which have respectively 8 and 46% protein content.

A+B=100(-0.08)
0.08A + 0.46B = 18
-0.08A - 0.08B = -8
0.08A + 0.46B = 18
0.38B = 10
B=26.31 Soybean Meal Parts

A+B=100
A=100-B
100-26.31
A=73.69 Parts per Thousand of Corn
REAL PROOF: 26.31 + 73.69 = 100

## EXERCISE 11: Calculate by the Algebraic Method a feed for pigs with 16%
PB; uses 3% of Premix and Sorghum and Soybean Meal which have 10% and 43% respectively
of protein theory.

Chapter III - PROTEINS

I) Concept and Characteristics:

They are organic substances made of Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen and
Nitrogen
Sometimes it may contain Sulfur in its composition;
They are Amino Acid Polymers.

II) FUNCTIONS:
Tissue formation;
Energy Function (release of energy and fat formation).

III) CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS

a) SIMPLE: those that result only in Amino Acids through hydrolysis
(Ex:Albumin).
b) CONJUGATED:
CROMOPROTEIN: protein linked to pigmentation (e.g., Hemoglobin).
GLYCOPROTEIN (Ex: Mucin).
LIPOPROTEIN (e.g. Milk casein).
NUCLEOPROTEIN (Ex: Deoxyribo-Nucleic-Protein).

IV) CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS

a) ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS: are those that the animal organism cannot
to summarize in terms of quantity and speed of growth of this animal.

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS FOR PIGS (10): LYSINE, TRYPTOPHAN, METHIONINE,

LEUCINE, ISOLEUCINE, VALINE, PHENYLALANINE, THREONINE, ARGININE AND HISTIDINE.

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS FOR BIRDS (11) - LYSINE, TRYPTOPHAN, METHIONINE,

LEUCINE, ISOLEUCINE, VALINE, PHENYLALANINE, THREONINE, ARGININE, HISTIDINE AND
GLYCINE (glycine is an amino acid that is part of the metabolism of uric acid,
what is the way in which Nitrogen is excreted in Birds.

Note: In pig feed, the amino acid that should be supplemented is LYSINE and in poultry.
METHIONINE.

b) SEMI-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS: are those synthesized from another amino acid.
ARGININE: it is synthesized, but this synthesis is insufficient.
CYSTINE: is synthesized from METHIONINE.
TYROSINE: it is synthesized from PHENYLALANINE.

c) ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS: are all Essential except Arginine.

# PARA SUÍNOS (9): LIS, TRI, MET, LEU, ISO, VAL, FEN, TRE, HIS.
# PARA AVES (10): LIS, TRI, MET, LEU, ISO, VAL, FEN, TRE, HIS, GLI.

d) DISPENSABLE: are the other Amino Acids.

V) DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS IN MONOGASTRICS: digestion and

absorption
it starts in the stomach with Pepsinogen that transforms upon contact with HCl
in Pepsin, and this Pepsin will break down the Protein into Polypeptides; in the intestine
There are proteins that were not broken down earlier in the stomach, and
Polypeptides mixed with HCl and fat that come into contact with the mucosa
intestine causes the release of 2 hormones into the blood: Secretin and
Pancreozyme that in turn stimulates the pancreas to release pancreatic juice.
When it reaches this stage, the Enteric Juice transforms Trypsinogen into
Tripsin that has autoactivation and produces activation of the enzymes that were
inactive; this Trypsin along with Chymotrypsin will break down the Proteins into
Polypeptides and Dipeptides; the Polypeptides through the CarboxyPeptidases and
Amino-peptidases are transformed into amino acids while the
Dipeptides will also be transformed through dipeptidases.
The final product of protein utilization is Aa.

VI) DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS IN RUMINANTS: Amino Acids

I take
three different pathways in the rumen: Microbial Protein, VFA or Ammonia.
In the abomasum, the dietary protein and microbial protein are affected by
micro-organisms through proteolysis originating Aa, and what is left of the protein is
eliminated in facial proteins; the AAs enter the bloodstream and will form
fabric, milk, wool, etc.
Ammonia leaves the rumen, enters the bloodstream, and reaches the liver.
where they are converted into Urea; part of this Urea goes back into the saliva, enters the
ruminates and returns to the Aa; the other part goes to the rim and is eliminated in the urine.
Urea can be used for two purposes: as fertilizer or in feed.
This Urea is a Non-Protein Nitrogen, which when utilized by the
ruminants are transformed into Protein Nitrogen (ruminants require
15% protein.

VII) CARE WITH THE USE OF UREA IN RUMINANT FEEDING:

The animal must be accustomed to Urea;
Urea should be provided gradually up to the maximum allowed limit.
animal
Do not provide Urea to young and weakened animals;
Urea should amount to a maximum of 1% of the total dry matter consumption;
No more than 1/3 of the nitrogen in the feed should be provided by urea;
When urea is included in concentrates, 3% should be added.
One should offer a carbohydrate that is easily assimilated to facilitate synthesis.
microbial.

VIII) SYMPTOMS OF UREA TOXICITY:

Muscle tremors in the face and ears;
Acceleration of heart rate;
Foamy salivation;
Tooth ranger;
Tetany (tightening of the muscles);
Convulsions and death.

TREATMENT: drink 6 liters of 5% acetic acid to detoxify the animal.

IX) EXCESS OF UREA: when we have an excess of protein, Deamination occurs.

protein (breakdown); the carbon part produces energy and the nitrogen part is
eliminated in urine; in mammals, this elimination is done through urea and in
birds through Uric Acid.

X) PROTEIN RESERVE: unlike Lipids and Carbohydrates, the organism does not
It has a protein reserve, for this reason it should be consumed daily.
XI) TIME FACTOR: Amino acids must be present at the right moment
for protein synthesis to occur.

Chapter IV - DIGESTIBILITY
-this term only applies to Carbohydrates (Digestible Fiber), Protein (Protein
Digestible) and Lipid (Digestible Ether Extract) and never for Minerals and
Vitamins; Digestibility is nothing more than the relationship between the amount of
food that the animal eats and digests; when this relationship is expressed in
percentage we will have the Digestibility Coefficient:
CD=NUTRIENT OF FOOD-NUTRIENT OF FECES x100
Nutrient of food

I) FACTORS AFFECTING DIGESTIBILITY:

According to the animal species;
Varies from individual to individual;
According to the type of food (e.g.: Pasture or Grain);
According to the Maturation of the plants (e.g.: new or old pasture);
According to the type of food processing (e.g., Pelletization).
According to the composition of the feed.

II) TYPES OF DIGESTIBILITY:

a) APPARENT-feces and indigestible foods (Bacteria and Enzymes).
b) TRUE - only the feces.

III) WAYS TO INCREASE DIGESTIBILITY:

a) IN VIVO - in this method we will use harnesses and bags to collect feces from
animals; these animals will be confined for a certain period in cages of
Metabolism or Digestibility; the harnesses vary according to the size of the
animal; trapped in the back part of the saddles goes a bag with a plastic bag
for stool collection, preference should be given to male animals, which do not
mix feces with urine; collection should be done every 12 hours.

b) IN SITU - in this method we will make a fistula in the animal's Rumen and place
inside a plate with 30 holes; attached to this plate is a nylon bag with
1 g of food to calculate Digestibility; to close the fistula, a
drunk called Cannula; in this process the Micro-organisms will carry out the digestion
inside the bag.

c) IN VITRO - in this method the animal must be fistulated to collect fluid from the
Rúmem; this liquid is placed in a thermal bottle and taken to the
laboratory; in the laboratory, the exact conditions of the Rumen are simulated and processed
Digestibility analysis.

IV) STAGES OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE IN VIVO METHOD

a)PRELIMINARY PERIOD:
It takes 10 days to eliminate residues from previous intake;
Another food is used that will facilitate digestion;
Establishes voluntary consumption, quantity of food without leaving leftovers.

b) EXPERIMENTAL PERIOD:
For ruminants, the duration is about 1 week.
For monogastrics, the duration is about 3 to 4 days.

V) MARKER SUBSTANCE (e.g.: Iron Sulfate)

It is characterized by being digestible and by coloring the stools;
It aims to indicate the beginning and the end of the experiment;
-The substance is placed in the food and when the color disappears it means we have
to finish the experiment.

VI) INDICATOR SUBSTANCE (e.g., Iron Oxide or Chromium Oxide)

They are characterized by being indigestible and unalterable;
It aims to dispense with the total collection of feces;
The substance is placed in the food and only one sample is taken from the feces.

Digestive Coefficient Using Indicator Substance

CD = % Indicator in Feces x % Indicator in Food x 100
% Indicator in Feces

EXERCISE - Calculate the digestibility of 1 food that contained 3% of a

Indicator substance that appeared in the feces 4%.
CD=4-3.100
4
25%

EXERCISE - Calculate the digestibility of a food weighing 2.06 g that after 2 hours had
0.7455 g of this
food.
CD=2.06-0.7455.100
2.06
62.84%

EXERCISE - A cattle feeds daily on 8 Kg of Bermuda Grass Hay.

Dry matter and the excretion product is 3 Kg; analysis of food and feces
They indicated the following: Calculate the CD In Vivo.

COMPONENTS FOOD FECES

PB 11 6.5
EE 4 3
FB 286 24.8
ENN 51 59
CINZAS 5.4 4.7

CD=8-3.100 PB>100---11% Stools >100---6.5% CD=0.88-0.195.100

8 8---x 3---x 0.88
CD=62.5 x=0.88 x=0.195 77.84

COMPONENTS EXCRETED DIGESTED CONSUMPTION CD

PB 0.88 0.195 0.285 77.84
EE
FB
ENN
MS 8 3 5 62.5

LIPIDS

I-GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS:
They are related to the Ethereal Extract in the WENDEE SCHEME;
Lipids are fats or organic substances that are insoluble in water;
Lipids are soluble in organic solvents (ether, benzene, etc.).
II-CLASSIFICATION:
Simple lipid is one that results from the esterification of a
alcohol (GLYCEROL) with a fatty acid.
COMPLEXES - when in addition to the ester we have another component (CHOLINE or ACID)
PHOSPHORIC) phospholipid.
DERIVATIVES are the results of hydrolysis, that is, free fatty acids, glycerol and
sterols.

III-FUNCTIONS:
The main function is the supply of energy, but lipids are 2.25.
times more energetic than carbohydrates and proteins, and carbohydrates are the
largest source of energy for animals.
FAT FORMATION - fat that can be for RESERVE or can be
STRUCTURAL
reserve fat has 3 purposes:
a) To maintain body temperature in homeothermic animals;
It has a protective mechanical action on the organs;
c) Revert to energy when the animal needs it.
Structural fat can be cellular or transport or
SUSTAINING, located in the tissues and is the last fat that the animal resorts to.
Lipids contain essential fatty acids LINOLEIC (more
important), LINOLENIC and ARACHIDONIC; the second and the third can be
synthesized from LINOLENIC, which is why it is the most important and generally not
there is a lack in the rations, but the possibility of being absent cannot be ruled out.

IV-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIPIDS AND VITAMINS A, D, E, and K:

ANY FACTOR THAT AFFECTS LIPIDS AFFECTS VITAMINS AND VICE-VERSA.

V-SYMPTOMS OF LINOLEIC ACID DEFICIENCY:

a) PIGS:
There is a decline in growth in animals;
Improves feed conversion;
Dermatitis and hair loss occur.

b) CHICKENS:
Broilers with stunted growth;
Improves feed conversion;
In breeders, there is a worsening of feed conversion;
In layers, the eggs come out lighter with lower production;
In Poedeiras, it causes a decrease in lifespan.

VI-DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS IN MONOGASTRICS - the intestinal wall of the

monogastrics are made of microvilli which will increase the surface area
contact; the enzyme that attacks lipids is pancreatic lipase; this lipase attacks the
positions 1 and 3 releasing fatty acid from position 1 and 3, leaving the monoglyceride in
position 2 which will be absorbed intact.
In the intestinal tract, there is a reesterification (which is to join what was
loose, reforming the triglyceride) and this TG is joined by a cover of
protein forming the CHYLOMICRON.
In birds, the digestion and absorption of lipids occurs in the form of a
low-density lipoprotein that is similar to chylomicrons, but there is
differences in the composition of its components.

VII-DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BIRDS AND MAMMALS REGARDING MEANS OF TRANSPORT:

In birds, low-density lipoprotein is carried via the bloodstream because they
do not have a lymphatic system;
In mammals, the chylomicron circulates via the bloodstream if it is a short chain and
above this value is via lymphatic.

VIII-DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS IN RUMINANTS - two processes occur: a

hydrolysis (breakdown that results in glycerol followed by propionic acid and the acids)
Fats undergo hydrogenation (turning unsaturated fatty acids into saturated ones).

EXAMPLE OF HYDROGENATION: SHEEP GRAZING ON CLOVER

ACID RUMEN CONTENT(%)

GRASS/PASTURE (%)
Palmitic Acid (C16:0) 8.9% 16.9%
Stearic Acid (C18:0) 0.8% 48.5%
Linolenic Acid (C18:O) 58.9% 3.3%

The fatty acids of ruminants become saturated due to this process of

hydrogenation; ruminants have a hard fat consistency due to the
hydrogenation process.
 Monogastrics can modify the type of fat to change its consistency.
mole for hard or vice versa; this change in consistency is called state
dynamic of fats.

IX-MEASURES THAT EVALUATE FATS

a) IODINE INDEX - it is the number of grams of iodine absorbed per 100 grams of
fat and this index has an inverse relationship with the melting point of the
fats; the higher the iodine index
the lowest is the melting point.

EXAMPLE: PIGS FED WITH A FEED BASED ON CORN AND MEAL

MEAT

SUPPLEMENTARY OIL FIRMNESS MELTING POINT ° C IODINE INDEX

Peanut at 4.1% Average 34.3 72.4
Cotton at 4.1% Tough 45.3 64.4
Corn at 11.5% Oily 24.5 97.4

b) DYNAMIC STATE - it is used in monogastrics; the hard consistency is better for

transport and storage; at the beginning, we used foods that form fat
In the fattening phase before slaughter, food that forms fat is used (applied to pigs).

c) INDEX of ACIDITY (HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY) - it is one that changes the value little.
energy of food.

b) PEROXIDE INDEX (OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY) - usually when it occurs, it happens

a modification in the taste and energy value of this food and there is formation of
peroxides.

Note: Another importance of lipids (see ether layer).

X-ENERGY - energy is expressed in calories; a calorie is the amount of energy

necessary to raise 1 degree Celsius per cubic centimeter, determines the
temperature of 14 and 15 degrees
degrees Celsius of heat.
#LARGE CALORIE=CAL= KILOCALORIE (Kcal)
MCal
JOULE, KJOULE, MJOULE
1.84 joule
The device that measures energy is the calorimeter, which determines the energy.
raw food, as its origin is indistinguishable.
FOOD ENERGY
EB-EF=EU
EB-EF-EU-EGC(Methane CH4)=EM
INCREASING ENERGY - it is the production of heat after eating.
#EB-EF-EU-EGC-EIC=EL~perfect form of expressing the energy value of food.
LIQUID ENERGY (LE) is all that is metabolizable (HEAT INCREMENT)
INCREASE IN HEAT - it is the increase in temperature that occurs after ingestion
of food.
PARTS OF THE IC:
EXPRESSIVE DYNAMIC EFFECT-due to the specific losses of each nutrient.
-FERMENTATION HEAT-occurs in the rumen due to the fermentation process.
-DIGESTION WORK-measures all losses and movements of Chewing,
Rumination, etc.
OTHER WAYS TO EXPRESS ENERGY IN CALORIES
NDT=FD+PD+ENND+(EEDx2.25)
NDT (TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENT) - it is the way to express the energy o
foods in percentage.
EED-DIGESTIBLE ETHEREAL EXTRACT
FD-EDIBLE FIBER
PD-DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN

ADDITIVES - These are substances that are not part of the food, they are added and have
purpose of preserving, modifying or intensifying the properties of this food.
a) IONOPHORES:
They are used to lower Metagenesis (formation of Methane);
Ionophores are used for birds against Coccidiosis.
b) ANTIOXIDANTS
c) Antifungals
d) FLAVORS - improves the taste of food (Sugar, Syrup, etc.).
e) ADSORBENTS - are substances based on Aluminum Silicates, which have the
property of linking Aflatoxins, so that Aflatoxins are not
absorbed and eliminated in the phases.
f) PIGMENTING agents are used to give a more intense color to the egg yolk and in
chicken skin.

FUNCTIONS AND FECAL:

a) E. Indigestible P.D.
b) Metabolic Product
b.1) Desquamations of the Epithelium
b.2) Micro-organisms
b.3) Enzymes

#URINARY FUNCTIONS:
a) Endogenous Catabolism
b) Imperfect Metabolism of Amino Acids

#FUNCTIONS E.I.HEAT:
a) Specific Dynamic Effect
b) Fermentation Heat

CONVENTIONAL BIOLOGICAL PARTICIPATION of ENERGY

EB EF ED EUU EGC EU EIC THE

Oil 339.2 0 399. 660 0 399.2 174.4 224.8
2
Straw 184.6 107.5 77.1 4.4 15.3 57.4 57.4 10.1
Gluten 263.1 0 263. 49.2 0 213.9 118.3 95.6
1
Amido 186.0 0 186. 0 18.8 167.5 68.7 98.5
0
Corn 180.3 21.2 159. 8.1 15.9 135.1 52.2 82.9
1

MINERALS

I-INTRODUCTION-there are many minerals in the bodies of animals such as the

Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (25%); these minerals can be MACROMINERALS.
the MICROMINERALS; they are:
#MACROMINERAIS(7)-Ca,P,Na,Cl,K,Mg,S.
#MICROMINERAIS(8)-Fe,Cu,I,Co,Mn,Zn,Se,Mo.

II-MACROMINERALS

CALCIUM (Ca)
Calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D are closely related.
Calcium-Phosphorus Ratio: 1.5 to 2 portions of Ca for one of P;
The Ca-P ratio for laying hens changes to 6 to 8 parts of P.
Available phosphorus - sum of 100% of animal P, 100% of mineral origin and 1/3
of plant origin;

A feed has 60% corn with 0.27 of Phosphorus. What is the amount of P?
Taken advantage of?
100 Corn-------0.27
60 Corn-------X
X = 0.162
1/3 x 0.162 = 0.05% of P Used

FUNCTIONS of CALCIUM:
It is necessary for the development and maintenance of bones and teeth;
About 99% of Ca is found in bones and teeth;
Blood Coagulation
Neuromuscular Sensitivity
Acid-Base Balance;
About 98% of the eggshell is CaCO3;
Important for milk secretion;
Constituent of Lipoprotein Lipase.

2) PHOSPHORUS (P)

FUNCTIONS of PHOSPHORUS:
They are rich in energy compounds (ATP, ADP) constituents of DNA and RNA;
It is part of carbohydrate metabolism (GLUCOSE 6P);
Activator of TRYPSIN;
Constituent of phospholipids;
It is part of the membrane structure;
It is necessary for bones and teeth (around 80% of P);
Involved with reproduction;
Necessary for metabolism and development of the ruminal flora.

SYMPTOMS of CALCIUM DEFICIENCY:

#RICKETS (deficiency of Ca, P or VITAMIN D) - affects young animals;
#OSTEOMALACIA (calcium or phosphorus deficiency, demineralization of the matrix) - affects animals
adults
VITAL FEVER - affects high-producing cows; this happens due to the presence of a
large movement of Ca from the blood to the milk;

CALCIUM SOURCES:
LIMESTONE CALCITE - does not contain Magnesium.
DOLOMITIC LIME - greater or lesser amount of Magnesium; the Magnesium
compete with Ca and this brings losses (e.g.: Supplemented layers with limestone
Dolomitic lays eggs with soft and thin shells; Magnesium has properties
laxative; broiler chickens that receive Dolomitic Limestone will be prone to diseases
respiratory; the animals' bed becomes damp.
OYSTER FLOUR has a longer-lasting effect than Limestone; Limestone because it has
smaller particles have faster absorption compared to flour of
Ostrich, but the effect is short.

SOURCES of the TWO GROUPS:

DICALCIUM PHOSPHATE
BONE MEAL (to be effective it needs to be autoclaved)
#PHOSPHATED ROCKS (be careful with the effect of excess FLUORINE)

PROBABILITY of LACKING CALCIUM and PHOSPHORUS

a)MONOGASTRICS - because these animals feed on Concentrate,
the probability of lacking Calcium is higher (Ca is the most missing in food)
Concentrated).
b) RUMINANTS - because these animals feed more on roughage, a
the probability of phosphorus deficiency is higher.

Na

FUNCTIONS:
They are part of the Acid-Base balance;
They are part of cellular transport;
Sodium chloride is usually added to animal feed; sodium is scarce.
found in vegetables; this NaCl is added to the feed for 2 reasons: TASTE and
SUPPLY of Na.

4)MAGNESIUM (Mg)

FUNCTIONS:
It is an enzyme activator;
Chlorophyll Constituent;
Generally, a lack of Mg is not a problem, but its excess is.

MAGNESIUM deficiency - there are 2 cases but they are not common:
HYPOMAGNESIC TETANY - calves do not feed on milk for a long time
period of time (it is experimental, in practice it does not occur).
FORAGE TETANY - animals that move from a winter pasture to a
of
spring (widely used in the US region).

5) SULFUR(S)

FUNCTIONS:
Constituent of 2 Vitamins (BIOTIN and THIAMINE);
#It is part of the Sulfur Amino Acids (contains Sulfur) METHIONINE, CYSTEINE, and CYSTINE;
Sulfur is necessary when providing Non-Protein Nitrogen to Ruminants.
(Urea)
There must be a ratio of 12 to 15 parts of N for 1 part of S.

III-MICROMINERALS

IRON

FUNCTIONS:
Constituent of Hemoglobin;
Constituent of Myoglobin (Muscle Pigmentation);
#Constituent of Citicromos;
IRON DEFICIENCY in PIGLETS applies iron injections on the 3rd and 5th days of
life, to prevent IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA (the commercial name of the medication for
this clinical picture is FERROTEX).

2) COPPER (Cu)

FUNCTIONS:
Hemoglobin Synthesis;
Elastin Component (AORTA).

COPPER DEFICIENCIES:
ATAXIA ENZOOTIC - attacks LAMBS and CALVES characterized by
to present a discordance in the Posterior Train;
DEPIGMENTATION of WOOL, HAIR and FEATHERS - the wool becomes thin and brittle;
DISEASE of BREAK-tremors; the animal falls and dies almost instantly.

3)COBALT (Co)
It is part of Vitamin B-12 (Vitamin required in smaller amounts ~1 to 2 g per
100 Kg of feed;
For Monogastrics, it is necessary to supplement Vitamin B-12;
For Ruminants, only Cobalt is added, as ruminants synthesize it.
Vitamin B-12 from Cobalt;
Vitamin B-12 is not present in products of plant origin;
Plant-based food products should be supplemented with Vitamin B-
12
Currently, there is a trend of not including animal-derived products due to
presence of contaminations.

Iodine (I)

DEFICIENCY-GOITER of WORM (HYPERTROPHY and HYPERPLASIA in the Thyroid)-this

It happens because IODINE is a component of the hormone T4 (TETRA-IODO-THYROXINE).

5) MANGANESE (Mn)

FUNCTION-Components of various enzymes;

DEFICIENCY - the lack of Mn in birds causes PEROSIS, which is swelling of the Tibia and
Metatarsus and displacement of this leg outwards (in roosters occurs between the second
the third week of life.

ZINC (Zn)

FUNCTIONS:
#Constituents of Insulin;
It is abundant in the testicles;
It is part of Carbonic Anhydrase;
It is part of Carboxypeptidase;

DEFICIENCIES:
When Zn is lacking for PIGS, PARAKERATOSIS occurs (skin lesions, dermatitis,
similar to scabies).

SELENIUM
Be very careful with the If, because the necessary dose and the toxic dose are very
next;
It has a very close relationship with Vitamin E (they are SYNERGISTIC - have functions)
similar;
Selenium together with Vitamin E is an ANTI-OXIDANT;
Vitamin E is used for longevity, for the skin, for wrinkles, etc.

MOLYBDENUM (Mo)

FUNCTIONS:
Constituent of XANTHINE-OXIDASE;
Xanthine is involved in the metabolism of urines.
In practice, Mo is not a problem, so supplementation is not necessary.

FOOD

a)ENERGETIC:
CORN
SORGHUM
RICE FARELO (Whole or Defatted)
WHEAT BRAN
CORN
It is the main food for any animal species;
It is a food low in Ca, Lysine, and tryptophan;
For birds, yellow corn is preferred because it contains pigments that provide
good coloring of the yolk and the skin of the chickens;
Pigment does not have nutritional value.

sorghum
There is a toxic substance called tannin;
There are varieties of sorghum with more or less tannin;
The more tannin, the worse it will be for birds and pigs;

PROBLEMS:
Variation of PROTEIN (X = SORGHUM 11% PROTEIN);
Reduces the value of energy;
Stain the gem of the eggs;
The ideal would be 6 to 15% protein.

Rice FARELO
It can be of 2 types: INTEGRAL (FAI) or DEFATTED (FAD).

Wheat Bran
Rich in fiber;
Indicated for CHICKENS;
Rich in B COMPLEX vitamins.

b) PROTEINS:
SOY MEAL
MEAT FARELO
BONE MEAL
FISH FLOUR
WORM FLOUR
BLOOD FLOUR
SUNFLOWER FLOUR
COTTON FLOUR
PEANUT FLOUR
Soybean meal
Main protein food (42 to 48% CP);
This variation is due to the amount of husk present in the Soybean Meal;
The more shell, the less protein.

TOASTING:
It is made to eliminate the inhibitors of TRYPSIN from the FS;
When well toasted, it has good levels of LYSINE and TRYPTOPHAN;
For birds, the 3 most critical amino acids are: METHIONINE, LYSINE, and TRYPTOPHAN.
The 2 main foods for BIRDS are CORN and SOYMEAL;
#When we use CORN and SOYBEAN MEAL, the synthesized added Aa is
METHIONINE.

FARELO of MEAT and BONES

PROBLEMS:
Some manufacturers add BLOOD MEAL to increase the content of
protein, due to the quality of the FS being very poor;
It has around 42 to 50% of protein.
The more bone, the less protein;
FARELO de CARNE is subject to spoil easily;
Meat is subject to contamination with SALMONELLA;
Should not enter in large quantity (MAX. 5%).

FISH FLOUR
Around 60% of protein;
It is rich in Ca and P;
It is rich in energy;
It has a good balance of amino acids, but since it is an animal-derived product, it has a lot of
ease of getting damaged.

FEATHER FLOUR
Around 80% of protein;
It is not used in feed of any kind in large quantities, as its
structure is hard to break (take advantage of).

BLOOD FLOUR
Around 80% protein, yet it is still garbage;
It is recommended 3% of FS in the feed.
What is the amount of FS in 2 tons of feed? 60 kg

PROBLEMS:
It transmits the taste of meat to the yolk of the eggs;
It has a poor balance of Aa.

SUNFLOWER flour
Around 40% of protein.
It is used in some regions for CATTLE;
There is a toxic substance called Chlorogenic Acid;
This acid has the property of staining the gems (brownish tone).

COTTON CANDY
Around 40% of protein;
It is used in feed for RUMINANTS in the regions of Paraná, São Paulo, and Mato.
Grosso;
There is a toxic substance called Gossipol that stains the gems.

PEANUT FLOUR
#45% PB;
AFLATOXIN poisonings.

9) WORM MEAL - highly protein-rich food.

VITAMINS

a) LIPOSOLUBLE - are eliminated in the feces.

VITAMIN A
Retinoic Acid
Retinol
Retinal
There are Pro-Vitamin A which are the CAROTENES;
There are several types: ALPHA, GAMMA, BETA.

FUNCTIONS:
Vision;
Growth;
Bone matrix growth;
Important for reproduction;
Integrity of the mucous membranes.

DISABILITY:
#Problems in the Respiratory System;
Digestive System Problems;
#Problems in the Urinary System;
XEROPHTHALMIA - drying of the Cornea and Conjunctiva;
NIGHT BLINDNESS - difficulty seeing at twilight;
Reproductive issues.

VITAMIN D
Key compounds of Vitamin D (Vitamins D2 and D3);
There are Pro-Vitamin D.

FUNCTIONS:
Necessary for the synthesis of the calcium transporter protein;
Mobility of calcium from bones to blood;
It is supplemented in feeds for BIRDS and PIGS;
Vitamin D3 is specifically the most used with birds and pigs;
Vitamin D is closely related to Ca and P.

3) VITAMIN E
It is related to reproduction;
Antioxidant
Associated with SELENIUM.

DISABILITY:
ENCEPHALOMALACIA - Taxia and edema in the brains of chicks, due to a deficiency of
Vitamin E in feed (MAD COW DISEASE);
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY - excessive connective tissue in the muscle (MUSCLE DISEASE
WHITE
in Terneiros);
SICKNESS of the STUCK LAMB.

4)VITAMIN K
Vitamin K1 - found in vegetables (PHYTOMENADIONE);
Vitamin K2 - found in animals and microorganisms (MENAQUINONE);
Vitamin K3 is synthetic (MENADIONE).

FUNCTIONS:
Blood coagulation;
Foods are generally rich in Vitamin K (except for birds).

REASONS for VITAMIN K SUPPLEMENTATION in BIRDS:

1) AVES have genetics that allow for very rapid growth, which is why the demands are high.
nutritional values are higher;
2) Small microbial population, as the digestive system is short;
3) In obtaining the FS, the oil is removed, consequently we are removing the
lipid-soluble nutrients, consequently decreasing Vitamin K;
4) Birds are susceptible to coccidiosis (if treated with it)
SULFATOQUINOXALINA has an opposing action on Vitamin K.

b) WATER-SOLUBLE - are eliminated in the urine.

B COMPLEX

1.1)VITAMIN B-1 (THIAMINE)

#Deficiency-POLYNEURITIS (Beriberi);
It is linked to the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids.

1.2) VITAMIN B-2 (RIBOFLAVIN)

It is part of the FMN and FAD;
In birds, when there is a lack of B-2, paralysis occurs (curled toes);
#Linked to lipid and protein metabolism.

1.3) VITAMIN B-6 (PYRIDOXINE, PYRIDOXAL, PYRIDOXAMINE)

#Linked to protein metabolism;
Deficiency - growth delay and dermatitis.

1.4) VITAMIN B-12 (COBALAMIN, CYANOCOBALAMIN)

It is the vitamin required in the smallest amount;
1 to 2 mg for every 100 kg of feed;
Contains COBALT in its structure;
For Monogastrics, it should be given directly;
For Ruminants, COBALT is provided, and microorganisms synthesize the
Vitamin B-12
Only found in Animal Origin Products;
In plant-based products, we will need to supplement Vitamin B-12.

1.5) NICOTINIC ACID, NIACIN, NICOTINAMIDE

It is part of the structure of NAD and NADPH;
Involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids;
It can be synthesized from TRYPTOPHAN;
Tryptophan alone is found in little in foods;
Many parts of TRYPTOPHAN are needed to be transformed into Niacin.

1.6) PANTOTHENIC ACID

It is part of the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins;
It is part of the structure of Coenzyme A;
It is quite distributed in foods;
LACK in pigs causes the goose step.

Folic Acid
Involved with the metabolism of Urines and Pyrimidines (Nitrogenous Bases);
#DEFICIENCY-in Birds causes Perosis.

1.8) BIOTIN
Involved with the metabolism of Carbohydrates and Proteins;
In the egg white, there is AVIDIN (which prevents Biotin from being absorbed);
The Avidin is destroyed and consequently the Biotin is utilized;
#DEFICIENCY-in Birds causes PEROSIS.

1.9) HILL
Some authors do not consider Choline as a Vitamin because it is placed at a high
amount in feeds, which contradicts the concept of Vitamins;
It is part of the structure of Acetylcholine.
It is part of the Phospholipids;
It is characterized by being rich in CH3 radicals (Methyl Group);
This Methyl Group acts as a detoxifier.
Colina is used to detoxify Sorghum feeds that contain Tannin.
1.10)VITAMIN C
It is also a water-soluble Vitamin;
It is a natural antioxidant along with Vitamin E;
It works as an anti-stress on hot days;
Linked to the redox processes;
Linked to collagen integrity;
Vitamin C deficiency: SCURVY.