A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics 2nd Edition P.

M. Mathew download

https://ebookname.com/product/a-textbook-of-quantum-
mechanics-2nd-edition-p-m-mathew/

Get the full ebook with Bonus Features for a Better Reading Experience on ebookname.com
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Lectures on Quantum Mechanics 59465th Edition Paul A.

M. Dirac

https://ebookname.com/product/lectures-on-quantum-
mechanics-59465th-edition-paul-a-m-dirac/

Quantum Mechanics 6th Edition Alastair I. M. Rae

https://ebookname.com/product/quantum-mechanics-6th-edition-
alastair-i-m-rae/

Quantum Information Theory and the Foundations of

Quantum Mechanics 2nd Edition Christopher G. Timpson.

https://ebookname.com/product/quantum-information-theory-and-the-
foundations-of-quantum-mechanics-2nd-edition-christopher-g-
timpson/

Atlas of small animal wound management and

reconstructive surgery 3rd ed Edition Michael M
Pavletic

https://ebookname.com/product/atlas-of-small-animal-wound-
management-and-reconstructive-surgery-3rd-ed-edition-michael-m-
pavletic/
Reflective practice writing and professional
development 3rd ed Edition Gillie Bolton

https://ebookname.com/product/reflective-practice-writing-and-
professional-development-3rd-ed-edition-gillie-bolton/

JSTL Practical Guide for JSP Programmers 1st Edition

Sue Spielman

https://ebookname.com/product/jstl-practical-guide-for-jsp-
programmers-1st-edition-sue-spielman/

Oil Gas and Energy Financing 1st Edition Mr Howard

Palmer

https://ebookname.com/product/oil-gas-and-energy-financing-1st-
edition-mr-howard-palmer/

Intentional Interviewing and Counseling Facilitating

Client Development in a Multicultural Society 7th
Edition Allen E. Ivey

https://ebookname.com/product/intentional-interviewing-and-
counseling-facilitating-client-development-in-a-multicultural-
society-7th-edition-allen-e-ivey/

The Rough Guide to Iceland 2013 5th Edition David

Leffman

https://ebookname.com/product/the-rough-guide-to-
iceland-2013-5th-edition-david-leffman/
The Struts Framework Practical Guide for Java
Programmers 1st Edition Sue Spielman

https://ebookname.com/product/the-struts-framework-practical-
guide-for-java-programmers-1st-edition-sue-spielman/
 A Textbook of
Quantum Mechanics
Second Edition
 About the Authors

P M Mathews held the position of Professor, Senior Professor and Head of the
Department of Theoretical Physics for nearly three decades, and is now retired. He
has been Visiting Professor and Visiting Scientist several times at numerous distin-
guished institutions (MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA; Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA; Royal Observatory of Belgium at Brussels,
Paris Observatory, Paris, France). He is a fellow of the Indian National Science Acad-
emy, of the Indian Academy of Sciences, and of the American Geophysical Union.
His research interests are in Classical and Quantum Theory of Relativistic Fields,
and Geoastronomy. He has published about 120 papers in international journals.
Dr Mathews is a recipient of the Meghnad Saha Award for Theoretical Sciences.

K Venkatesan completed his PhD at the Institute of Mathematical Sciences (Mat-

science), Chennai under the guidance of the late Prof. Alladi Ramakrishnan. His
PhD work involved pion-nucleon interactions and other processes related to strongly
interacting particles and photons. Continuing at Matscience for a while, he contrib-
uted articles to volumes of ‘Matscience Symposia in Theoretical Physics’ and wrote
papers on problems related to Quantum Mechanics and Elementary Particle Physics.
Dr Venkatesan has translated from German, along with Dr Achuthan, the famous
article ‘Die Algemeinen Prinzipien der Wellenmechanik’ (General Principles of Wave
Mechanics) by Wolfgang Pauli and Numerical Analysis for Engineers and Physicists
by Rudolf Zurmuhl. His main areas of interest in Physics are Quantum Mechanics
and Elementary Particle Physics.
 A Textbook of
Quantum Mechanics
Second Edition

P M Mathews
Retired Senior Professor and Head of the Department of Theoretical Physics
University of Madras

K Venkatesan
Formerly Associated with
Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai

Tata Mcgraw Hill Education Private Limited

NEW DELHI

McGraw-Hill Offices
New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas
Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
Paris San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
 Tata McGraw-Hill
Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited,
7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008.
A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

Copyright © 2010, 1976 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. No part of this pub-
lication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the
prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored
and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.
This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-0-146174
ISBN-10: 0-07-0-146179
Managing Director: Ajay Shukla
Head—Higher Education Publishing: Vibha Mahajan
Manager—Sponsoring: Shalini Jha
Senior Editorial Researcher: Smruti Snigdha
Development Editor: Renu Upadhyay
Jr Manager—Production: Anjali Razdan
General Manager: Marketing—Higher Education: Michael J Cruz
Dy Marketing Manager—SEM &Tech Ed: Biju Ganesan
Asst Product Manager—SEM &Tech Ed: Amit Paranjpe
General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela
Asst General Manager—Production: B L Dogra

Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources
believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the
accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-
Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of
use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-
Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering
or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate
professional should be sought.
Typeset at ACEPRO India Private Limited, Chennai and Printed at Adarsh Printers, C-50-51,
Mohan Park, Naveen Shahdara, Delhi-110032.
Cover Printer: SDR Printers
 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition xiii

Preface to the First Edition xv

Chapter 1 Towards Quantum Mechanics 1

A. CONCEPTS OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS 1
1.1 Mechanics of Material Systems 1
1.2 Electromagnetic Fields and Light 4
B. INADEQUACY OF CLASSICAL CONCEPTS 5

(i) Macroscopic Statistical Phenomena 5

1.3 Black Body Radiation; Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis 5
1.4 Specific Heats of Solids 8
(ii) Electromagnetic Radiation—Wave-Particle Duality 9
1.5 The Photoelectric Effect 9
1.6 The Compton Effect 10
(iii) Atomic Structure and Atomic Spectra 13
1.7 The Rutherford Atom Model 13
1.8 Bohr’s Postulates 13
1.9 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Spectrum 15
1.10 Bohr-Sommerfeld Quantum Rules; Degeneracy 16
1.11 Space Quantization 18
1.12 Limitations of the Old Quantum Theory 19
(iv) Matter Waves 20
1.13 De Broglie’s Hypothesis 20
1.14 The Motion of a Free Wave Packet; Classical Approximation
and the Uncertainty Principle 23
1.15 Uncertainties Introduced in the Process
of Measurement 26
1.16 Approximate Classical Motion in Slowly
Varying Fields 27
1.17 Diffraction Phenomena: Interpretation of the
Wave-Particle Dualism 28
1.18 Complementarity 30
1.19 The Formulation of Quantum Mechanics 31
1.20 Photons: The Quantization of Fields 33
vi Contents

Chapter 2 The Schrödinger Equation and Stationary States 35

A. THE SCHRöDINgER EQUATION 35
2.1 A Free Particle in One Dimension 35
2.2 Generalization to Three Dimensions 37
2.3 The Operator Correspondence and the Schrödinger Equation
for a Particle Subject to Forces 38
B. PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION AND CONDITIONS ON y 40
2.4 Normalization and Probability Interpretation 41
2.5 Non-normalizable Wave Functions and
Box Normalization 42
2.6 Conservation of Probability 44
2.7 Expectation Values; Ehrenfest’s Theorem 46
2.8 Admissibility Conditions on the Wave Function 48
C. STATIONARY STATES AND ENERgY SPECTRA 51
2.9 Stationary States; The Time-Independent
Schödinger Equation 51
2.10 A Particle in a Square Well Potential 53
2.11 Bound States in a Square Well: (E < 0) 54
2.12 The Square Well: Non-Localized States (E > 0) 59
2.13 Square Potential Barrier 61
2.14 One-Dimensional Delta-Function Well 65
2.15 Multiple Potential Wells: Splitting of Energy Levels;
Energy Bands 67
Problems 74

Chapter 3 general Formalism of Wave Mechanics 75

3.1 The Schrödinger Equation and the Probability
Interpretation for an N-Particle System 75
3.2 The Fundamental Postulates of Wave Mechanics 78
3.3 The Adjoint of an Operator and Self-Adjointness 85
3.4 The Eigenvalue Problem; Degeneracy 87
3.5 Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions of Self-Adjoint
Operators 88
3.6 The Dirac Delta Function 90
3.7 Observables: Completeness and Normalization
of Eigenfunctions 91
3.8 Closure 93
3.9 Physical Interpretation of Eigenvalues, Eigenfunctions and
Expansion Coefficients 94
 Contents vii

3.10 Momentum Eigenfunctions; Wave Functions

in Momentum Space 95
3.11 The Uncertainty Principle 99
3.12 States with Minimum Value for Uncertainty Product 101
3.13 Commuting Observables; Removal of Degeneracy 102
3.14 Evolution of System with Time; Constants
of the Motion 104
3.15 Non-Interacting and Interacting Systems 106
3.16 Systems of Identical Particles 107
Problems 111

Chapter 4 Exactly Soluble Eigenvalue Problems 113

A. THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 114
4.1 The Schrödinger Equation and Energy Eigenvalues 114
4.2 The Energy Eigenfunctions 115
4.3 Properties of Stationary States 118
4.4 The Abstract Operator Method 120
4.5 Coherent States 125

B. ANgULAR MOMENTUM AND PARITY 127

4.6 The Angular Momentum Operators 127
4.7 The Eigenvalue Equation for L2; Separation of Variables 128
4.8 Admissibility Conditions on Solutions; Eigenvalues 129
4.9 The Eigenfunctions: Spherical Harmonics 131
4.10 Physical Interpretation 133
4.11 Parity 135
4.12 Angular Momentum in Stationary States of Systems with
Spherical Symmetry 138

C. THREE-DIMENSIONAL SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL 141

4.13 Solutions in the Interior Region 142
4.14 Solution in the Exterior Region and Matching 143

D. THE HYDROgEN ATOM 146

4.15 Solution of the Radial Equation; Energy Levels 146
4.16 Stationary State Wave Functions 148
4.17 Discussion of Bound States 149
4.18 Solution in Terms of Confluent Hypergeometric Functions;
Nonlocalized States 154
4.19 Solution in Parabolic Coordinates 156
viii Contents

E. OTHER PROBLEMS IN THREE DIMENSIONS 160

4.20 The Anisotropic Oscillator 160
4.21 The Isotropic Oscillator 161
4.22 Normal Modes of Coupled Systems of Particles 162
4.23 A Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field 165
4.24 Integer Quantum Hall Effect 174
Problems 176

Chapter 5 Approximation Methods for Stationary States 178

A. PERTURBATION THEORY FOR DISCRETE LEVELS 178
5.1 Equations in Various Orders of Perturbation Theory 179
5.2 The Non-Degenerate Case 180
5.3 The Degenerate Case — Removal of Degeneracy 183
5.4 The Effect of an Electric Field on the Energy
Levels of an Atom (Stark Effect) 186
5.5 Two-Electron Atoms 189
B. THE VARIATION METHOD 192
5.6 Upper Bound on Ground State Energy 192
5.7 Application to Excited States 193
5.8 Trial Function Linear in Variational Parameters 195
5.9 The Hydrogen Molecule 196
5.10 Exchange Interaction 200
C. THE WKB APPROxIMATION 200
5.11 The One-Dimensional Schrödinger Equation 201
5.12 The Bohr-Sommerfeld Quantum Condition 206
5.13 WKB Solution of the Radial Wave Equation 208
Problems 209

Chapter 6 Scattering Theory 211

A. THE SCATTERINg CROSS-SECTION:
gENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 211
6.1 Kinematics of the Scattering Process: Differential and Total
Cross-Sections 211
6.2 Wave Mechanical Picture of Scattering: The Scattering Amplitude 213
6.3 Green’s Functions; Formal Expression for Scattering Amplitude 214
B. THE BORN AND EIKONAL APPROxIMATIONS 217
6.4 The Born Approximation 217
6.5 Validity of the Born Approximation 219
6.6 The Born Series 221
6.7 The Eikonal Approximation 221
 Contents ix

C. PARTIAL WAVE ANALYSIS 223

6.8 Asymptotic Behaviour of Partial Waves: Phase Shifts 224
6.9 The Scattering Amplitude in Terms of Phase Shifts 226
6.10 The Differential and Total Cross-Sections; Optical Theorem 227
6.11 Phase Shifts: Relation to the Potential 228
6.12 Potentials of Finite Range 230
6.13 Low Energy Scattering 233

D. ExACTLY SOLUBLE PROBLEMS 237

6.14 Scattering by a Square Well Potential 237
6.15 Scattering by a Hard Sphere 238
6.16 Scattering by a Coulomb Potential 238

E. MUTUAL SCATTERINg OF TWO PARTICLES 241

6.17 Reduction of the Two-Body Problem: The Centre of Mass Frame 241
6.18 Transformation from Centre of Mass to Laboratory
Frame of Reference 243
6.19 Collisions between Identical Particles 245
Problems 247

Chapter 7 Representations, Transformations

and Symmetries 249
7.1 Quantum States; State Vectors and Wave Functions 249
7.2 The Hilbert Space of State Vectors; Dirac Notation 249
7.3 Dynamical Variables and Linear Operators 251
7.4 Representations 254
7.5 Continuous Basis—The Schrödinger Representation 257
7.6 Degeneracy; Labelling by Commuting Observables 259
7.7 Change of Basis; Unitary Transformations 260
7.8 Unitary Transformations Induced by Change of Coordinate
System: Translations 262
7.9 Unitary Transformation Induced by Rotation of Coordinate System 265
7.10 The Algebra of Rotation Generators 266
7.11 Transformation of Dynamical Variables 268
7.12 Symmetries and Conservation Laws 269
7.13 Space Inversion 270
7.14 Time Reversal 274
Problems 276

Chapter 8 Angular Momentum 278

8.1 The Eigenvalue Spectrum 278
8.2 Matrix Representation of J in the | jm〉 Basis 281
x Contents

8.3 Spin Angular Momentum 283

8.4 Non-Relativistic Hamiltonian with Spin; Diamagnetism 288
8.5 Addition of Angular Momenta 291
8.6 Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients 294
8.7 Spin Wave Functions for a System of Two Spin – 12 Particles 300
8.8 Identical Particles with Spin 303
8.9 Addition of Spin and Orbital Angular Momenta 305
8.10 Spherical Tensors; Tensor Operators 307
8.11 The Wigner-Eckart Theorem 310
8.12 Projection Theorem for a First Rank Tensor 314
Problems 316

Chapter 9 Evolution with Time 318

A. ExACT FORMAL SOLUTIONS: PROPAgATORS 318
9.1 The Schrödinger Equation; General Solution 318
9.2 Propagators 319
9.3 Relation of Retarded Propagator to the Green’s Function of the
Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation 321
9.4 Alteration of Hamiltonian: Transitions; Sudden Approximation 324
9.5 Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics 326
9.6 Aharonov–Bohm Effect 331

B. PERTURBATION THEORY FOR TIME

EVOLUTION PROBLEMS 335
9.7 Perturbative Solution for Transition Amplitude 335
9.8 Selection Rules 338
9.9 First Order Transitions: Constant Perturbation 339
9.10 Transitions in the Second Order: Constant Perturbation 342
9.11 Scattering of a Particle by a Potential 345
9.12 Inelastic Scattering: Exchange Effects 346
9.13 Double Scattering by Two Non-Overlapping Scatterers 349
9.14 Harmonic Perturbations 351
9.15 Interaction of an Atom with Electromagnetic Radiation 354
9.16 The Dipole Approximation: Selection Rules 356
9.17 The Einstein Coefficients: Spontaneous Emission 358

C. ALTERNATIVE PICTURES OF TIME EVOLUTION 359

9.18 The Schrödinger Picture: Transformation to Other Pictures 359
9.19 The Heisenberg Picture 361
9.20 Matrix Mechanics—The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 362
 Contents xi

9.21 Electromagnetic Wave as Harmonic Oscillator;

Quantization: Photons 364
9.22 Atom Interacting with Quantized Radiation: Spontaneous Emission 372
9.23 The Interaction Picture 376
9.24 The Scattering Operator 380
D. TIME EVOLUTION OF ENSEMBLES 381
9.25 The Density Matrix 381
9.26 Spin Density Matrix 383
9.27 The Quantum Liouville Equation 384
9.28 Magnetic Resonance 385
Problems 386

Chapter 10 Relativistic Wave Equations 388

10.1 Generalization of the Schrödinger Equation 388

A. THE KLEIN-gORDON EQUATION 389

10.2 Plane Wave Solutions; Charge and Current Densities 389
10.3 Interaction with Electromagnetic Fields; Hydrogen-Like Atom 390
10.4 Nonrelativistic Limit 392

B. THE DIRAC EQUATION 394

10.5 Dirac’s Relativistic Hamiltonian 394
10.6 Position Probability Density; Expectation Values 395
10.7 Dirac Matrices 396
10.8 Plane Wave Solutions of the Dirac Equation; Energy Spectrum 398
10.9 The Spin of the Dirac Particle 401
10.10 Significance of Negative Energy States; Dirac Particle
in Electromagnetic Fields 404
10.11 Relativistic Electron in a Central Potential:
Total Angular Momentum 406
10.12 Radial Wave Equations in Coulomb Potential 408
10.13 Series Solutions of the Radial Equations: Asymptotic Behaviour 410
10.14 Determination of the Energy Levels 412
10.15 Exact Radial Wave Functions; Comparison to
Non-Relativistic Case 414
10.16 Electron in a Magnetic Field—Spin Magnetic Moment 417
10.17 The Spin Orbit Energy 418
Problems 421

Appendices
A. Classical Mechanics 425
B. Relativistic Mechanics 429
xii Contents

C. The Dirac Delta Function 435

D. Mathematical Appendix 437
E. Many-Electron Atoms 448
F. Internal Symmetry 453
G. Conversion between Gaussian and Rationalized MKSA Systems 455
Table of Physical Constants 458
Index 460
 Preface to the Second Edition

The primary motivation for the preparation of a new edition of the book was to
extend its coverage to include a couple of quantum phenomena which are currently
of considerable interest, but were not known at the time of publication of the first edi-
tion: the Integer Quantum Hall Effect (IQHE) and the Aharonov–Bohm effect. The
former effect is the appearance of quantum jumps in the Hall conductivity of a mate-
rial under suitable conditions, as the strength of a uniform magnetic field in which
it is placed crosses certain discrete values. In order to bring out the physics of this
phenomenon, we have gone further, in this edition, with the solutions for the degen-
erate eigenfunctions of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field in Sec. 4.23,
we have exhibited the quantization of the magnetic flux linked to each such eigen-
function, established the linkage between the strength of the magnetic field and the
number of degenerate states that can exist for each energy level (per unit area perpen-
dicular to the magnetic field), and hence shown, in the new Sec. 4.24, how the IHQE
arises. Similarly, the Path Integral approach to quantum mechanics, which provides
an alternative description of the time evolution of a quantum system and illumines
the process of passing to the classical limit, is presented now as the new Sec. 9.5 in
Chapter 9. The next section, also new, applies the path integral approach to elucidate
the Aharonov–Bohm effect (a phase shift of the wave function of a charged particle
that is caused by a magnetic field in a region which the particle does not even enter).
One other addition to the earlier edition is in Chapter 10, where the exact eigenfunc-
tions of a Dirac electron in a Coloumb potential are derived. Passage to the non-
relativistic limit reveals a singularity in one case that is not shared by the solutions
obtained from the non-relativistic treatment in Chapter 4. Apart from these, a dozen
or so new worked out problems, distributed among the various chapters, have been
added to the body of worked examples already present in the first edition. The new
examples include squeezed states of a harmonic oscillator, and rotation and vibration
spectra of molecules, all in Chapter 4, bound states of and scattering cross-section
for a particle in a delta function potential in 3 dimensions (Chapter 6), and helicity
eigenstates (Chapter 10), among other things. Furthermore, a few passages have been
rearranged and/or rewritten for greater clarity. The problems at the close of the chap-
ters are left untouched, to continue as a challenge to the serious student!
Our concentrated effort has been to make this classic text more up-to-date with a
discussion of the latest developments in the subject, relevant as per latest curricula.
The features of the book are given below:
■ It covers important topics, namely, drawbacks of classical mechanics at
the atomic level, Schrodinger equation, matter–wave dual nature, wave
functions and wave mechanics, eigenvalue problems, scattering the-
ory, Heisenbergs’ uncertainty principle, angular momentum theory, and
relativistic wave equations.
xiv Preface to the Second Edition

■ New topics like Aharanov–Bohm effect, Quantum Hall effect, diamag-

netism, path integrals, radial wave functions for a Dirac particle in the
Coulomb potential are incorporated.
■ Despite being a high-end subject area, the contents are lucidly explained
throughout the book with relevant examples interspersed.
■ Pedagogy includes more than 100 solved and unsolved problems with
related figures and tables.
The authors wish to express their indebtedness to Prof. K. Raghunathan, recently
retired from the Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Madras, for his
generous advice and participation in choosing and preparing the additional material
for inclusion in the new edition, and to other members of the department who helped
in various ways.
We would like to thank the publishing team at Tata McGraw-Hill, especially Ms
Vibha Mahajan, Ms Shalini Jha, Ms Smruti Snigdha, Ms Renu Upadhyay, Ms Dipika
Dey and Ms Anjali Razdan. A note of acknowledgement is also due to P Mitra, Pro-
fessor, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata and Vivek Mittal, Senior Lecturer
in Physics, Institute of Advanced Management and Research (IAMR), Ghaziabad,
for their critical comments and suggestions on enhancing the presentation and organ-
isation of many chapters at a finer level.
We believe that enhancements made in this new edition will make it even more
appealing than the earlier version to teachers and students of physics at the Master’s
degree level (including those taking the 5-year integrated course), Honours students,
and generally to those who desire to have a thorough grounding in quantum mechan-
ics and its applications to various areas of the physical sciences.
We look forward to receiving constructive criticism from students and teachers so
that the present book can be further improved in future editions.
P M Mathews
K Venkatesan
Publisher’s Note:
Do you have a feature request? A suggestion? We are always open to new ideas and
the best ideas come from you!. You may send your comments to tmh.sciencemaths
[email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
 Preface to the First Edition

The aim of this book is to give a reasonably comprehensive introduction to the

fundamental concepts, mathematical formalism and methodology of quantum
mechanics, without assuming any previous acquaintance with the subject.
Quantum mechanics provides a characterization of microscopic physical systems
in terms of essentially mathematical objects (wave functions, or at a deeper level,
vectors in a linear vector space), and a set of rules enabling the information contained
in the mathematical representation to be translated into physical terms. It is possible
(and currently not uncommon) to develop the subject starting with these ‘rules of the
game’ as postulates. This approach is economical and adequate if the reader’s interest
is limited to the use of quantum mechanics as a readymade and trustworthy tool for
exploring the properties of specific systems. However, to one who is encountering
the subject for the first time, the conceptual picture of physical objects (on which
the mathematical base rests) would appear strange indeed, and we believe that an
account of the experimental developments which compelled the adoption of such a
picture, superseding the classical picture, is an essential part of an introduction to
quantum mechanics. Accordingly we have devoted Chapter 1 to these developments
and to a discussion of the compatibility of the quantum picture with our experience
in the macroscopic domain. Chapter 2 is designed to exhibit the main characteris-
tic features of quantum systems with the aid of simple examples and to show how
these features arise from the conditions on the Schrödinger wave function. It also
provides the motivating background to the basic postulates of quantum mechanics,
which are formally stated in Chapter 3. In developing the general formalism based
on these postulates in this Chapter, and in presenting exact solutions (Chapter 4) and
approximate methods of solution of a variety of eigenvalue problems (Chapter 5) and
scattering problems (Chapter 6), we have adhered to Schrödinger’s wave mechanical
language for the most part. However, we have sought, from an early stage, to bring
out the correspondence between quantum states and vectors in a Hilbert space, and to
make it clear that the Schrödinger language is just one way of describing such vectors
and operations on them. To reinforce this point we have presented solutions to certain
problems (e.g. the harmonic oscillator) employing algebraic methods which do not
use the Schrödinger representation at all.
It is our hope that the student would find the idea of an abstract vector space
underlying the Schrödinger description to be natural if not self-evident by the time
the Dirac notation and representation theory are formally introduced in Chapter 7.
Transformations generated by changes of coordinate frame, and the question of
symmetrics under such transformations, are also dealt with in this chapter. These
developments are directly utilized in Chapter 8 in the treatment of angular momen-
tum theory: the representation of spin, the coupling of two angular momenta, tensor
operators, etc. The time evolution of quantum systems is dealt with in Chapter 9.
Parts A and B of this Chapter are elementary and may be read before Chapter 7.
xvi Preface to the First Edition

In the context of the Heisenberg picture of time evolution (which, along with other
pictures, is discussed in Part C), we give an elementary introduction to the concept
of the quantized electromagnetic field and use it to calculate the rates of emission
and absorption of radiation by atoms. A brief account of the representation of states
of ensembles by density matrices, and of their time evolution, makes up the last part
of Chapter 9. The final chapter is devoted to relativistic quantum mechanics, with
emphasis on the Dirac equation and the natural way in which spin and its manifesta-
tions (magnetic moment, spin-orbit interaction) as well as the concept of the antipar-
ticle emerge from it.
We have included a large number of examples distributed through the text, espe-
cially in the earlier chapters, to facilitate a quick grasp of the principal ideas and
methods, and in some cases, to indicate their extensions or applications. Some sup-
plementary material, as well as background material for ready reference, is given in
the Appendices.
In the preparation of the book for publication, we have received cheerful coop-
eration and assistance from the members of the Department of Theoretical Physics,
University of Madras, for which we are grateful. It is a special pleasure to thank
Dr. M. Seetharaman who has read the manuscript critically and rendered valuable
help in many other ways.
The idea of writing a book of this kind grew out of courses given by the first
author for over ten years at Madras University. The work on the book has been sup-
ported by the University Grants Commission through a Fellowship awarded to the
second author and financial assistance towards preparation of the manuscript. For
this encouragement by the Commission, the authors are deeply grateful.
P M Mathews
K Venkatesan
 Towards QuanTum
mechanics 1
A. CONCEPTS OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS

The formulation of quantum mechanics in 1925 was the culmination of the search,
that began around 1900, for a rational basis for the understanding of the submicro-
scopic world of the atom and its constituents. At the end of the nineteenth century,
physicists had every reason to regard the Newtonian laws governing the motion of
material bodies, and Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, as fundamental laws of
physics. There was little or no reason to suspect the existence of any limitation on
the validity of these theories which constitute what we now call classical mechanics.
However, the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity and of X-rays and the
electron, in the 1890s, set in motion a series of experiments yielding results which
could not be reconciled with classical mechanics. For the resolution of the appar-
ent paradoxes posed by these observations and certain other experimental facts, it
became necessary to introduce new ideas quite foreign to commonsense concepts
regarding the nature of matter and radiation—concepts which were implicit in clas-
sical mechanics and had an essential role in determining its consequences. It was
this revolution in concepts, which led to the mathematical formulation of quantum
mechanics, that had an immediate and spectacular success in the explanation of the
experimental observations. Thus, to appreciate the part played by various discoveries
in bringing about this revolution, it is necessary, from the very outset, to have a clear
idea of the classical concepts. We, therefore, begin our studies with a brief discus-
sion of these concepts. The rest of this chapter reviews the developments during the
first quarter of this century which culminated in the establishment of the authority of
quantum mechanics over the domain of microscopic phenomena.

1.1 MECHANICS OF MATErIAL SySTEMS

There are two broad categories of entities which physicists have to deal with: mate-
rial bodies, whose essential attribute is mass, and electromagnetic (and gravitational)
fields which are fundamentally distinct from matter.
2 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

The most basic concept in the mechanics of material bodies is that of the particle,
a point object endowed with mass. This concept emerged from Newton’s observation
that while the mass of a body has a central role in determining its motions, there is
a wide variety of circumstances in which the size of the body is quite immaterial
(e.g. in the motion of the planets around the sun). The idealization to point size was a
convenient abstraction under such circumstances. Even when such an idealization of
a body as a whole is obviously impossible, as when considering the internal motions
of an extended object, one could imagine the object to be made up of myriads of
minuscule parts, each little part being then visualized as an idealized particle. In this
manner, the mechanics of any material system could be reduced to the mechanics
of a system of particles. It was taken for granted that the motion of such particles,
however large or small their intrinsic mass and size may be, can be pictured in just
the same way as the motion of projectiles or other macroscopic objects of everyday
experience. An essential part of this picture is the idea that any material object has a
definite position at any instant of time. The particle idealization makes it possible to
specify the position precisely, it being intuitively obvious that the position of a point
object is perfectly well defined. The trajectory or path followed by the particle is then
pictured by a sharply defined line, and the instantaneous position of the particle on
.
the trajectory, its velocity, and its acceleration are represented by vectors x(t), x(t)
..
and x (t) with definite numerical values for their components. The manner in which
these vary with time is governed by Newton’s famous equation of motion. Newton’s
equation for the ith member of a system of N particles, is given by
..
mi x i = Fi (i = 1, 2, … N ) (1.1)

The force Fi acting on the ith particle (of mass mi) is a function of the positions
of all the particles (and possibly also of the velocities). The form of the function is
determined by the nature of the interactions of the particles among themselves and
with external agencies. Once these are specified, Eq. (1.1) which form a coupled
system of second order differential equations can, in principle, be solved to obtain all
the xi as functions of t. Since the general solution of a second order ordinary differ-
ential equation contains two arbitrary constants, the general solution of the system of
N such equations for vectors xi depends on 2N arbitrary constant vectors. These may
be chosen so as to satisfy specified initial conditions. In particular, given the 2N vec-
.
tors {xi (t0)} and {xi (t0)}, i.e. the positions and velocities of all the particles at some
instant t0, as initial conditions, the xi(t) are completely determined as functions of t for
.
all t. The velocities xi(t) are then obtained by differentiation of xi (t), thus determining
completely the state of the system at an arbitrary time t.
The meaning ascribed to the word state is a crucial aspect of the difference between
classical and quantum mechanics. In the classical context, knowledge of the state of
a system of particles means knowing the instantaneous values of all the dynami-
cal variables (like position, momentum, angular momentum, energy, etc.). Since
these are all functions of the position coordinates and velocities (or momenta) of the
constituent particles, complete information about the state is implicit in the knowl-
edge of just these quantities. One may, therefore, say that in classical mechanics, the
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 3

state of a system of particles at any time t is represented by the instantaneous values

.
{xi (t)} and {x i(t)} of the position coordinates and velocities of all the particles. The
concluding statements of the last paragraph may now be re-expressed as follows:
Given the state at any instant of time to, the state at any other time t is uniquely deter-
mined by the equations of motion (1.1). It is the system of Eq. (1.1) taken together
with the concept of the state as outlined above which constitutes the classical mechan-
ics of particle systems.
We have based our discussion of classical mechanics above on the Newtonian form
of the equations of motion. As is well known, there are other equivalent formulations
of classical mechanics, notably the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations. We
present a brief account of these in Appendix A. As we shall see later, the Hamiltonian
formalism has a special role to play in the process of setting up the quantum mechani-
cal equations of motion. But for the present we will content ourselves with the follow-
ing general observations: In the Hamiltonian formalism, corresponding to each of the
3N independent coordinate variables of an N-particle system a canonically conjugate
momentum variable is defined. The 3N coordinates and the 3N momenta conjugate
to them are independent variables at any instant of time. The state of the system is
completely specified by giving precise numerical values to these momenta (instead of
velocities as in the Newtonian formulation) and coordinates. The Hamiltonian equa-
tions of motion, which are a system of 6N first order differential equations for the
coordinates and momenta, determine the manner in which the state changes with time.
These 6N equations are of course equivalent to the 3N second order Eq. (1.1).
It is worthwhile, at this point, to recall Einstein’s discovery that the Newtonian
and equivalent forms of mechanics (with the conventional definitions for forces,
momenta, energy, etc) hold good only if the speeds of all the particles are very small
compared to c, the velocity of light in vacuo. Whenever velocities υ of the order of c
are involved, the more general equations following from Einstein’s special theory of
relativity (1904) have to be used. The mechanics of classical particles based on these
generalized (relativistic) equations is called the relativistic classical mechanics. The
Newtonian mechanics, being not valid when relativistic effects are present, is said to
be non-relativistic. We will need to use the concepts and results of relativity theory at
several points in our study. A summary of those aspects of the theory which are most
relevant for our purposes is presented in Appendix B.
While relativity theory made possible a consistent description of physical phe-
nomena involving fast-moving objects or observers, it is quantum mechanics which
provided the key to the understanding of the behaviour of very small objects like
the atom and its constituents. The failure of classical mechanics when applied to
the submicroscopic world of the atom arose not from any inadequacy of the form
of the equations of motion as such but from investing the symbols occurring in them
with the conventional meanings idealized and extrapolated from the mechanics of
macroscopic objects. This will be particularly evident when we consider the Heisen-
berg version of quantum mechanics. The essential step in the formulation of the new
(quantum) mechanics was the abandonment of the underlying concepts of classical
mechanics, like the mental picture of the path of a particle as a sharply defined line
4 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

and the possibility of characterizing the instantaneous state by precise positions and
velocities. The new concepts which replaced these are necessarily divorced from
such intuitive pictures and therefore appear rather strange initially, but they have their
own beauty (especially in the simplicity and elegance of the associated mathematical
structures) which becomes evident with a little familiarity.

1.2 ELECTrOMAgNETIC FIELdS ANd LIgHT

The discovery of the phenomena of interference and polarization of light early in the
nineteenth century provided convincing evidence that light is a wave phenomenon.
The nature of light waves was identified some decades later, following Maxwell’s
formulation of the electromagnetic theory. It was then recognized that light consists
of electromagnetic waves and presents just one manifestation of the general phenom-
ena of electromagnetism, governed by the fundamental equations of Maxwell:
1 ∂E 4π 
c ∂t = curl H − c j, 

div E = 4πρ,  (1.2)
1 ∂H 

= − curl E, 
c ∂t

div H = 0 
Here E ≡ E (x, t) and H ≡ H (x, t) stand for the electric and magnetic fields at
x at time t, and ρ(x,t) and j (x,t) are the electric charge and current densities, respec-
tively. At any time t, the vector fields e(x,t) and h(x,t) are implicitly assumed to
have definite numerical values for their components at any point x. This seemingly
self-evident supposition is the essential feature of classical electromagnetic theory.
Since all properties like the energy density, momentum density, etc., of the electro-
magnetic field are functions of the instantaneous values of e and h, specification of
e and h for all x at t0 amounts to a complete description of the state of the classical
electromagnetic field at that instant. Further, such a specification provides the initial
conditions necessary for identifying a particular solution of the first order differen-
tial Eqs (1.2). Therefore, if the state of the field at some instant t0 is given, the state
at any other time can be determined uniquely (at least in principle), provided of course
that the charge and current densities ρ and j are known as functions of x and t. It is
the set of Eqs (1.2) together with the concept of e and h as ordinary vector fields
amenable to simultaneous specification with arbitrary precision at any given time,
that constitutes what is known as the classical electromagnetic theory.
It is worthwhile at this point to notice the obvious but important fact that the classical
pictures of material particles on the one hand, and of light (or more generally, electro-
magnetic fields) on the other, are mutually exclusive. While the ideal particle is a point
object, a field necessarily exists over a region of space. In particular, the purest form of
light, which is monochromatic, is a simple harmonic wave with a definite wavelength,
existing throughout space with a uniform energy density everywhere. It would be
impossible within the framework of this classical picture to conceive of a particle
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 5

possessing wave-like properties or of light exhibiting particle-like behaviour. Yet,

experiments in the early 1900s gave firm evidence for the existence of both these
kinds of phenomena. Let us now go on to a discussion of these and other experimen-
tal results which revealed the limitations on the validity of classical concepts.

B. INAdEQUACy OF CLASSICAL CONCEPTS1

(i) Macroscopic statistical pheNoMeNa

BLACk BOdy rAdIATION; PLANCk’S
1.3
QUANTUM HyPOTHESIS

One of the very few things for which classical theory had been unable to offer an
explanation till the end of the last century was the nature of the distribution of energy
in the spectrum of radiation from a black body. By definition, a black body is one
which absorbs all the radiation it receives. As is well known, the best practical real-
ization is an isothermal cavity with a small aperture through which radiation from
outside may be admitted. The cavity always contains radiation emitted by the walls,
the spectrum of radiation being characterized by a function u(v) where u(v)dv is
the energy (per unit volume of the cavity) contributed by radiation with frequen-
cies between v and v + dv. It had been deduced from very general thermodynamical
arguments that the form of the function u(v) depends only on the temperature t of
the cavity. Efforts to deduce the actual functional form from classical theory led to
the Rayleigh-Jeans formula, u(v) = const. v2. Except at low frequencies this law was
in violent disagreement with experimental observations which showed u(v) falling
off after reaching a maximum as v was increased. That was how matters stood until
1900, when Planck announced the discovery of a law which reproduced perfectly the
experimental curve for u(v):

8πv 2 . hv
u( v ) = 3 hv/kT
(1.3)
c e −1
This formula contains, besides the Boltzmann constant2 k, a new fundamental con-
stant h, with the value

h = 6.626 × 10–27 erg-sec. (1.4)

It is called planck’s constant.

1
For a fuller account, especially of experimental details, see for example, Max Born, atomic physics, 5th
ed., Blackie and Sons, London, 1952; F. K., Richtmyer, E. H. Kennard and T. Lauritsen, introduction to
Modern physics, McGraw-Hill New York, 1955.
2
A table of fundamental constants and other data of interest is provided at the end of the book. As each
physical problem is considered, the student is urged to familiarize himself with the orders of magnitude
of the numbers involved.
6 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

The essential new ingredient in the derivation of the law was the following ad hoc
hypothesis:
The emission and absorption of radiation by matter takes place, not as a continu-
ous process, but in indivisible discrete units or quanta of energy. The magnitude ε of
the quantum is determined solely by the frequency of the radiation concerned, and
is given by

ε = hv (1.5)
where h is Planck’s constant.
This hypothesis was a revolutionary break from classical radiation theory based
on Maxwell’s Eqs (1.2). According to the classical theory, oscillating charges are
responsible for the emission (or absorption) of electromagnetic radiation with fre-
quency equal to that of the charge oscillations. Emission or absorption takes place
continuously at a rate determined by the parameters of the oscillating system. The
success of Planck’s hypothesis was the first indication that one might have to look
beyond classical theories for the understanding of at least some areas of physics.
Figure1.1 shows the various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum viewed from
both the wave and quantum points of view.

Thermal Optical & γ-rays Nuclear γ-rays of

Radio Waves Micro Waves Radiation Ultra Violet γ-rays Cosmic Origin

Wavelength (cm)
106 103 1 10– 3 10– 6 10– 9 10– 12
Waves
Frequency (Hz)
105 108 1011 1014 1017 1020
Photons Ergs
10–21 10–18 10–15 10– 12 10– 9 10– 6
(Energy)
eV
10–9 10–6
10–3
1 10 3
106

Fig. 1.1 Characterization of electromagnetic waves and quanta in

various regions of the Spectrum.

Let us now examine briefly how Planck’s law (1.3) follows from his quantum
hypothesis. We make use of the fact that the electromagnetic waves, which constitute
the radiation in the cavity, can be analyzed into a superposition of normal modes
characteristic of the cavity. In each normal mode, the fields vary with time in simple
harmonic fashion, in unison throughout the cavity. Thus each normal mode is equiva-
lent to a simple harmonic oscillator, and the radiation field forms an assembly or
ensemble of such oscillators. The absorption (or emission) of radiation by the walls
of the cavity is equivalent to a transfer of energy to (or from) the walls by (or to) the
oscillators. As a result of such energy exchanges, which are continually taking place,
the ensemble of radiation oscillators comes into thermal equilibrium at the tempera-
ture t of the walls of the cavity. Under these conditions, different oscillators having a
given frequency v have different energies at any given time, but their average energy
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 7

E (v) has a definite value determined by the temperature t. The energy of radiation
in the frequency range v to v + dv is then simply the number of normal mode oscil-
lators n(v)dv having frequencies within this range, multiplied by the average energy
E (v) per oscillator. Thus if V is the volume of the cavity,
V.u(v)dv = n(v) dv. E (v) (1.6)
The counting of the oscillators is simply a geometrical problem, and it is easily shown
(see end of Sec. 2.5) that
8πv 2V
n( v ) = (1.7)
c3
The determination of E (v) is done by applying the standard results of statistical
mechanics to the ensemble of oscillators. Statistical mechanics tells us that an indi-
vidual member of an ensemble in thermal equilibrium at temperature t has energy
e with probability
e – E/kT
PE = (1.8a)
∑ e – E/kT
E

so that its average energy is

E = ∑ EPE (l.8b)
E

The summations are to be taken over all values which the energy e (of any member
of the ensemble) may take. The spectrum of permissible values of e is thus of crucial
importance in determining E. It is here that Planck’s hypothesis comes into play. It
implies that normal mode oscillators of the radiation field with the frequency v can
have only the energy values

e(v) = nhv, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1.9)

This is because the field oscillator gets its energy by emission from the cavity walls
(and loses energy through absorption by the walls) only in packets or quanta of mag-
nitude hv. On substituting the values (1.9) for e(v) in Eqs (1.8), we immediately get3
∞ 
∑ nhv.e−nhv/kT 
n=0 
E (v) = ∞ 
e−nhv/kT  (1.10)
∑
n=0 

hv 
= hv/kT
e −1 

3
The denominator is a geometric series whose sum is D = (1– e–βhv)–1, where β = (1/kt ) The numerator
is observed to be nothing but − ∂D/∂β = h ve−βhv (1 − e−βhv )−2 .
8 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

for the mean energy of a field oscillator. When the expressions (1.10) for E (v) and
(1.7) for n(v) are employed in Eq. (1.6) we obtain the Planck distribution law (1.3).
According to the classical theory, e(v) could have any value from 0 to ∞, and
the same thing would effectively happen if the quantum hv in the above treatment
had a vanishingly small magnitude. Therefore, passage to the limit h → 0 in Eq.
(1.10) should lead to the value kt predicted by the equipartition theorem of classical
statistical mechanics, and indeed it does. With this value [ E (v) = kt] substituted in
Eq. (1.6), one gets the Rayleigh-Jeans law for u(v) which we have already seen to be
incorrect. It appears, therefore, that the very small but nonzero value of the constant
h is a measure of the failure of classical mechanics. This surmise is indeed confirmed
by the mathematical formu1ation of quantum mechanics.

Example 1.1 If quantum effects are to be manifested through a departure of E (v) from
its classical value kt, the frequency should be high enough, so that (hv/kt) becomes compara-
ble to unity. For room temperatures (t ≈ 300° K), (hv/kt) ≈ 1/6 for v = 1012 Hz. It is only when
‘oscillators’ of at least this frequency are involved, that quantum statistical effects become
noticeable at room temperature. n

1.4 SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIdS

That the success of Planck’s hypothesis was no mere accident became evident when
precisely the same kind of ideas provided the solution for another puzzling prob-
lem of classical physics. It is well known that atoms in solids execute oscillations
about their mean positions due to thermal agitation. Each atom may be thought of
as a three-dimensional harmonic oscillator and its mean thermal energy should
be three times that of a simple (one-dimensional) harmonic oscillator. As we saw
in the last paragraph, classical theory predicts the latter to be kt. Therefore, the
thermal energy of a solid should be 3kt per atom, or 3rt = 3Nkt per gram-atom
(containing N atoms where N is the Avogadro number, 6·022 × 1023). The atomic
heat (i.e., the rate of increase of thermal energy with temperature, per gram-atom)
then becomes 3r, a universal constant. Many solids do conform to this expecta-
tion (at least approximately) at ordinary temperatures, as observed by Dulong and
Petit empirically. But when the temperature is lowered sufficiently, the specific
heat decreases instead of remaining constant, and indeed goes down to zero as t
approaches 0 K. Einstein4 observed that this behaviour can be simply explained if
it is postulated that the energy of oscillation of any atom in a solid can take only a
discrete set of values—just like the energy of Planck’s field oscillators. More pre-
cisely, it was proposed that the energy associated with each component (in the x,
y, z directions) of the oscillation of an atom be constrained to take only one of the
values nhv (n = 0, 1, 2, ...), where v is now the frequency of oscillation of the atom.
The mean energy per atom then has exactly the form (1.10), except for an extra

4
A. Einstein, ann. d. physik, 22, 180, 1907.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 9

factor 3 coming from the three directions of motion. If it is assumed that all atoms
have the same frequency of oscillation, one immediately obtains the atomic heat as
  hv 2 
 3Nhv 
d e hv /kT
C=   = 3R  .   
(1.11)
 hv/kT− 1 
dT e  (e hv/kT −1)2  kT  
It is evident that this formula has the desired property of a gradual decrease in c
as the temperature is lowered. It was found in fact that the behaviour of specific heats
of solids is rather well accounted for by this formula, with a suitable choice of v in
each case.
Einstein’s derivation is by no means the last word on the theory of specific heats
of solids. But it suffices for the purpose of displaying one of the early manifestations
of the inadequacy of classical concepts, namely the need for the supposition that
harmonic oscillators—whether radiation oscillators as in Planck’s theory, or material
oscillators as in Einstein’s theory—can take only discrete energy values.

(ii) electroMagNetic raDiatioN—WaVe-particle Duality

1.5 THE PHOTOELECTrIC EFFECT

We have already mentioned the success of Planck’s hypothesis, which makes it

appear that in the process of emission or absorption, light behaves as if it were a
particle-like bundle of energy. However, the evidence here for the quantum nature
of energy exchange between radiation and matter is indirect. It was Einstein5 who
drew attention to the fact that the phenomenon of photoelectric emission could be
understood in terms of Planck’s hypothesis and provides a direct verification of the
hypothesis. This phenomenon is the emission of electrons by many metals (especially
the alkali metals) when irradiated by light. Applying Planck’s hypothesis, Einstein
proposed that absorption of light of frequency v by electrons in the metal takes place
as discrete quanta of energy hv. If hv exceeds the amount of energy W needed for an
electron to escape from the surface of the metal, the electrons absorbing such quanta
may escape with energies up to a maximum value
emax = hv – W (1.l2)
Available experimental data were in conformity with this equation, which was
accurately confirmed by later experiments. On the basis of the classical theory of
absorption of light, it would be practically impossible to understand the existence
of a maximum electron energy related to the frequency v of the incident radiation,
as well as the absence of any photoelectric emission (i.e. the inability of electrons
to acquire the amount of energy required for escape) when v is below a definite
value v0 ≡ W / h. In the classical theory there is no reason to expect any sensitive
frequency dependence for the amount of energy which an electron in the metal could
ultimately accumulate by gradual absorption from the incident light wave; nor can
5
A. Einstein, ann. d. physik, 17, 132, 1905.
10 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

one see why there should be a definite upper limit on the energy so absorbed. Other
properties of the photoelectric emission are also equally difficult to understand on
the classical picture, but are almost self-evident when this phenomenon is viewed
as the instantaneous absorption of light quanta by the electrons with which they
collide. For example, photoelectric emission starts instantly when light falls on the
emitter, however weak the light intensity may be. (Classically, the electron would
need some time to absorb enough energy to escape.) Under irradiation with mono-
chromatic light, the rate of emission of electrons is directly proportional to the light
intensity—which is exactly what would be expected on the quantum picture since
the number of quanta (and hence, of the collisions with electrons) is evidently pro-
portional to the intensity.
We conclude, therefore, without further discussion that in the photoelectric effect,
light behaves as a collection of corpuscles and not as a wave. At the same time, we know
only too well that the phenomena of diffraction, etc, require light to be waves. How are
we to escape the paradox created by the existence of two quite irreconcilable manifes-
tations for one and the same physical entity? One possibility is to suppose that light
propagates in the form of waves and therefore undergoes diffraction, etc. but assumes
corpuscular character (in some unexplained manner) at the instant of absorption (or
emission) by material objects. However, even this supposition, far-fetched as it is, was
made untenable by the discovery of the compton effect6 in the scattering of X-rays.
Example 1.2 It is an experimental fact that if at all there is any delay between the
commencement of irradiation and the emission of photoelectrons, it is less than 10–9 sec.
An electron requires, let us say, 5 × 10–12 ergs (about 3 eV) to escape from the irradiated
metal. If this much energy is to be absorbed classically (in a continuous fashion), the rate of
absorption must be at least 5 × 10–3 ergs/sec. If the light energy is continuously distributed
over the wave front, the electron can only absorb the light incident within a small area near
it, say 10–15 cm2 (i.e. of the order of the square of the interatomic distance). Therefore, the
intensity of illumination required would be at least (5 × 10–3/10–15) = 5 × 1012 ergs/sec/cm2,
that is half a million watts/cm2! Clearly, explanation of the photo-effect in classical terms is
not feasible. n

1.6 THE COMPTON EFFECT

That X-rays are electromagnetic waves (differing from light only in the considerably
higher values of frequency) had become clear fairly soon after their discovery. Their
wave nature was amply confirmed by the Laue photographs (1913) showing the dif-
fraction of X-rays by crystals. Yet, barely ten years later, Compton had to invoke
the extreme quantum picture to explain the fact that when monochromatic X-rays
are scattered, part of the radiation scattered in any given direction has a definite
wavelength higher than that of the primary beam. Assuming that X-rays of wave-
length λ consist of a stream of corpuscles or quanta of energy E = hv = hc / λ ,

6
A. H. Compton, phys. rev., 21, 483, 1923; 22, 409, 1923.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 11

Compton theorized that when one of these quanta hits any free or loosely bound
electron in the scatterer, the electron (being quite a light particle) would recoil. Its
kinetic energy has to come from the energy of the incident quantum, and the latter
would be left with an energy e9 < e after the collision (in which it gets scattered).
The frequency v⬘ = E⬘/ h of the X-rays so scattered would therefore be less than ν
and the corresponding wavelength λ9 > λ. On this picture, quantitative calculation
of ∆λ = λ⬘ − λ can be made from considerations of energy and momentum con-
servation in the collision. Since ‘the energy and momentum transported by electro-
magnetic radiation are known to be related by a factor c, the momenta of the X-ray
quantum before and after scattering are given by
E hv h E⬘ hv⬘ h
p= = = , and p⬘ = = = (1.13)
c c λ c c λ⬘
The electron recoiling from the collision may have a velocity comparable to c, and
therefore the relation between its energy W and its momentum p has to be taken as
the relativistic one (see Appendix B):

W = ( m2 c 4 + c 2 P 2 )1/2 (1.14)

where m is the rest mass of the electron. The energy of the electron before colli-
sion may be taken to be the rest energy W0 = mc 2 since the initial kinetic energy
is relatively very small. The configuration of the scattering event is shown in
Fig. 1.2 where, following current practice, the quantum of radiation is depicted by
a wavy line and the electron by a straight line. The equations of conservation of the
E′
p ′,

p, E θ

P,
W

Fig. 1.2 Compton scatttering.

12 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

momentum components perpendicular and parallel to the direction of the incident

quantum are
p⬘ sin θ = P sin ϕ (1.15a)
p − p⬘ cos θ = P cos ϕ. (1.15b)

The energy conservation equation is E + W0 = E⬘ + W , or in view of Eqs (1.13)

and (l.l4)
cp + mc 2 = cp⬘ + ( m2 c 4 + c 2 P 2 )1/2 (1.15c)

These equations are to be solved for p9 which is related to λ9. We can elimi-
nate ϕ first by squaring Eqs (l.15a) and (1.15b) and adding. Then we get
P 2 = p2 + p2 ⬘ − 2 pp⬘ cos θ . On substituting this expression for p2 in Eq. (1.l5c)
and eliminating the square root, we obtain
[c( p − p⬘) + mc 2 ]2 = m2 c 4 + c 2 ( p2 + p2⬘ − 2 pp⬘ cos θ)

This simplifies to 2mc 2 ⋅ c( p − p⬘) − 2c 2 pp⬘ = − 2c 2 pp⬘ cos θ , whence

1 1
mc  −  = 1 − cos θ
 p⬘ p 

The use of Eqs. 1.13 enables us to write this finally in terms of λ, λ9 as

h
∆λ ≡ λ⬘ − λ = (1 − cos θ) (1.16)
mc
This result was verified by Compton and his coworkers immediately after its
derivation.
The wavelength shift (h/mc) when the scattering is at 90° is called the compton
wavelength associated with the electron:
λ C = (h/mc) = 2.426 × 10−10 cm (1.17)
This constant, which is characteristic of the X-ray scattering with wavelength
shift (Compton effect) could not be reproduced by applying classical electromag-
netic theory to the scattering process. The success of the theory presented above thus
implies unequivocally that in the Compton effect, electromagnetic radiation mani-
fests itself as a stream of corpuscles or quanta during propagation. The occurrence
of corpuscular behaviour in emission or absorption processes (as in photoelectric
effect) has been already referred to. It seems therefore that electromagnetic quanta
are not merely some shadowy concept but have real physical existence. Such quanta
are now known under the name of photons.
The ability of radiation to manifest itself either as waves or as photons is referred
to as the wave-particle dualism. Side by side with the developments leading to the
recognition of the dual character of electromagnetic radiation, other equally startling
discoveries were being made regarding the fundamental nature of material systems.
We now turn our attention to these developments.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 13

(iii) atoMic structure aND atoMic spectra

1.7 THE rUTHErFOrd ATOM MOdEL

The first outlines of the structure of atoms, of which all matter is constituted, began
to be discernible soon after Thomson’s discovery of the electron (1897). It became
known then that an atom consists of a number of negatively charged electrons plus
a positive residue which carries almost the entire mass of the atom. But it was only
in 1911, with Rutherford’s7 analysis of the data on scattering of alpha particles by
thin foils, that the picture of the atom became clearly defined. Rutherford came to
the conclusion that the observed high proportion of alpha particles suffering large-
angle scattering required that the heavy positive part of the atom be concentrated
in a nucleus, whose size is extremely small compared to the dimension of the atom
itself. This immediately suggested a structure for the atom resembling that of the
solar system, with the electrons revolving in orbits around the nucleus (like planets
around the sun). The Coulomb (electrostatic) attraction between each electron and
the oppositely charged nucleus provides the force which holds the atom together.
It was realized immediately that this picture of the atom encounters serious difficul-
ties of principle in the context of classical theory. In fact, such a structure should not
be stable at all, for the orbital motion of the electrons (which are charged particles)
should cause them to emit radiation continuously. The consequent loss of energy
should make the paths go spiralling inwards until the electrons ‘collapsed’ into the
nucleus. During this process the frequency of the emitted radiation, which coincides
with that of orbital motion, should be continually increasing. Obviously none of these
things happens. The collapse of the kind envisaged does not take place; in fact, atoms
have tremendous stability. Nor does the light actually emitted by atoms have the con-
tinuum character demanded by the above picture. As is well known the most impor-
tant feature of atomic spectra is the presence of very sharp, discrete, spectral lines
which are characteristic of the emitting atom. In brief, acceptance of Rutherford’s
nuclear model of the atom meant also recognition of a complete breakdown of the
classical mechanism of radiation in the case of the atom.

1.8 BOHr’S POSTULATES

This situation was tackled by Niels Bohr8 who adopted the Rutherford model of the
atom, overcoming its unacceptable consequences by postulating that the classical
theory of radiation does not apply to the atom. He enunciated the following further
postulates concerning the dynamical behaviour of atoms:

(i) The system of electrons and nucleus which constitute the atom cannot exist in
any arbitrary state of motion allowed by the classical mechanics. The system

7
E: Rutherford, phil. Mag., 21, 669, 1911.
8
N. Bohr, phil. Mag., 26, 1, 1913.
14 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

can exist only in certain special states characterized by definite discrete

values of the total energy. These are stationary states, in any of which the
atom can remain indefinitely without radiating.
(ii) Emission of electromagnetic radiation takes place when (and only when)
the atom ‘jumps’ from one of the stationary states with energy ei to another
with energy ef < ei . The frequency of the radiation emitted is given by

Ei − E f
v= (1.18)
h
The first postulate extends the idea of discreteness of energy values, which originated
with Planck, to the individual atom. The energy values associated with stationary states
are called the energy levels of the atom. The second ·postulate incorporates the idea that
emission of radiation takes place in discrete quanta, and adopts the Einstein relation
between the energy of a quantum and the frequency of the associated radiation (first
employed in the explanation of the photoelectric effect). It is an immediate consequence
of these postulates that atomic spectra should consist of discrete lines, as observed.
Equation (1.18) states that the frequencies of spectral lines of any atom are differences
between ‘spectral terms’ (stationary state energies, divided by h) which are character-
istic of the atom. This general property of atomic spectra had been already observed
empirically and was known as the Rydberg-Ritz combination principle (1905). Thus
it seemed certain that Bohr’s ideas were essentially sound. In fact, the supposition that
the atom can have only discrete energy levels was directly verified from experiments
by Franck and Hertz9 on the scattering of monoenergetic electrons by atoms. They
found that as long as the electron energy was below a certain minimum value, the scat-
tering was purely elastic, indicating that the atom is incapable of accepting energies
less· than this amount. This behaviour is exactly what is demanded by the Bohr picture:
an atom in its lowest energy level e0 must get an amount of energy (e1-e0) in order
to go to the next permissible level e1. If energy exceeding this minimum is supplied to
the atom, it can still take up only the exact amount (e1-e0), or (e2-e0) etc. The results
of the Franck-Hertz experiment were indeed in accordance with this expectation. When
the energy of the incident electrons was increased sufficiently, inelastic scattering with
the absorption of discrete amounts of energy was found to take place.
While the postulates stated above provide a frame-work for the understanding
of the stability of atoms and the general features of atomic spectra, they do not
indicate how the stationary states are to be identified or how the energy levels ei are
to be determined for a particular system. But by supplementing these postulates by
a quantum condition, Bohr was able to calculate the energy levels of the hydrogen
atom and thus determine its spectral frequencies. His results were in agreement with
the empirically deduced Balmer formula,
v  1 1 
= R  2 − 2  , n, m = 1, 2, … ; m > n (1.19)
c  n m 

9
J. Franck and G. Hertz, Verhandl. deut. phys. ges., 16, 457, 512, 1914.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 15

where r is the so-called Rydberg constant. This was a spectacular triumph for the
Bohr theory and inspired much of the later work which provided the guidance towards
a more fundamental theory. Let us therefore consider it briefly before discussing the
implications and limitations of Bohr’s theory in general.

1.9 BOHr’S THEOry OF THE HydrOgEN SPECTrUM

The hydrogen atom consists of a proton (which is its nucleus) and a single
electron. According to the Rutherford model, the electron moves in an orbit around
the nucleus; the latter, being relatively very heavy, remains practically at rest. Since
the force of attraction between the two is electrostatic and therefore obeys the inverse
square law (just like the gravitational force in the problem of planetary motion)
the possible orbits are circular or elliptical. Suppose the electron is moving in a cir-
cular orbit of radius a with speed u (which is constant). In this orbit, the electrostatic
attractive force e2/a2 is balanced by the centrifugal force mu2/a, e being the charge of
the electron. This fact gives us the relation
e2
mυ 2 = (1.20)
a
which can be used to eliminate u from the expression for the energy e:
1 e2 1 e2
E= mυ 2 − =− (1.21)
2 a 2 a
Thus the total energy is half the potential energy. Classically, the orbital radius a can
take any positive value, and therefore e can be anything from − ∞ to 0. However,
Bohr’s first postulate asserts that only a special set from among these orbits is avail-
able to the electron. Bohr proposed that these special orbits which characterize the
stationary states are those in which the angular momentum l of the electron about
the centre of the orbit (i.e. the position of the nucleus) is an integral multiple of
� ≡ h/2π. The angular momentum in a circular orbit is of course just the product of
the linear momentum mu and the orbital radius a. Thus Bohr’s quantum condition is
given by
mυ a = n� (1.22)
The integer n whose values identify the various stationary states is called a quantum
number. The radii of the allowed (‘quantized’) orbits are now obtained by eliminating
u between the Eqs (1.20) and (1.22). For the nth orbit one has
n2 � 2
a= (1.23)
me 2
Substitution of this expression for a into Eq. (1.21) gives us the quantized energy
levels of the hydrogen atom as:

me 4
En = − , n = 1, 2, … (1.24)
2 n2 � 2
16 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

The radius a = (h2/me2) of the first Bohr Orbit (n = 1), which belongs to the ground
state, is known as the Bohr radius.” The state of the lowest energy (the ground state)
corresponds to n = 1. The energies of the other ‘excited’ states increase with n, tend-
ing to 0 as n → ∞ .
Knowing the energy levels, we can immediately obtain the frequencies of the hydro-
gen spectrum, using Eq. (1.18). If the atom jumps from an initial state with the quantum
numbers n = ni to another with n = nf < ni we find by substitution of the corresponding
energies from Eq. (1.24) into (1.18), that the radiation emitted has the frequency
me 4  1 1 
v=  2 − 2 
3 
(1.25)
4π�  n f ni 
As already noted, this result agrees with the Balmer formula (1.19) and provides a
theoretical value R = ( me 4 /4π c �3 ) for the Rydberg constant.10 We will see later
that exactly the same formula follows from the quantum mechanical theory also,
though the meaning of the quantum number n there is quite different.

1.10 BOHr-SOMMErFELd QUANTUM rULES; dEgENErACy

While this first-ever theoretical derivation of an atomic spectrum was indeed an

exciting event, it was clear even then that the quantum condition (1.22) used in the
derivation could not be applied, in that form, in more complicated cases. However, it
was soon realized that Eq. (1.22) is a special case of the condition

∫� p dq = nh (1.26)
which had been employed already by Planck in connection with his theory of black
body radiation.11 Here q is some generalized coordinate and p, the corresponding
canonically conjugate momentum. The condition is applicable in the case of periodic
motion only, and the integral is to be taken over one period, treating p as a function
of the position q of the particle on the actual trajectory. Eq. (1.22) corresponds to
choosing q to be the angular position ϕ (varying from 0 to 2π for one period) and p
as its conjugate, the angular momentum (which is independent of ϕ, being a constant
of the motion). Bohr postulated that the quantum condition (1.26) is applicable to
any system with one degree of freedom. This quantum rule was further generalized
by Sommerfeld to multiply-periodic systems, with many degrees of freedom, i.e.

10
This value is strictly correct only for an infinitely heavy nucleus which remains perfectly static. To
indicate this fact explicitly, the notation r∞ is often used for the constant. To take into account the finite-
ness of the mass (mN) of the nucleus (and the consequent motion of the nucleus) we have to replace the
electronic mass m in the expression for r by the reduced mass m mN/(m + mN). The Rydberg constant
for a finite nucleus is thus rN = r∞(1 + m/mN)-1.
11
Planck assumed that the emission and absorption of radiation in quanta hv was done by hypothetical har-
monic oscillators capable of having only discrete energy values, nhv (n = 0, 1, 2, ... ). He showed that this
quantum condition on the energy levels of the oscillator was equivalent to quantizing the ‘action integral’
as in Eq. (1.26). For this reason, the name ‘quantum of action’ has been applied to Planck’s constant.
Note that the value n = 0 does not make any sense in Bohr’s quantum condition, and had to be dropped.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 17

systems which can be described by pairs of coordinate and momentum variables

(q1, p1), (q2, p2),…,(qN, pN), each of which is periodic, with possibly different periods
for different pairs. The generalized Bohr-sommerfeld quantum rule12 is given by:

∫� pr dqr = nr h, r = 1, 2, … N (1.27)

where the integration in the case of each pair of conjugate variables is to be taken over
one period of that particular pair. The quantum numbers nr take integral values.
Bohr’s general postulates together with the quantum rule (1.27) constitute what is now
known as the old Quantum theory..13 Details of the applications of the theory are of no
particular interest now, since the theory itself has been superseded by the new quantum
theory or Quantum Mechanics. But the quantization of the elliptical orbits of the hydro-
gen atom deserves mention because it gave the first example of two general properties
which persist in the quantum mechanical theory. One is the property of degeneracy of
energy levels of systems possessing symmetries. Sommerfeld observed that the quan-
tized elliptical orbits in a given plane are identified by two quantum numbers n9 and k,
characterizing the radial and angular parts of the motion in the orbit. He found however
that the energies associated with such quantum states depend only on the sum n = n9 + k
of these quantum numbers, and are given by the Bohr formula (1.24). Thus for a given
value of the total or ‘principal’ quantum number n, there are n different states (elliptical
orbits of various eccentricities, corresponding to14 k = 1, 2, ... n) all of which have the
same energy en. We say that the energy level en is n-fold degenerate (when the quantum
orbits in one plane alone are considered). It is now recognized that the degeneracy in
the case of the hydrogen atom is due to the special nature or ‘symmetry’ of the distance-
dependence of the electrostatic potential, and does not occur for other potentials (unless
they have other symmetries, of course). The second general property exemplified in the
Sommerfeld treatment is the removal of degeneracy (i.e., departure from equality of the
energy values of the previously degenerate quantum states) when the symmetry is ‘bro-
ken’. In the case of the hydrogen atom there is indeed a slight departure from symmetry.
It is caused by the fact that the variation of the speed of the electron as it moves along an
elliptical orbit induces corresponding changes in its mass as given by the theory of rela-
tivity. Sommerfeld showed that this mass variation gives rise to a slow precession of the
orbit in its own plane,15 and that because of this, the energy associated with each orbit is

12
W. Wilson, phil. Mag., 29,795, 1915; A. Sommerfeld, ann. d. physik, 51, 1, 1916.
13
Discussion of the old quantum theory and many of its applications may be found in L. Pauling and
E. B. Wilson, introduction to Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1935; A. Sommerfeld,
atomic structure and spectral lines, 3rd ed., Methuen and Co., London, 1934.
14
In the Bohr-Sommerfeld theory the angular momentum in a stationary state was identified as kh but
quantum mechanics shows that it is given by lh, where l takes the same values as (k-1) for given n,
namely l = 0, 1, ... , n–1. In the discussion of space quantization below, we use this quantum number l
in preference to k.
15
More precisely, the orbit no longer closes on itself, but remains very nearly elliptical for each revolution,
with the direction of the major axis changing slightly (in the plane of the ellipse) from one revolution to
the next. This change of orientation of the ellipse at a steady rate is called precession.
18 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

changed by a very small amount depending on k. Consequently, the nth Bohr level gets
split into n closely-spaced levels—there is no more degeneracy. The spectral lines also
then get split, developing what is called a fine structure. Sommerfeld’s calculation gave
complete agreement with the observed fine structure.

1.11 SPACE QUANTIzATION

In giving the degree of degeneracy of the nth Bohr level (i.e. the number of quan-
tum states belonging to this level) as n, and in asserting that the relativistic mass
variation removes this degeneracy, we have taken account of orbits in any one plane
only. To put this in another way, only orbits with a specific direction for the angular
momentum vector (which is normal to the plane of the orbit) were considered. Actu-
ally there is a further degeneracy associated with the possibility of various orienta-
tions for the angular momentum vector with respect to any fixed axis. Such an axis
may be defined, for instance, by the direction of some externally applied field. From
the consideration of the quantum condition (1.27) in axially symmetric situations
it was inferred that the direction of angular momentum should be quantized. To be
more specific, the component of angular momentum parallel to the axis has to be mh
with the quantum number m taking integer values only. This is called quantization
of direction or space quantization. When the quantum number characterizing the
magnitude of the angular momentum has a value l, the values which m can take are
limited to m = l, l - 1, … , - l + 1, - l.
The existence of space quantization was experimentally demonstrated in a very
direct and beautiful fashion by Stern and Gerlach.l6 They exploited the fact that an
atom with nonzero angular momentum has a magnetic moment µ in the same direc-
tion as the angular momentum vector L; for, the orbital motion of the electron (with
which the angular momentum is associated in the Rutherford-Bohr picture) also pro-
duces a magnetic moment since the electron is a charged particle. If such an atom
is placed in a magnetic field h, the field exerts a torque µ × h tending to turn the
direction of µ and hence that of L too into alignment with the field h. Now, it is
well known that any torque acting on an angular momentum vector has a gyroscopic
effect. Therefore L precesses around the direction of h, keeping a constant angle θ
to h all the time. This is all that happens if h is a uniform field. If it is not uniform,
there is also a net force ( µ .∇) h on the atom. Thus, if a coordinate system is chosen
with z-axis in the direction (Fig. 1.3) of h and if the field strength h increases in
the z-direction, we have a situation where µz and lz are constants for the atom, and
there is also a force µ z (∂H/∂ z ) on the atom, acting in the z-direction. If a beam of
atoms is shot through the field in a direction perpendicular to the field, say along
the x-direction, the above force causes the individual atoms to be deflected up or
down (i.e., in the positive or negative z-directions) by amounts proportional to their
respective values of µz . Therefore, if the values of µz form a continuous range (in
accordance with classical concepts) the beam would widen out into an expanding strip in
the x-z plane. On the other hand, if there is space quantization, so that lz (and hence µz )
can take only a discrete set of values, the beam of atoms would split into a number
16
O. Stern and W. Gerlach, Z. physik, 8, 110, 1922.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 19

EM

Stream of Atoms
z
EM

x S
0
Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of the Stern-Gerlach experiment
showing splitting of the beam of atoms between the
pole-pieces (EM) of electromagnet.
of distinct diverging beams, each of which is characterized by a specific value of µz .
Impinging on a plane perpendicular to the x-axis, these beams would leave spots spaced
out along the z-direction (instead of a continuous line which would appear if there were
no space quantization). It is the appearance of such distinct spots in the Stern-Gerlach
experiment which gave direct confirmation of the idea of space quantization. In this
experiment a fine, well-collimated beam of silver atoms was passed through an inho-
mogeneous field created by an electromagnet with specially shaped pole pieces. One
of these had a ridge along the middle, and facing this was a hollowed-out channel in
the other pole piece. The net result was a concentration of field lines (high intensity)
near the former and dispersal (low intensity) near the latter. It was found that when the
atomic beam was made to pass between the pole pieces, traversing their whole length,
the beam split into two—one part deflected upwards, and the other downwards.
While this confirmation of space quantization was a success for the old Quantum
theory, it must be mentioned that the appearance of just two values for µz was cor-
rectly explained only after the discovery of the spin of the electron a couple of years
later. Unlike l, which can have only integral values, the quantum number s charac-
terizing the angular momentum associated with the spinning motion has the value
1 , and the component of spin in any direction can have just the two values + 1 �
2 2
or − 12 �. Deferring further discussion of this subject, we return now to our main
theme: the progression of concepts from the classical to the quantum mechanical.

1.12 LIMITATIONS OF THE OLd QUANTUM THEOry

We have seen above how the Old Quantum Theory has been able to provide the expla-
nation of the spectrum of the hydrogen atom, including its fine structure. Recognition
of the quantum character of the magnitude and direction of angular momentum remains
as one of its finest achievements. However, despite these and other very considerable
successes of the Old Quantum Theory, it is quite obvious that it is not really a funda-
mental theory and is, in any case, only of limited applicability. The scope of the Bohr-
Sommerfeld quantum rules is restricted to periodic or multiply-periodic motions; they
have nothing to say about situations where other kinds of motion are involved. Even in
the Franck-Hertz experiment which gave direct support to Bohr’s concept, the behav-
iour of the electrons scattered by the atoms is outside the purview of the Old Quantum
Theory. The limitations of the theory were greatly mitigated by skilful exploitation of
20 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

the idea that the results of quantum theory should tend to those of the classical theory
under circumstances where the quantum discontinuities are negligibly small. This idea,
which places powerful constraints on the quantum theory, played a considerable role
in the developments of the decade preceding the birth of quantum mechanics. A for-
mal enunciation of the idea, under the name correspondence principle, was given by
Bohr.17 In considering the quantum mechanics in later chapters we will have occasion
to discuss its correspondence with classical mechanics in certain aspects of their math-
ematical structures as well as in the sense of a passage to the limit h → 0.
Looking back on the essentials of the Old Quantum Theory, we see that its fundamen-
tal shortcoming is that it is a peculiar hybrid of quantum concepts grafted on to classical
mechanics. The existence of discrete stationary states is experimentally well substanti-
ated. But as long as the classical picture of well-defined particle orbits is retained, it
remains incomprehensible why certain orbits should be completely stable and others not
allowed to exist at all. This perplexing question was responsible in part for the ultimate
realization that particle states at the microscopic level are not describable in terms of
well-defined orbits, but must be pictured in terms of some kind of waves.
Example 1.3 Show that the frequency (en+1 - en)/h of the line emitted by the quantum
transition from level (n + 1) to n in the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is, in the limit of
large n, the same as if the radiation was being emitted classically by an electron moving in the
Bohr orbit associated with either of these levels.
The velocity u of motion of the electron in a Bohr orbit may be obtained by eliminating a
between Eqs. (1.20) and (1.22). One finds that u = e2/(nh̄). The orbital frequency of the elec-
tron is evidently vcl = u/(2πa). Since a = n2h̄2/(me2) from Eq. (1.23), we have
υ me 4
vcl = = . (E1.1)
2πa 2πn3� 3
If this electron were emitting radiation classically, the radiation would have the same fre-
quency ν.
According to quantum concepts, radiation is associated with transitions between quantum
states. For a transition between adjacent Bohr orbits, the frequency of the radiation emitted is
given by hv = (en+1 - en). Thus
1 me 4  1 1  me 4
v=  − 
 ≈ (E1.2)
h 2�2  n2 ( n + 1)2  2π�3n3
for n >> 1. The equality of this expression to the frequency νcl for classical emission provides
an illustration of Bohr’s correspondence principle. n

(iv) Matter WaVes

1.13 dE BrOgLIE’S HyPOTHESIS

The suggestion that matter may have wave-like properties was first put forward in
1924–25 by Louis de Broglie.18 He argued that if light (which consists of waves
according to the classical picture) can sometimes behave like particles, then it should
17
N. Bohr, Nature, 121, 580, 1923.
18
L. de Broglie, phil. Mag., 47, 446, 1924; annales de physique, 3, 22, 1925.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 21

be possible for matter (which consists of particles, classically) to exhibit wave-like

behaviour under suitable circumstances. He made the hypothesis that the relation
between the energy e of a particle and the frequency v of the associated wave is
exactly the same as that between the energy of a photon (the particle-like quantum of
light) and the frequency of the light radiation:

E = hv = �ω (1.28a)
where ω = 2πv is the angular frequency. He noted then that according to the theory of
relativity, the energy e and the momentum p of a particle form the components of a
single four-vector, and so do the angular frequency ω and the propagation vector k of
wave. Since the components of both the four-vectors have to transform in an identi-
cal manner (according to the Lorentz transformation) for a given change of reference
frame, any proportionality relation like (1.28a) between e and ω must necessarily
hold also between p and k. It was concluded, therefore, that
p = hk (1.28b)
In terms of the magnitudes of the vectors, this gives
h h
p = �k = , or λ = (1.28c)
λ p

De Broglie’s hypothesis attributing a dual particle-wave character to matter

appears very strange at first sight, it being very much against the direct evidence
of one’s senses at the macroscopic level. But at the level of the atom, the behaviour
of matter had been already found to be unconventional as we have seen in the last
few sections. It was such evidence of non-classical behaviour which gave scope for
de Broglie’s proposal. The precise form of the hypothesis was determined however
by the speculative postulate that at the most fundamental level, matter and radia-
tion (which form the basic constituents of the physical world) should be similar in
nature. Confirmation that Nature does exhibit such an aesthetically pleasing symme-
try between matter and radiation came from experiments by Davisson and Germer,19
Kikuchi20 and G. P. Thomson21. These experiments demonstrated the existence of
‘de Broglie waves’ associated with electrons in a very direct fashion. This was done
by showing that crystal diffraction patterns just like those produced by X-rays are
obtained even when a beam of electrons of appropriate momentum22 is used instead
of X-rays. Imparting of the desired momentum to the electrons (obtained by therm-
ionic emission from a heated filament) was done by electrostatic acceleration. An
electron accelerated through a potential difference of V volts (or V/300 electrostatic
units) acquires a kinetic energy ekin = (eV/300) ergs. The momentum p of the electron

19
C. Davisson and L. H. Germer, Nature, 119, 558, 1927; phys. rev., 30, 705, 1927.
20
Kikuchi, Japan. J. phys., 5, 83, 1928.
21
G. P. Thomson, Nature, 120, 802, 1927; proc. roy. soc., london, A117, 600, 1928.
22
Appropriate momenta are those for which the de Broglie wavelengths as given by Eq. (1.28c) are in the
range of X-ray wavelengths used in diffraction studies—from a few angstroms down to a tenth of an
angstrom or less.
22 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

is then obtained from the relativistic relation p2 = 2m ekin + (e2kin /c2), which is
equation (B.16) of Appendix B with e identified as mc2 + ekin. Thus
h h  −1/2
λ= = 1 + Ekin  (1.29)
p 2mEkin  2mc 2 
When ekin is much less than the rest energy mc2, the last factor is negligible; and
then, on substituting ekin = eV/300, we get
150 12.25 8
λ=h = × 10 cm
meV V
where V is to be expressed in volts.
Example 1.4 For an electron accelerated through 100 volts, the wavelength is (12.25 ×
10–8/10) cm = 1.225 Å. Thermal neutrons (with mean kinetic energy Ekin = 23
kT ≈ 6.2 × 10−14 ergs at 300°K) also have wavelengths of the same order. Substituting the
neutron mass and the above value of ekin in Eq. 1.29 we get λ  1.5 Å. In contrast the wavelength
of a one gram mass with the same thermal energy, has the fantastically small value of about
1·2 × 10-20 cm. There is no wonder then that macroscopic objects show no noticeable diffrac-
tion effects or other wave-like behaviour. n
The Davisson-Germer experiment involved diffraction by a single crystal; Kiku-
chi reproduced the Laue type of diffraction pattern by transmission through very
thin mica crystals, and Thomson obtained the analogue of the Debye-Scherrer rings
by passage of electrons through thin (poly-crystalline) metal foils. In each case, the
wavelength λ of the electron waves, as determined from the diffraction pattern, was
found to be equal to (h/p) in agreement with de Broglie’s theoretical prediction. Thus
the dual nature of matter, like that of radiation, was firmly established.
Actually the theoretical exploitation of de Broglie’s idea did not await its experi-
mental verification. Immediately after the publication of the hypothesis, Erwin
Schrödinger23 proposed that the behaviour of matter waves associated with material
particles (whether free or subject to forces) is governed by a certain differential equa-
tion for the wave function ψ (i.e., the function which represents the matter wave). He
showed that this wave equation, together with physically-motivated conditions on the
wave function, leads in a very natural way to stationary states characterized by discrete
energy values. Thus Schrodinger was able to explain the basic fact of quantization as
a consequence of the wave nature of matter, and to replace the ad hoc quantization
rules of the Old Quantum Theory by mathematical conditions of a very general nature
on the wave functions. The Schrödinger theory, called wave mechanics, is one of the
alternative formulations of the general theory of quantum mechanics which, as far
as we know at present, gives the correct fundamental theory of the physical world at
the microscopic level. Much of this book will deal with the development of quantum
mechanics following Schrödinger’s approach. We defer the introduction of the wave
equation to the next chapter, and devote the rest of this chapter to a discussion of the
conceptual problems raised by the developments described in the preceding sections.
23
E. Schrödinger, ann. d. physik, 79, 361, 489, 1926; 80, 437, 1926; 81, 109, 1926.
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 23

THE MOTION OF A FrEE WAvE PACkET; CLASSICAL

1.14 APPrOxIMATION ANd THE UNCErTAINTy PrINCIPLE

The most serious problem raised by the discovery of the wave nature of matter con-
cerns the very definition of the word ‘particle’. We have already noted that classically,
the mental picture of a particle was that of a point object endowed with a precise
position and momentum at every instant of time. The discovery of the quantum prop-
erties (discreteness of energy values, etc.) of the atom made it clear that such a pic-
ture cannot hold, at least in its entirety, in the atomic domain. However, the success
of the de Broglie hypothesis, that a particle of momentum p is to be associated with
a wave of definite wavelength λ = h/p, leaves one in a very uncomfortable situation.
For, a pure harmonic wave necessarily extends over all space, and this fact makes it
impossible to get any idea of the position of a particle described by such a wave. On
the other hand, if we have a wave packet, i.e., a wave which is confined to a small
region of space, it would seem reasonable to suppose that the particle is within the
region of the packet. The position of the particle would then be approximately deter-
mined by that of the wave packet, there being an uncertainty in the position which is
of the order of the dimension or size of the packet. If this ‘fuzzy’ wave packet picture
of a particle is to be taken seriously, it is necessary that such a wave packet should
move like a classical particle, to a good approximation. Let us now test whether this
is the case. For simplicity we consider first a wave packet in one-dimensional space.
Consider a wave packet represented by a wave function ψ( x, t ) which, at the instant t,
has a maximum at the point X(t). We will suppose for convenience that the function ψ
falls off monotonically as in Fig. 1.4 as x moves to either side from the maximum
position. If the position of the wave packet changes with time, the rate at which the
maximum point moves is clearly a good measure of the velocity ug of the packet:
dX (t )
υg = (1.30)
dt
ψ (x,t)

X (t) x

Fig. 1.4 A wave packet pictured at a particular instant.

24 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

The subscript g on u stands for group velocity24 and is a reminder that the wave packet
is composed of a group of harmonic waves having a certain range of wavelengths:
∞
ψ ( x, t ) = ∫ a( k ) ei ( kx – ωt ) dk (1.31)
–∞
where a(k) is the amplitude of the harmonic component with propagation constant k
(wavelength λ = 2π/k) and angular frequency ω, in the wave function ψ. Equation (1.31)
simply expresses the well-known mathematical fact that any reasonable function can
be analyzed into a Fourier integral. We will assume that the harmonic waves present
in ψ (x,t) have values of k lying within a small range centred about some value k . In
other words, a(k) in Eq. (1.31) is taken to be non-vanishing only when k is very close
to k . This assumption is made in order to ensure that the momentum of the particle
described by the wave packet is reasonably well defined: When k is restricted to a
narrow range, the momentum associated with it according to the de Broglie relation
is also restricted likewise. We note further that the frequencies ω of these harmonic
waves will also, for the same reason, remain very close to ω = ω( k ) . Therefore, if
ω(k) is expanded as a Taylor series in powers of ( k – k ) we can, to a good approxi-
mation, neglect terms of higher order than the first, and write ω(k) as
ω( k ) = ω + ω⬘. ( k – k ) (1.32)
where
 d ω  dω
ω = ω( k ) and ω⬘ =  =
 dk  dk
k

Let us now turn to the determination of the group velocity ug for a packet with
the above properties. First we note the elementary fact that the position X(t) of the
maximum of ψ is the point at which (∂ψ/∂x ) vanishes. Thus
 ∂ψ 
0 =  = ∫ a( k ) ⋅ ikei [ kX ( t ) – ωt ] dk
 ∂x  (1.33)
x = X (t )

On differentiating this equality with respect to t, we obtain

0 = ∫ a( k ) . ik .i[kX ⬘(t ) – ω] . ei [ kX ( t ) – ωt ] dk (1.34)

This equation determines the group velocity ug = X9(t) implicitly. An explicit expres-
sion can be obtained by substituting the approximation (1.32) for ω into the square
bracketed factor in the integrand in Eq. (1.34) which then becomes

0 = [ X ⬘(t ) − ω⬘] ∫ a( k )i 2 k 2 ei[ kX ( t ) – ωt ] dk

−(ω − ω⬘k ) ∫ a( k )i 2 kei [ kX ( t ) – ωt ] dk

The second term on the right hand side of this equation vanishes on account of
Eq. (1.33). The integral in the first term is nonzero because it is just the value of
24
The velocity of propagation of a harmonic wave exp [i (kx–ωt)] is the rate at which surfaces of constant
phase (kx-ωt = const.) move. It is therefore called the phase velocity, and is given by (ω/k). The veloc-
ity of a wave packet formed by a group of harmonic waves is the group velocity. Its value is (dω/dk).
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 25

the second derivative (∂ 2 ψ/∂x 2 ) at the maximum point x = X(t). We conclude,

therefore, that X ⬘(t ) = ω⬘ , or more explicitly,
dω
υ g ≡ X ⬘(t ) = (1.35)
dk
This is the velocity of the wave packet. On the other hand, it is easily verified that the
velocity u of a particle (whether relativistic or non-relativistic) is given by
dE
υ= (1.36)
dp
The similarity of the two forms (1.35) and (1.36) is obvious. The two velocities
become identical if the particle parameters e, p are related to the wave parameters
ω, k through the de Broglie relations E = �ω, p = �k .
We conclude, therefore, that a small wave packet composed of a small band of
de Broglie waves does move like a classical particle at least in the case of free par-
ticles. This result is reassuring (despite the lack of rigour in the derivation leading
to it) since it enables us to view classical particle mechanics as an approximation to
the wave (quantum) mechanics. The approximation is good only to the extent that
one can ignore the fundamental limitations placed by the wave packet picture on the
accuracy with which both the position and momentum of a particle can be specified.
That such limitations exist is obvious. We have already noted that if the momentum
is precisely specified we have no wave packet at all, but only a pure harmonic wave,
so that the particle position is completely unknown. On the other hand, if the posi-
tion is to be absolutely precise, the wave packet must be of infinitely small extension,
and to construct such a packet one needs waves of all wave numbers k from − ∞
to + ∞. In terms of the de Broglie relation p = �k this means that the momentum
of the particle is completely indeterminate. It is apparent therefore that there is an
inverse relationship between the accuracies to which the position and momentum can
be simultaneously specified. In fact, it can be shown quite generally from the theory
of Fourier transforms that if a packet represented by ψ( x, t ) of Eq. (1.31) has a size
∆x, then the Fourier transform a(k) must be nonvanishing over a range of width ∆k
with ∆k ⲏ (1/∆x ) . This means that the spread in momenta (∆p) of the de Broglie
waves contributing to the packet has to be such that

(∆ p ) (∆ x ) ⲏ � (1.37)
This inequality is the essential content of the heisenberg uncertainty principle,
which will be derived later (Sec. 3.11) in a more precise form from quantum mechan-
ics. It is easy to convince oneself that in the case of a three-dimensional wave packet25

ψ ( x,t ) = ∫ a(k ) ei (k ⋅ x –ωt ) d 3 k (1.38)

25
To save, writing, we shall use only a single integral sign even in the case of multiple integrals. Wher-
ever the number of integrals involved is relevant, it will be indicated by the notation for the ‘volume
element’ such as d 3k (meaning dkx dky dkz) or d 3 x ≡ dx dy dz . The integration is always from − ∞
to + ∞ for each variable, unless otherwise specified.
26 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

there are three uncertainty relations similar to (1.37):

( ∆ x ) ( ∆ p x ) ⲏ �, ( ∆ y ) ( ∆ p y ) ⲏ � , ( ∆ z ) ( ∆ p z ) ⲏ � (1.39)
Example 1.5 The uncertainty principle shows immediately that the motion of the elec-
tron in a hydrogen atom cannot be described even approximately in classical terms. There is
direct experimental evidence to indicate that the size of the hydrogen atom is of the order of
1Å. Thus the uncertainty in the position of the electron must be of this order: ∆x ∼ 10−8 cm.
Equation (1.37) then implies that ∆p ⲏ 108 � ≈ 10−19 gm.cm/sec . Since the mass of the
electron is approximately 10–27 gm, the uncertainty in the velocity of the electron has a tre-
mendously high value,  108 cm/sec. It is evident that under these circumstances it would
make no sense to talk of a trajectory. n
Example 1.6 Gaussian wave packet. To get a clearer idea as to how a wave packet
evolves with time, we consider the example of a one-dimensional packet characterized by
a( k ) = a0σ1/2 exp[ 12 σ 2 ( k k )2 ] in Eq. (1.31). In this case, the propagation constant k is said
to have a Gaussian spectrum, with a width ∆k ∼ (1/σ ) about the mean value k . We introduce this
form of a(k) in Eq. (1.31), and also substitute ω = �k 2 /2m . The latter relation is obtained from the
energy-momentum relation e = p2/2m for a classical particle on using Eqs (1.28). Then we have
+∞ 1
− σ 2 ( k – k )2
∫
2
ψ ( x, t ) = a0σ1/2 e 2 ei ( kx – �k t/2 m) dk
−∞
+∞
 1 2 −
1
( σ2 +i �t /m) k 2
exp  − σ 2 k 
2 k)
= a0σ 1/2
∫ e 2 eik ( x −i σ dk
 2  −∞

 2πσ 1/2  ( x − i σ 2 k )2 σ 2 k 2 

= a0  2  exp − − 
 σ + i �t /m   2
 2(σ + i � t /m)
 2 
and hence
2π | a0 |2 
 −( x − t � k /m)2 
| ψ( x , t ) |2 = exp 
 2 2 2 
2 2 2
[σ + � t /m σ ] 2 2 1/2 
 σ + ( � t /m σ ) 

2 2

(We omit details of evaluation of the integral above. Its value may be obtained from the last equation
under Example 3.11 (p. 98), by making the replacements σ 2 → σ 2 + i �t /m, x → x − i σ 2 k ) .
Observe that the absolute value of the wave function, | ψ( x, t ) | , has a Gaussian form. Its
peak is at x = t � k /m i.e. it moves with the velocity ( �k /m). This is just what we expect of
a particle of momentum p = �k and is in conformity with Eq. (1.35). However, it is to be
noted that the size or width of the wave packet at time t is  σ 2 + �2t 2 /m2σ 2 1/2 , and it increases
 
indefinitely with the passage of time. On account of this spreading, any possibility of identify-
ing a wave packet directly as a particle is ruled out. n

UNCErTAINTIES INTrOdUCEd IN THE PrOCESS

1.15
OF MEASUrEMENT

We have deduced the uncertainty principle above as a consequence of the essential

wave nature of physical entities. This principle is of fundamental importance in that
it makes precise the limitations on the validity of classical concepts. It would be of
interest therefore to see how it manifests itself as an obstacle in the way of measure-
ments aimed at determining the state of a particle with precision in classical terms.
Suppose we wish to determine the position of a small object with precision. Let
us imagine we use a microscope for the purpose. The absolute limit to the accuracy
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 27

∆x with which a position determination can be made by the microscope is given by

its resolving power
λ
∆x =
sin α

Here λ is the wavelength of light used for illuminating the object, and α is the half-
angle subtended by the objective lens of the microscope at the position of the object
being examined. The higher the accuracy needed, the smaller the wavelength λ has
to be. But light consists of photons of momentum p = h/λ and the x-component of
the momentum of a photon scattered by the object into the microscope is uncertain
by an amount ±( h/λ ) sin α . In scattering the light, the object itself recoils, and the
x-component of the recoil momentum is also evidently uncertain to the same extent:
h h
∆ px ∼ sin α = .
λ ∆x
It follows, therefore, that in the very process of trying to determine position pre-
cisely, the momentum is made uncertain, the extent of the uncertainty being what is
demanded by the Uncertainty Principle.
It is worth observing that in this discussion, the wave characteristics of the object
whose position-momentum uncertainty is under consideration have played no role.
(In this sense the uncertainty we are talking of here is quite a different thing from
what was considered in the last section). It is the quantum properties of the agent
(light) used in the measuring process which brought about the uncertainty. As long as
all possible agents (matter and light) have quantum properties, no measurement can,
even in principle, lead to absolutely precise determinations of positions and momenta
(even if there were no theoretical objection to the object itself having a precise posi-
tion and momentum).

Example 1.7 Uncertainties arising from the disturbance due to measurements is

extremely small on the macroscopic scale. If, for instance, the position of an object is deter-
mined to an accuracy of 10–6 cm using an electron microscope, the resulting uncertainty in
momentum is only of the order of ( �/10 –6 ) ∼ 10−21 gm.cm/sec. Thus, unless the mass of the
object is of the order of an atomic mass or less the uncertainty in velocity is negligibly small. n

APPrOxIMATE CLASSICAL MOTION IN SLOWLy

1.16 vAryINg FIELdS

Let us now return to Sec. 1.14 and summarize the main conclusions. The wave nature
of matter has the consequence that particles in the strict classical sense (with pre-
cise positions and momenta) are unrealizable in nature. The closest one can get to a
classical particle is through a wave packet with ∆x and ∆p made as small as pos-
sible subject to the constraint (1.37). Such a wave packet does move approximately
like a classical particle. Our verification of this last statement is actually incomplete.
To justify it fully we must show that the correspondence (1.28) between the corpuscu-
lar and wave aspects holds good also in the case of particles moving under the influ-
ence of forces. Such a proof can be given on the basis of the perfect analogy which
28 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

exists between Maupertuis’ principle of least action in classical particle mechanics,

and Fermat’s principle of least time in the classical theory of wave propagation. Fer-
mat’s principle concerns the passage of light through an inhomogeneous medium, in
which the refractive index and hence the velocity of light u varies from point to point.
To travel from a point xl to x2 along some hypothetical path, the time taken by the
light ray would be given by the line integral.
x2 x2
ds 1 ds
∫ υ
=
υ ∫ λ (1.40)
x1 x1

where ds is the length of an infinitesimal segment of the path. Fermat’s principle states
that the actual path taken by the light ray is one which minimizes the integral. Mau-
pertuis principle concerns the motion of a particle in a varying force field. It states
that the actual path taken by the particle is one which minimizes the action integral
x2

∫ p ds (1.41)
x1

A comparison of the two principles shows that the path of a ray associated with a
wave of variable wavelength λ would be identical with that of a particle in a force
field if p ∝(1/λ). But this is just what we have if we assume the de Broglie relation
to be applicable also to particles subject to forces. We note that, if a particle mov-
ing nonrelativistically in a force field has potential energy V(x) at the position x, its
momentum (for a given total energy e ) is given by
p = [2m ( E − V )]1/2
It varies with the position of the particle. Correspondingly, the wavelength λ attrib-
uted to the particle is also a function of x.
h h
λ= = (1.42)
p [2m( E − V ( x))]1/2
Now, it makes sense to talk of a position-dependent wave-length only if λ(x) has an
appreciably constant value over many waves in the neighbourhood of x, i.e., from
one wave to the next, the fractional change in wavelength should be very small.
In symbols,
| ∇λ | Ⰶ 1 (1.43)
This means in turn that the potential energy V(x) should be a slowly-varying function
of x. Thus, the motion of a matter-wave packet in a force field will coincide approxi-
mately with that of a classical particle provided the variation of the field is slow.

dIFFrACTION PHENOMENA: INTErPrETATION

1.17
OF THE WAvE-PArTICLE dUALISM

Our efforts in the last section have been to convince ourselves that despite the wave
nature of matter, classical mechanics holds in an approximate sense under suitable
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 29

circumstances, and that the approximation is in fact perfectly adequate for the descrip-
tion of the macroscopic world. Under such circumstances, the wave aspect of mat-
ter remains unobtrusive and does not create any serious problems of visualization.
Difficulties of interpretation arising from the wave-particle dualism appear in an
acute form when phenomena (e.g., diffraction) in which the wave aspect plays an
essential role are considered. The fundamental problem then is how to reconcile the
discrete nature of material entities with the wave-like behaviour exhibited by them.
The same problem occurs in reverse in the case of radiation, whenever it exhibits the
discrete photon character in an essential way.
Let us now analyse a diffraction experiment to see how the mutual association
of the two (seemingly incompatible) aspects, whether of matter or of radiation, is to
be understood. To be specific, let us think of the experiments of G. P. Thomson or
Kikuchi. We recall that electron diffraction photographs identical with the Laue and
Debye-Scherrer X-ray diffraction patterns were obtained in these experiments. More
specifically, in electron as well as X-ray diffraction, the observed pattern is precisely
what one would expect on the basis of the wave theory, assuming the incident beam
to be a harmonic wave and the intensity at any point on the pattern to be propor-
tional to the absolute square of the amplitude of the wave at that point. It is also an
empirical fact that the nature of the diffraction pattern is quite independent of the
intensity of the incident beam, i.e. on taking a long-exposure diffraction photograph
with a weak incident beam one gets exactly the same pattern as with a beam many
times more intense and a correspondingly shorter exposure. This is again just what
one would expect on the wave theory, but it acquires profound significance when we
recall that the beam actually consists of discrete particles (electrons or photons)26.
For it implies that the diffraction process is independent of the number of particles
simultaneously present in the beam, and hence that the wave property manifested
through diffraction is not the result of some conspiracy among the particles present.
Instead, the wave nature has to be an inherent property of each particle. This infer-
ence is confirmed by experiments in which the beam intensity is made so low that
there is effectively only one particle at a time going through the apparatus; the
diffraction pattern still emerges if recording is made for a sufficiently long period
of time. We have to conclude, therefore that associated with each particle there
is a wave which undergoes diffraction in the crystal. If the wave is represented
by a (possibly time dependent) function ψ( x, t ) , diffraction manifests itself in
2
a variation of | ψ | with x at points along the surface of the photographic film.
2
The form of | ψ | as a function of x is the same for all the particles, and it is the
accumulated effect of all of them which makes up the actually observed diffraction
pattern. The intensity distribution i(x) in the diffraction photograph is then
proportional to | ψ (x) |2 .

26
One needs no persuasion to accept that an electron beam consists of electrons as discrete particles. In
the case of X-ray diffraction, one could keep a Geiger counter-in the path of the incident or diffracted
X-rays and actually count the individual photons. The counting rate is proportional to the X-ray intensity
(for monochromatic X-rays). In fact, intensity measurements are often made using Geiger counters.
30 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

This conceptual picture of the diffraction phenomenon still leaves us with the fol-
lowing question. Does the electron (or photon) smear itself out over the photographic
plate in a manner determined by its own wave function (or rather, by | ψ |2 )? The
answer is no. It remains discrete and may be detected as a discrete particle at some
point of the diffraction pattern. In that case, how can the photographic plate possibly
know of the existence of peaks and zeros of | ψ |2 ? The only possible answer seems
to be a statistical one. Each individual particle is recorded at some point or other of
the photographic plate, at random, with a probability proportional to the value of
| ψ |2 at that point. When a large number of particles get recorded in this fashion,
the average number arriving in the neighbourhood of a particular point x of the pho-
tographic plate is proportional to | ψ (x) |2 ; on the other hand, the intensity I(x) of
the diffraction pattern (represented for instance by the degree of blackening on the
photograph) is also proportional to this average number. Hence I (x) ∝ | ψ (x)|2 , and
thus the formation of the diffraction pattern through the diffraction of individual
particles is explained.
We will see later that the above statistical interpretation is a fundamental fea-
ture of wave mechanics. Every particle (or system of particles) has a wave function
associated with it. The wave function determines the corpuscular characteristics like
position, momentum, angular momentum, etc. in a statistical sense. For instance a
particle with a wave function ψ ( x, t ) has a probability proportional to | ψ ( x, t ) |2 for
being found in the neighbourhood of the point x, and there are other formulae which
give probability distributions for momentum, etc., in terms of ψ . Nature does not
permit any more precise specification of the state of a particle than what is provided
by the wave function and the probability distributions obtainable from it.

1.18 COMPLEMENTArITy

There is one final question we would like to consider. To make its import clear, we
pose it in the context of a simple situation like Young’s two-slit experiment show-
ing the interference of light, or a hypothetical analogue involving electrons instead
of light. Can we say that the photon (or electron) which reaches some point of the
interference pattern has followed a definite trajectory passing through a particular
one of the two slits? The probability interpretation, which we were forced to adopt
above, makes it pretty clear that we cannot. For, the particle has a definite probability
of appearing at any point where the wave function is non-vanishing, and the wave
function has to have non-vanishing values in a region which includes the locations of
both the slits if interference is to take place. Thus the particle has a chance of being
found at either of the slits and we cannot say that it has passed through a particular
one of them. Another slightly different viewpoint which also leads to the same con-
clusion, is the following: Let us assume that the particle has a trajectory. We have
seen already that sharp trajectories in the classical sense are not possible; so let us
suppose the trajectory is a moving wave packet, with a lateral extension less than
half the distance a between the two slits. By this condition we make the trajectory
sufficiently well defined, so that we can be sure that it can go through only one of
 Towards Quantum Mechanics 31

the two slits, if at all. Suppose all particle trajectories are defined with this degree of
precision (though the individual trajectories may be shifted sideways with respect to
each other). Can we have an interference pattern under these conditions? The answer
is clearly no, from the wave point of view, since any wave which does not cover
both the slits cannot cause/interference, as already noted. But it is instructive to note
that the same result can be deduced from the wave-particle dualism. Since we have
assumed that the extension of the wave packet laterally is less than 12 a, the uncer-
tainty in any component of the position vector transverse to the direction of motion
of the particle is ∆y < ( 12 a ) . Therefore, according to the uncertainty principle
[Eq. (1.39)], the corresponding (transverse) momentum component has an uncer-
tainty ∆p y of at least ( h/∆y ) = ( 2h/a) . The direction of motion of the particle is
therefore uncertain by an angle of at least
θ ≈ tan θ = (∆p y / p) = 2h/ pa = 2λ/a (1.44)
where λ is the de Broglie wavelength of the particle. Now the angular separation
between successive maxima of the interference pattern due to two slits separated by
a distance a is (λ/a). If the (uncontrollable) uncertainty in the direction of motion of
the particle exceeds this value, as it does according to Eq. (1.44), the interference
pattern will obviously get washed out. It may be noted that for the purposes of the
above argument it does not matter whether the ‘particle’ we refer to is a material
particle or a photon.
The. principal result of the above discussion may be stated in a general form as
follows: in any experimental situation in which a physical entity (matter or radia-
tion) exhibits its wave properties, it is impossible to attribute corpuscular character-
istics to it. The entity does behave like a particle if its wave packet is made compact
enough, as seen in Sec. 1.14, but when this is done, it loses the ability to display any
wave properties. In other words, the particle and wave aspects of a physical entity are
complementary and cannot be exhibited at the same time. This is the complementarity
principle of Bohr.

1.19 THE FOrMULATION OF QUANTUM MECHANICS

The classification of the relation between the particle and wave aspects of physi-
cal entities, in the manner presented above, came about only sometime after quan-
tum mechanics had been formulated as a mathematical theory. As we have already
observed in Sec. 1.13, Schrödinger’s formulation (the so-called wave mechanics
which is based on the de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves), preceded even the
direct experimental verification of the existence of matter waves. Schrödinger (1926)
proposed that the wave function ψ describing the matter waves satisfies a partial
differential equation, and gave a prescription for writing down the equation for any
particular system of particles.27 He showed that there exist solutions of the equation
27
The Schrödinger equation is applicable only to non-relativistic particles. A new wave equation, which
meets also the requirements of relativity theory, was formulated by Dirac in 1928. We will take up the
Dirac equation towards the end of the book.
32 A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics

which correspond to a stationary wave pattern, rather like the familiar standing waves
or normal modes of a string or membrane. And just as boundary conditions on the
latter restrict the possible normal mode frequencies to a discrete set of values, the
natural boundary conditions on matter waves restrict the energies associated with
the stationary patterns to discrete values (in the case of particles which are ‘bound’,
i.e. confined to a finite region of space by the action of a potential). In this manner,
a natural explanation was found for the existence of stationary states, originally pos-
tulated ad hoc by Bohr. This, and the correct quantitative prediction of the stationary
state energy levels of some important systems, constituted the first spectacular suc-
cess of Schrödinger’s wave mechanics. We will not pursue here any further the suc-
cesses of this theory since these form the subject matter of the next several chapters.
At just about the same time as the announcement of Schrödinger’s theory came that
of another theory (now called Matrix Mechanics), due to Heisenberg28. Despite the
vastly different appearance of the two theories it was very soon recognized that they
are completely equivalent. While the Schrödinger formulation is based on explicit
use of a mental picture of matter as waves (replacing the classical point-particle pic-
ture), Matrix Mechanics was born out of a deliberate effort to exclude from the theory
any reference to conceptual pictures which are not amenable to direct experimental
verification. Working against the background of the Old Quantum Theory of atomic
spectra, Heisenberg noted that the inevitable disturbance of the motion of a particle
which is caused by any attempt to observe it (cf. Sec. 1.15) is, in the case of elec-
trons in atoms, of sufficient magnitude to make their orbits unobservable. He set out
then to reformulate the quantum theory in terms of observable quantities alone (like
intensities and frequencies of spectral lines). The resulting formulation was found to
be equivalent to replacing the position, momentum and other, dynamical variables of
classical mechanics by matrices, while keeping the form of the equations of motion
superficially the same as in the classical mechanics. As is well known, the product
of two matrices depends, in general, on the order in which they are multiplied, i.e.
matrix multiplication is not commutative. It is through the non-commutativity of the
product of the position and momentum variables (contrasted with their perfect com-
mutativity, as ordinary numbers, in classical mechanics) that the quantum nature of
the Heisenberg theory is manifested.
Of the two alternative forms of quantum mechanics—wave mechanics and matrix
mechanics—it is the former which lends itself more easily to the ·solution of a wide
variety of practical problems. For this reason, as well as because of the insight pro-
vided by the underlying wave picture, we will be dealing, for the most part, with
the Schrödinger version of quantum mechanics. However, the Heisenberg form has
its advantages, especially in considering formal questions. And in the quantum the-
ory of electromagnetic and other fields, the representation of dynamical variables
[e.g., the field quantities E(x,t) and, H(x,t)] by matrix operators as in Heisenberg’s
theory is almost an inescapable necessity.
28
W. Heisenberg, Z. phys., 33, 879, 1925. M. Born, W. Heisenberg and P. Jordan, Z. phys., 35, 557, 1925.
The equivalence of wave and matrix mechanics was shown by E. Schrödinger, ann. d. physik, 79, 734,
1926.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
sombra de tu augusto velo | Las artes viven en concierto amigo. »
Quint. Poes. A la paz (R. 19. 91). ' 3. adj.n) Que gusta mucho de
alguna cosa. Con de. « Tanto del oro te mostraste amiga, | Que
echaste á las espaldas mis pasiones, s Cerv. Gal. 3 (R. 1. 37'). « Era
de complexión recia, seco de carnes, enjuto de rostro, gran
madrugador y amigo de la caza. » Id. Quij. 1. 1 (II. 1.2571). « Era el
cura tan buen cristiano y tan amigo de la verdad, que no diría otra
cosa por todas las del mundo. » Id. ib. 1. (i 1 1!. 1. 2001). «
Siempre, hermano, fui amiga de la igualdad. » Id. ib. 2. 5 (B. 1.
414a). « Yo te perdono con que te enmiendes, y con que no te
muestres de aquí adelante tan amigo de tu interés. » Id. ib. 2. 28
(B. 1. 4651). « Acá tenemos noticia, buen Sancho, que sois tan
amigo de manjar blanco y de albondiguillas, que, si os sobran, las
guardáis en el seno para el otro día. »Id.¿6. 2.02 (R. 1. 5351). «
Quiera
The text on this page is estimated to be only 17.85%
accurate

AMIGO — 428 — AMILANAR Dios no le venga en voluntad

al cura de entrar en el aprisco, según es de alegre j a de holgarse. »
Id. ib. 2. 67 'I!. I. 5461 . « Amigos en partimlar de l i-:h-i- [mr Indo.
ionio superiores, su autoridad, i Mend. Guerra de Gran. I (R.21.
70s). i Puede haber prioras tan amigas de tener monjas, que de
poco se igan. i Sta. Ter. \Iodo de Disitar I!. 53. 296f . i El cangrejo es
muy amigo de la carne de las ostras. Gran. Snnit. I. I i. s¡ 1 di. (i.
215a). « Conózcome, señor, por amigo de mi mesmo. » Id. ihuc.
yconsid. [,viemes por la mañana, § 4 (R. 8. 81 J). t Cuando los
principes son naturalmente amigos del dinero, conviene míe no le
vean y manejen. » Saav, Emp. 53 (A. 25. l 12'). i Yo te juro que le
hubieras ahorrado muchos ducados si te hubieras encomendado á
mí, porque no soy nada del dinero. • Que> . Gran Tac. 21 (R.
23.521a). i Son por su condición aborrecibles, | Amigas de
mudanzas imposibles, i Lope, Gatom. 3 [Obr. suelt. 19. 207). « ^ he
visto gente más amiga de llorar, i Mor. Obr. póst. 2, p. 251. Sup.i
Andaba entonces en ¡sevilla un gran príncipe — amiguísima di hacer
bien. > Espinel, Escud. 2.5(R. 18. 131' Dimin. i Vmiguitá soy yo de
oír resquebrajos, i Cerv. Quij. 2. 10 (R. I. I241). i Que soj hombre de
bien á las derechas, ,i ao amiguito de banquete y torta. » Quev.
\lnsu 7, tere. (R. 69. 272'). i»i Met. Tratándose de cosas, i La mía |
mi condición] es luana. blanda v amorosa, I Y amiga de hacer bien á
indas gentes. > Cerv. Quij. 2. 35 (R. 1. 1801). i Unas condiciones
que hay de suyo amigas de ser estimadas y tenidas y mirar las Mi
iajenas y nunca conocer las --uvas. > sia. Ter. Cara. perf. 13 (R. 53.
334»). i ¿Qué diré del paladar ? ¿ cuan amigo es de manjares
curiosos, y sabrosos, j costosos? i Gran. Simb. í, dial. 6 li. 6. 559*). •
Los sanios evangelistas no hacen más que contar con palabras
simples, amigas de la verdad, la historia de la \ul, i y pasión de
nuestro Salvador, i Id.tb. 2. 9, g 3* (R. 6. 3021). Per. «ateci. Siglo
XV: •' Habiéndole sido amigo, ; Quán poco duró con él Lo que le dio
! » J. Manr. Coplas l ei a. 16. 52). i Mas si amigo es Platón, La
verdad es mas amiga. » P. ^ Cal. i Dymna di. 51. 26»). i Si probar
non lo podier, digal verdal al otro, como amigo dis a amigo. > Futro
viejo, í. -. 3(107 . i Si algunos ornes an pleito el ano ron el otro, e
.unas las partes son avenidas de lo meter en manos de ami{
después que lo an metido en manos de aun. e firmado, non pueden
sacarlo de suas manos sino por quatTO rusas, i ///. :'.. I. I (74). t El
oi-mano que esto rescive, devegelo mostrar la primera vegada ante
parientes e amigos Gjosdalgo el turno quel'face.e devel'n anio ellos
que gel' enderece, i //'. 1.5. 5(20). . Quien amigos non ha, pobre os
e raendij Alt ' S'IS (R. 57. 175*). i El amico de minio que sonó
acusado | Porque con Apolonio faeje lan aguisado. Ilrspidiosse do I
rey su amor asentado, ipoll. 78 (R 57. 286'). « Itissolis el san) omne
una respuesta dura : | Amigos, empezastes soberbia e locura. Berc.
S. Mili. 275 1 1!. 57. 73*). i Sennores e amigos, en vano contende s.
i Id. Mil. 12 (R .".7. 104*). 'i Fixa, dizo Ollallia, tu tal cosa non digas,
l'.a as solnv los rulos amigos o anuid. S. Oria, 36 R. 57. 138'). i Non
dizes verdad [á] amigo ni ha sennor, Ffalsso a iodos e mas al
Criador. » Cid, 3386 (R.57. 35*). « Hios salue a nuesti e a nos mas,
sennor. i //). 3038 (II. .".7. 321). Ella. I'on. amigo;
cat.amirA;prov.atntc IV. miii . it. amico: del hit . tiiiücus, derivado de
tintare, amar (Bopp, Gramm.comp.,§ En el superlativo se halla
alguna vez la forma pura nte latina amicisimo Aquel hombre
amicisimo que halda perdido era mejor \ más verdadero que aquel
fantasma en que yo lo decía que esperase, i Rivad. Conf. de S.
Agustín, i. I. < Es roideio castísimo y amicisimo de esta pureza
virginal. > Puente, " ' 4.!i i.'. 114). luntMii n Causar tal miedo a al -
uno que quede aturdido \ m» aci ion ftrons.). t La voz íel león, \ sus
bramidos, amilana los animales \ bestias, i Fr. J. de la Puente, (.'■ ni,
•muí de las dos monarquías, i. i (Dice. \ utor.). b) En general, \batir,
hacer caer de ánimo (trans. |. t) i ' lli alma mía, si te lana la i [lipa
que lú hiciste por tu voluntad, anímele a confianza la nhra que Idos
hi/o por bu omnipotencia. » Puente, Mcd. 6. I i ■'■ 322). — i Va
mucho á los pi ¡ncipios A^ co uzar oración á no amilanat los pcnsai
nlos. i Sla. Ter. i ida, 13 (R. 53. W). , i Refl. I n las tribulac is j
tentaciones no tengo de amilanarme ni estar oí ioso, dejando mi
remedio > solo Dios, Bino hacer de mi parte lo que pudiere, i
Puente. Hed. 3. r.» 1 2. 135) i niño en ¡"s verbos de significa* ion
análoga, la causa de la impresión se i de expresar con de; poro
también tienen cabida oii o- i plemenlos. • , Piensas tú que
The text on this page is estimated to be only 23.70%
accurate

AMISTAD 429 — AMISTAD amilano [ De mirarle cara á

cara? » A. L. de Avala, Los comuneros, 1. 1 (3. 188). — « Esto dijo
para humillarlos por una parte y abajar los humos de su ambición,
avisándoles de la flaqueza y cobardía que habían de tener, y por
Otra paiie para prevenirlos porque no desesperasen ni se amilanasen
por su caída. » Puente, Med. í. 17 (2. 445). « No te amilanes por ver
| One es un pobre ganadero | Tu padre, y tu dote humilde | Tres
bueyes y cien borregos. » Tirso, Esto sí que es negociar, I. 1 (R. 5.
249'). — « Menester era más que un ánimo varonil para no
arredrarse por tantos obstáculos ni amilanarse con tamaños peligros.
» M. de la Hosa, Is. de Solis, I. I (i. 197). — y) Part. Puente, Med. 4.
54 (2. 627). Etiiu. Gomp. de á y milano, « porque esla ave se
acobarda y atierra cuando el águila la acomete, y lo mismo sucede á
los pájaros menores cuando el milano los persigue. i> Uirc. Autor.
Formaciones semejantes son agazaparse, alebrarse, azorarse.
amisyau. s. /'. i. ai Afecto puro y desinteresado, ordinariamente
reciproco, que nace y se fortalece con el trato. Acad. Dice. « La
amistad presupone que los amigos son iguales, ó ella los hace
iguales, y de este jaez es la amistad que Dios tiene con nosotros. »
Puente, Med. 0'. 9 (3. 302). « Cicerón dice que la verdadera amistad
consiste en un querer y no queri r, en querer lo que quiere y en no
querer lo que no quiere el amigo. En ninguna cosa muestra el
hombre más lo que quine ;'i Dios, que en esta verdadera amistad y
en la conformidad y sujeción de su voluntad, y en querer lo que
quiere, y en no querer lo que no quiere. í Rivad. Trib. I. 14 (R. 110.
385a). « El parentesco puede estar sin benevolencia \ afecto, la
amistad no. » Saav. Emp. 91 (R. 25. 239s). €. El parentesco puede
hallarse desunido, sin comunicación ni asistencia recíproca : la
amistad no. » Id. ib. (ib.). « En las repúblicas es más importante la
amistad que la justicia, porque si todos fuesen amigos, no serían
menester las leyes, ni los jueces, y aunque todos fuesen buenos, no
podrían vivir si no fuesen amigos, $ Id. Emp. 91 (í!. 25. 2381). « ¿Es
su amiga ó es su hermana? | Hermana por sangre soy, | De buena
sangre heredada, | Que os suplico respetéis; | Y amiga, porque se
llama | La amistad que es verdadera | Parentesco de las almas. »
Lope, El premio del bien hablar, 1.7 (R. 24. 49.V). « Obsérvese que
las amistades contraídas en la primera edad son más firmes y
duraderas; señal de que la simpatía, sentimiento ciego, dirige al
nombre con más seguridad que el raciocinio en una edad más
avanzada. » Lista, Ensayos, 1. p. 6. — « Amistad de yerno, sol en
invierno : s refr. que denota la tibieza ó poca duración de la amistad
entre suegros y yernos. — a) Casta que se exprese de algún modo
que dos ó más personas tienen amistad, para que se comprenda que
se trata de una relación reciproca. « Dejó el autor escrito que los
había comparado en la amistad á la que tuvieron Niso y Eurialo, y
Pilados y ((restes. » Cerv. Quij. 2. 12 (R. 1. 427^). « ¡No se podía
esperar tal hecho de la mucha y familiar amistad de los dos, que
dicen que era lauta, que los llamaban los dos amigos, y Id. ib. 1. 35
(R. I. 354'). « Pues nuestra amistad — ha de ser perpetua,
comencémosla con santas y loables ceremonias. » Id. Nov. 3 (R. 1.
1352). « El tiempo deshace la amistad de los pecadores. » Estella,
Van. del mundo, 1. 15 (Míst. 4. 35). « Entre los griegos se celebró la
amistad de Teseo y Pirítoo. » Clem. Coment. 4, p. 210. — |3) En
otros casos se particulariza la relación con entre ó con. « Entre los
pobres pueden durar las amistades porque la igualdad de la fortuna
sirve de eslabonar los corazones; pero entre los ricos y los pobres no
puede haber amistad duradera, por la desigualdad que hay entre la
riqueza y la pobreza. » Cerv. Pers. 2. 5 (R. i. 597'2). « No hay
amistad, ni la puede haber, sino entre los buenos. ¡> Estella, Van.
del mundo, 1. 15 (Mist. 4. 35). « La mucha amistad que hay entre el
P. Salazar y mí, y la merced que me hace, yo no la negaré jamás. »
Sta. Ter. Carios, 1. 20 (R. 55. 1632). « Lúe el Señor servido, que
comencé á tomar amistad con una señora viuda, de mucha calidad y
oración. » Ead. Vida, 2í (lí. 53. 70'). « Urgulania, abuela de Silvano,
envió á su nieto un puñal ; y creyóse que por advertimiento del
príncipe, respecto á la amistad de Augusta con Urgulania. » Colonia,
Tac. An. 4. 22 (i. 204). — y) La construcción con por disuena á oídos
castellanos y parece calcada sobre el francés. Cp. Baralt, Dice, galic.
o. 508. « No tengo aliento para aumentarla el dolor con la memoria
de mi amistad por el difunto. » Isla, Cart. fam. 1. 43 (R. 15. 4412). «
Mucha es mi amistad polvos; | Pero en llegando tal caso | Sólo
escucho del honor | Los imperiosos mandatos. » Gil y Zarate,
¡Cuidado con las nocías! 4. 5 (19). — 8) De amistad :
amistosamente (ant. ). « ¡ Oh Señor, cómo os desconocemos los
cristianos ! ¡ Qué será aquel día cuando vengáis á juzgar, pues
viniendo aquí tan de amistad á tratar con vuestra esposa, pone
miraros tanto temor! » Sta. Ter. Mor. 6. 9 (R. 53. íl(i-). — li) Se usa
en plural (á la manera de amores), lo cual sucede especialmente en
la frase Hacer las amistades, Reconciliar á los que están reñidos, y
en sentido recíproco Reconciliarse. Hoy pertenece al lenguaje
familiar. También se dice romper las amistades. « Eslando con una
persona, bien al principio del conocerla, quiso el Señor darme á
entender ipie no me convenían aquellas amistades, y avisarme, y
darme luz en tan gran ceguedad. > Sta. Ter. Vida, 7 (R. 53. 351). —
« Grande fue el gusto que todos recibieron de la graciosa pendencia
de los pastores, y más de la cólera y enojo que Eraslro mostraba,
que fue menester que el padre de Galatea hiciese las amistades de
Lenio y suyas, aunque Erastro,
The text on this page is estimated to be only 18.52%
accurate

AMISTAD 430 AMISTAD si do fuera por do perder el respeto

al padre de su señora, en ninguna manera las hiciera. > Gen . ii. I •
IT-'i. I.a reina se lue a Ciudad Rodrigo para verse coa el infante don
Alonso de Portugal, sn yerno, y hacer las amistades entre él \ su
padre. » Mar. Hist. Esp. 15. 16 il¡- 30. Í521). i Dame esa mano, j
después, j Que se hagan las amistades, i Lope, El perro del
hortelano, 2. 18 (R. -i. 35o1). — e) En sentido menos estricto se
dice de la arinonia y relaciones pacíficas entre los soberanos, i I.a
pérdida de la Holanda, que había servido largo tiempo de nudo a la
alianza ilo la Inglaterra y de la Prusia, acabó de resfriar la amistad
de entrambas potencias. M. de la Rosa, Esp. del siglo,5. 28 (5. íiii .
598s). i \ si en e| cuerpo Se halla la unidad de < -iiui nrdia nm que
tienen los miembros amistad entre si, mas razón es que les
cristianos sean concordes \ se amen á veces en Cristo nuestro
Redentor que es nuestra cabeza. I Venegas, Agonía, 3, 20 I Hist. :¡.
115). i Si queréis ver el amistad que la lengua castellana tiene con la
// — ya dos veces es he dicho que cuasi en lodos los vocablos que
tiene latinos, si comienzan en f. la convierten en /<. i="" vald=""
dial.="" mayans="" hablaba="" de="" hainbie.="" nial="" r=""
lie="" iiene="" amistad="" hend.="" lazar.="" pacto="" amistoso=""
onfederaci="" .="" losu="" hizo="" con="" le-="" gabi="" tas="">e
ilie por obligado á aventurarse nm ellos, i Márquez Gooern. crist. '1.
~1~>. § 2 (2. 240 Rizóse liga enti o ellos j amistades do más
duraderas ."> i1). A proposite de este pasaje cita Clemencin les
siguientes : c Al fin me hizo amistad iper mi dinero) de alcanzar de
los di lugar para que yo fuese con ellos, t Quev. Gran Tac. 22 (R. 23.
5231 . Rizóme muchas amistades. Alemán, Guzmán, I. 1 1¡. 3. 243 -
'i. ■■ El se los echó [los rosarios] en la faltriquera, prometiéndome
hacer amistad per ello, i Id. ib. I. '■!. S. «i Érame de mucho gusto
tener á la mane algunas cosas con que peder hacer amistades á
forzados amigos. » Id. ib. I. •!. 9; etc. — « A muchos cristi dio
libertad sin rescate. Esta amistad con los nuestros le acarreó mal y
daño. » Mar. Hist. Esp. \x. 16 (R. 31. 29'). i Pero decid : una amistad
tan buena Como seria daros libre al conde, 5 negando mi sangre per
la ajena, | ¿Merece galardón? i Lope, El molino, -2. 18 1 1;. 24.
33*). c ¡, Tú no ves que es rectitud Hacer á un hombre amistad? i
Id. ib. 3. I di. 24. 361). « A les grandes amigos se han de pedir
grandes amistades, i Id. El arenal de Sevilla, 3. 2 'li. ¡I. •>!!'>. — i
Llegaron Belalcázary otros principales capitanes de Airo, y besaren
las mane- al adelantado; lo mismo hicieron los de éste con Almagro,
\ todo se volvió cortesías, amistades j ofrecimientos urbanos j
caballerosos, i Quint. Pizarra i II. 19. i;.:: i -i tu ¡il. Personas con
quienes se tiene amisiad. i onexiones. ' Juntando 4 éste los i riados j
allegados del conde de TendiUa, personas de crédito j amistades en
la ciudad, i Meml. Guerra de Gran. I di. .1. 7(e). « Los peregrinos
tienen muchas posadas > ningunas amistades. Estella, Van. del mu
nao, - 1 Wist. I Per. iiiili'cl. (Nótese la ferina amizot, \ la frase tornar
Id amistad, que se usaba como ¡ec la para rescindir el pacto de
amistad). Siglo XV : El ni aprobó su disculpaciou ni la reprobó, é asi
quedaron ni en su amistad ni lucra della. i Crón. Juan II. i í. 25 li. 68.
. Piensa mucho en elegir I Tal amistal i Que te recuerde I -Iil E buen
\ ivir. » Santill. p. 63 l on\ ¡ene á los i is averse asj en el uso del
amista) como si sn membrassen que podia ser i onvertida i
enemistat. i Id. p. 153. Siglo \ 1 1 Puso con él amistad el prometióle
aj tida contrael rey. • \!f. \l. 66 li 66 -'l i1). Porque las amistades
fuesen guardadas entre los revés — el rej de Portogal avia i dar
villas el i . siielles par, i esto mismo, i Ib. 65 R. 60, 2I31). En el undi
iño del reinado ueste rej don Alfonso — - el rej de Granada, por
habei la voluntad e amistad del rej den Vlfonso más de i uants la
avia, vino á él á Toledo, i Cráñ. Mf. \. :: (R. 66. ■'•' i. Si algunos en
LIi s o en sus termine- Qciescn juramento o amistad de bullicio —
fáganles como a libe- .- g / * de l.hni, >. irad, del si■ i\ l lor. Pro».
Vasc. 1. 188). \ III NOS el I ene ¡o de l'l.o en/la el de Talavera
The text on this page is estimated to be only 23.07%
accurate

AMOHINAR — 431 — AMOLDAR nuestra amizdad de

consuna firme y estable contra el concejo Davila. ¡> Docum. de
1286 (Muñoz, F. 441). « Deshonra, ó tuerto ó daño faciendo un
lijodalgo á otro, puedel desaliar por ello en esta manera, diciendo asi
: Tornovos amistad et desaliovos por tal deshonra, ó tuerto ó daño
que ñcistes á mi ó á luían mi pariente. » Parí. 7. 11. 2 (3.601). «
Antiguamiente los fijosdalgos con consentimiento de los reyes
pusieron entre sí amistad e dieronse fe unos a otros de se la tener e
de se non facer mal unos a otros a menos de se tornar ante amistad
e de se desafiar. » Fuero real, í. 25. I (0. L. "2. 162). « E si dixieren
que son amigos, deve preguntar aquel que los recibe si el amiztad
era nuevamiente, o si dante. » Espéc. 4. 7. IX (O. L. 1. "202). « Faz
tu estas dos cosas, e avras la amiztad de los ornes. » Buenos
proverbios (Knust, Mitth. 35). « Si el lijodalgo a querella de otro
lijodalgo, [ante] quel'faga Otro mal alguno, devel tornar amistat, e si
aqueste a que torna amistat, dijier que gelo rescive, e otrosí
tornal'amistat, fasta nueve dias non se deven facer mal el uno al
otro. » Fuero riejo, 1. 5. 2 (19). « E esta prueba tal viene sobre todo
pleito de rais. o de mueble, o de amistat. » Ib. 3. "2. 7 (84). «
Comenzó de dezir paraulas damizat. » Alex. "2015 (II. 57. 210'). «
Loro e perdonóles e firmóles amizat. » Ib. 1521 (R. 57. 19-1'). « El
sennor de Damasco asmó gran! maluestat, ' Asmó con Alexandre de
poner amizad. i ///. 1038 (l¡. ."",7. 179»), « Envioli sues letras
ruegos de amiztat. d Berc. S. Mili. 7Í (11. 57. fi7-). « Non dizes
verdad |áj amigo ni ha sennor, ¡ Ffalso a todos o mas al Criador, [ En
tu amistad non quiero aver ración. » Cid, "2388 (R. 57. 351). «
Saludarnos liemos amos, e taiaremos amistas. » II,. -2111 (R. 57.
269). Etim. l'oit. amizade; eat. amistat; prov. amistatz : IV. ant.
amiste, amisiié, hoy amitié : it. amistade, omitíate, amista : del lat.
bajo amicitatem, anticuas, por amicitia, de árnicas, amigo : « lile
tamen in nostra amicitate persistí t, et persistere velet; sed Rex
noster ei adhuc non consentit. ¡> Cron. Albeld. año 883 (Esp. sagr.
I::. 159). amoiiix tit. B. a) Causar mollina ó enojo I I ni ns.). x¡ «
Amohinábanle sus flaquezas de estómago, sus vaguidos de cabeza,
su modo de hablar con más repulgos que sus tocas, y filialmente su
inutilidad y sus vainillas. » Cerv. Nov. 5 (II. I. Ilií;). « Paréceme,
Cloe, que te enojas; | Mi celo es pío; si esto le amohina, | Ríete
hasta que escupas las quijadas. » I!. \rjens. son. Aunque Ovidio (R.
12. 3191). « ,-. No te cansa y te amohina | Tanto entrar, tanto
partir? » Lope, El caballero de Olmedo, i. 1 (II. 34. 3731). — f¡) Refl.
« Aquí fue el gritar del pueblo, aquí el amohinarse el lo alcalde, aquí
el desmayarse Preciosa, y el turbarse Andrés de verla desmayada. «
Cerv. Nov. I (I!. 1. 116*). « Amohinábase el perro, y dando ladridos
y aullidos no paraba en tres calles. > Di. Quij. 2, pról. (R. I. 104). «
Los oídos quieren oír cosas placenteras y vanas, y historias de vidas
ajenas, y aiuohínanse si habláis cosas honestas y graves. * Gran.
Simb. í. dial. 0 (R. 6. 559-). «'Esto que le he dicho, baste; | Que por
Dios, si me amohino, | Que ha de llevar las señales | De la cadena
en el cuerpo. » Tirso, El condenado por desconfiado, 3. 11 (R. 5.
1993). « Amohinóse el despensero, creyendo mal recompensado su
celo en favor de su amo. » M. de la Rosa, Is. de Solís, 1. 5 ( í. 211).
— aa) Con de, para expresar la causa del enojo. « Amohinóse
mucho desto el ventero, y amenazóle que, si no le pagaba, que lo
cobrarla de modo que le pesase. » Cerv. Quij. 1 . 17 (R. 1. 289-'). «
Amohinóse Menga de esto. » Tirso, El pretendiente al revés, 3. 17
(R. 5. i23). — ¡3 ¡3) Con con, para expresar la ocasión del enojo. «
Es algo tealina | Mi condición, y va siempre de gorja, | Y con tanto
boato se amohina. » Jovell. Jovino á Poncio (I!. 1(1. 181). — y>
Aüsol. « Vengo por seis raciones | Que me deben : que amohina |
Ver que sobren á Cristina, | Y resobren á Quiñones, | Y que falten
para mi. » Cerv. La entretenida, 1 ((Jo mi. 2. 192). — b) Hacer
enojoso (trans.). « Daría muchas gracias á Dios si fuese sorda v
tartamuda, partes que amohinan las conversaciones y dificultan las
visitas. » Quev. Calul. de un casam. (edic. de Sancha, 2. 79). Etim.
Comp. de á y mollino, mollina. «•ros. -molí i- forma naturalmente
dos sílabas; pero cuando el acento cae fuera de esta combinación,
se admite la sinéresis, como se ve en el amohinóse de Tirso.
amoldar, v. l. ») Ajustar al molde, dar forma en el molde (trans.). a)
« Venga mi cadena verdadera, y tórnese vuesa merced su falsa, que
no ha de haber conmigo trasforuiaciones de Ovidio en tan pequeño
espacio. ¡Oh — y qué bien que la amoldaron, y qué presto! » Cerv.
El vizcaíno fingido (Co'm. 1. 243). « Hecho harina [el maíz], lo
reducían á masa — y lo tendían o amoldaban sobre unos
instrumentos como toderas de barro. » Sidis, Conq. de Méj. 1. "20
(II. "28. "230'). — ia) Refl. « La oveja le tributa todos los años su
rico vellón, y el gusano de seda hila, para vestirle, su preciosa
trama; el metal se amolda y la piedra se ablanda entre sus dedos. »
Anón, en Capniany, Filos, eloc. 3. 3, §i,descrip. (488). — ¡3¡3) Pait. «
Diérasme tú otro molde, y saliera yo más amoldada. » Picara
Justina, 1. 1. 3. 2 (R. 33. 722). — p) Con d, que significa la
conformidad con el molde ó modelo. « No pienses amoldara á tu
figura | Bronce ó mármol tenaz; tal es mi estrella, | Que, aunque la
viera ser de piedra dura, | Era capaz de enai arme de ella. » Arriaza,
sút. í (R. 67. 131 *). — •() Con en, representándose el molde como
receptáculo donde se pone la materia para darle forma. « La palabra
original quiere decir hacer príncipe. Y porque significa también lo
que los plateros llaman vaciar, que es infundir en el molde el oro ó la
plata derretida para hacer la pieza principal que pretenden, entrando
el metal en el molde y ajustándose á él, podremos decir aquí que la
Sabiduría divina dice de sí que fue vaciada por el
The text on this page is estimated to be only 17.85%
accurate

AMol.liAR 132 AMONES! \l; Padre desde la eternidad,

porque os imagen suya, que la piuló, do apartándola de si. siuo
amoldándola en si, j ajustándose del todo con i León, Nomb. 3, Hijo
(R. 37. l T 1 » >. < Concebida una idea singular, mírala el
entendimiento con aquella predilección exclusiva \ ciega con que
suele un padre distinguir á sus hijos; j desenvolviéndola con esta
preocupación, amolda en ella todos ln> hechos, y le ajusta todas las
reflexiones. » Bal mes, ProI -/Til. 97). — i»> Por extensión, Arreglar,
acomodar, reducir á la forma propia ó conveniente trans.). j> ■
Prosiguió en los golpes \ los trotes ' Amoldándose atiento los
bigotes, i Quev. Masa 7, Nec. de Orí. -l ili. 69. 2941). — xx) Re/1, t
Kl valor, aliado con la galantería, fue tomando aquel tierno y brillante
colorido, que si ioj cubrió del Imiti su lici'cza. |ior lo menos la hizo
más agradable. Asi se amoldó v lijó el carácter de los caballeros de
la edad media. < Jovell. Mem. sobre espect. I (R. 16. 183' i. « Es
Ínula cosa irse entablando el rostro á tercios concertados, a
Idándose con la postura \ venciendo dificultades. » Picara Justina,1!.
2.1. \ (R. 33. 981. El Dice. Mor. cita este pasaje con alguna
diferencia), e. Met. Arreglar ó ajustar á cierta paula ó i lelo ihiins I.
J.i Con n pala expresar el objeto que se loma c norma, i Costóle
bastante diligencia amoldarle á las costumbres serias y religiosas. »
Alcázar. Crono-hist. de la Comp. de Jesús, I, fol. -i Dice. Autor.).
Debe [el poeta] amoldar lus sucesos verdaderos á su plan general,
adornarlos, inventar cusas verosímiles y presentar un total complete
\ agradable, i M. de la Rosa, Poi $. ép. 1 2. 23 . — ax\llr/l. i si entran
en religión, oo pindén llevar la aspereza y rigor dolía, no se sallen
amoldar á los ejercicios de la humildad y mortificación. » Rivad. Trib.
1. 26 il¡. 60. ¡ lii í. i helien tener siempre delanti de sus ojos como un
espeje la vida de esta Virgen .santísima para amoldarse á ella y
seguir sus ejemplos. » Id. Flos. SS. Present.ae Mra. Sra. I I ida de la
Virgen, 118). i Como la Índole de la doncella era de suyo Id. inda,
poco á poco se fue annd. laude a las costumbres j II los usos de las
gentes c ¡uienes \ ivía. > M. de la Rosa, / • de So lis, 1.29 (4. 285). -
Recelaban que se preponía el astuto moro amoldarse al linaje de
vola y lisonjear los gustos del monarca, para granjea] poco á poco
su gracia \ valimiento. » Id. té. 2. II (4. 343). e La versificación
aSade un atractivo más ala i e inedi a ; peí poi la iii II. del Pulgar,
sobre la copla l'1 de Mingo i;< i ulgo i Modorrado con «d sueño No
lo cura de almagrar [al ganado] — | QuantO V0 no amoldaría \ Lo
de Christoval Hexia, Ni del otro tartamudo, ', Ni del Meco Moro
agudo. ,. ledic. de Sancha). ■:iim. i'.onip. de a y molde. IMOlfESTAK.
0. I. o Hacer presente alguna cusa para .pie se considere, procure ó
evite. Con acus. de cosa, at) i Tos nulos oirán la voz del que tienes a
las espaldas, \ ie amonesta el eanii pie has de andar. Puente, Miil. 'i.
i (3. 30). • Fueron muchas las señales que ara star. .o a Julio César
su muerte. > Quev. .1/. Bruto (R. 23. 1 18*). i Aunque con palabras
y ejemplos amonestó tanto las peregrinaciones, disnade a Paulino,
monje, que QO lo haga, porque para su instituto convenía más la
quietud j encerramiento. Sig. Vida de S: Jer. i. '■' •'• ¡:¡i. » l'or la \
irtud di\ i na convalecieron, \ cobraron súbita alegría de corazón v
fuerzas corporales, no en baldo, mas para amonestar á les oíros la \
irtud de la perseverancia. » Uran. Simb. "-'• 23, s 2 ili. . \l lin de la
ne sina i arla vueh e otra \ez á encargarle este mesmo cons do nnilo
: Quiero piular el lili cu el principio, porque un me contento con
haber amonestado esto una \ez. Id. Orac. ¡i consid. 2. •_'. § 5 'l¡. 8.
105'). i Del modo mismo otra visión, soñando, Tiene, j lo misino le a
moni i,.. Maury, uido (R. 67. 181 ' i. p) Con una prop. ni. lie . para
presentar ionio un hecho pOSÍtÍVO aquello que se quiere lili llh.il lili
acus. con inliu. i I \ el../ pasas \,.lando, | \l humano linaje ai
testando, \ i. nilo las c,,sas que lu alíenlo i na | {.iiiuu nacen \
mueren en un día. QuC las llllllia| Cuanto con más belleza resplan dei
en. Más pi esto des\ ni,, cu Rioja, .1 / i r, iiim il;. 32, 383 ■
Amonestó i los soldados en pocas palabras que alli ei a pi i ■ vencer
ó morir. Quint. Pisan o(R. 19.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 21.87%
accurate

AMONESTAR — 133 — AMONESTAR — y) Con una prop.

subj., para presentar como consejo ó prevención lo que se inculca
(en latín, itt, ne con subj.). « Os amonesto que así como halléis de
ser enemiga de vuestra voluntad, así mucho más lo seáis de vuestro
parecer, y de querer salir con la vuestra. » Avila, Audi, 55
(Hfist.3.235).s Hacer otra cosa sino lo dicho, y seguirse nadie por su
parecer en esto, téngolo por cosa muy peligrosa; y ansí, hermanas,
os amonesto de parte de nuestro Señor que jamás os acaezca. ¡>
Sta. Ter. Mor. (i. 3 II. 53. 165a). « Dios que nos amonesta que
peleemos, nos ayuda para la victoria, d Gran. Doctr. crist. 2. 20, § 1
(R. II. I311). « Amonestóles no desfalleciesen, antes defendiesen la
ciudad con el esfuerzo y valor que dellos se esperaba. i> Mar. Hist.
Esp. I í. 8 (R. 30. -i I -i1). « Presentó á los legados un libro doctísimo
que había escrito en defensión del matrimonio del rey y de la reina,
y amonestóles con un razonamiento gravísimo que no buscasen
dificultades donde no las había. » Rivad. Cisma, i. U (R. 60. 2001).
Id. Tmit. I. III (R. II. 3X1',-). — ¡H Con arí. « Amonestado á ello
también por la santidad del pontífice Gregorio XIII. ¡> Coloma,
Guerras de los Est. Bajos. 1 (II. 28. (i1). — S) En a, Y aparece el
nombre de persona como dal. y la prop. subj. como acus.; y frases
como amonestará alguno la muerte, la virtud, dan á entender que
tal análisis no es desacertada. Pero á veces el pronombre va en
acus., sin que disuene la construcción, lo cual persuade que, á lo
menos para estos casos, ha de buscarse otra explicación : podría
decirse que el pronombre va en acus. y el que se toma en sentido
final (latín : « Discípulos moneo, ut praeceptores suos ament »).
Véase Bello, Gram. § 368. g. « Reprendiendo á los unos y á los
otros, los amonesta que vivan en paz y en concordia. » Scío, S.
Pablo, Rom. advert. • Las amonesto que no llorasen tanto á Él
cuanto á sus pecados y los castigos que por ellos habían de venir á
aquella ingrataciudad. » Rivad. Flos SS. Yalu de Cristo (84). s.
Publicar en la iglesia al tiempo de la misa mayor las personas que
quieren contraer matrimonio ú ordenarse, para que, si alguno
The text on this page is estimated to be only 18.43%
accurate

MONESTAR 134 — VM'iNTONAR supiere algún

impedimento, lo denuncie (trans.). 21 — Parí. « Si yn amonestado
es> mañanaosdesposáis, ¿Qué teinéis?i La villana de Vallecas, 3. 6
(R. 5. 641). « Amonestada con vos Dos veces,y la tercera | A punto
de publicarse, ¿Qué faltas vistes en ella Para ocasionar venganzas ¡
A la sangre portuguesa, Ouo >'ii i -enlejióles o pierde el seso ó se
venga? ■> Id. Desde Toledoá Madrid, 3. 10 (R. 5. 1981).— Refl. Ser
amonestado, hacerse amonestar. Lo que digo yo Es cosa en razón
fundada, | Pues que casando .i don Juan, Lo b tanto secreto. ] — Si
es burla, ¿para qué efeto? , — ¡Burla, y él \ Pedro están Pidiendo
que, por temor Vuestro, licencia le den Sin que se amoneste '. »
Lope, /. Santill. p. 18. « El cauto m teslro de t<> que bobiesen
mengua, cerrasen las puertas ■ ■i non I"- qui iesen i ei ebir. Poi i i -
'"■i. E por ende bí algu le la lej de ln> judíos, varón >> mugier, se
lomare a la nuestra fe e fuer casado, leñemos por bien que el
perlado daquel lugar amoneste al que fincare en la lej de los ludios,
que se torne christiano, esinon lo quisiere íazer, quedalli adelante
que 1<>s departa, i / (O. I.. 1.384). Eslablescemos que tod onine
que apusiere algún mal al principe I mientre, ó que I" non amonesto
ante en bondad de su vula. mas quiérese levantar contra lientre, é
ron sanna — pierda la meetad de todas sus cosas. Fw ro Juzgo, 2. 1.
7 1 l.i. i Por emendar esl non nos costrinne razón solamientre ; mes
demais las cosas mismas, que ims amonestan que pongamos tal
sentencia de nuestros corazones porque l. preámb. i (v). i He depois
amonestó todo el concello con grant devoción que se nembrasen de
los degredos de sos padres, i Ib. I (i). •■ Establecemos el
mandamos que los clérigos de misa amonesten á su pueblo que se
vengan á confesar. > Conc. de León, año 1228 (Esp.sagr.36. 221). <
Desenl amonéstalos que piensen de orar, i Berc. Sacrif. 248 di. 57.
88 i. ■ tiin Port. amoestar; cat., prov. amonestar; ii. ant. amonester
(en ing. ant. moneste, Chaucer, Rom. of th i ñ 79), boy admonester,
admonéter. En que escomo, de a, mi \ numere, no hay duda; pero la
forma en que aparece el ultimo componente es de difii il ezplicaí ¡ón
: se lia supuesto un participio monestus por mónitas. Véanselas
observaci ¡s que i este respecto hace \. Hnssafia, chrift für
romanische Philologí 268. Monere, representado en nuestro muñir,
pertenece á la raíz mun. pensar, j co ponde ¿ la forma causativa
mánayámi; por lanid su valor primario es Bago pens ir. Bopp, Gloss.;
s. bleicher, I \8; Pott, W 117,. 2. 2. III'. «■on»«r. Trun*. Refl. : 2, B.
— Vari. : I. Ii. ■. 83; I. b, ;. xa; I. 6,i, 88; 2, t. — Con a : I, 6, r. —
lie : I, b, 8. - Con pron. Prop. subj. : I . a, ■ » mu ron tu i i. ■ Pom
sobre otras sin orden ni concierto (trant « Si trastornare todas las
cosas,) las amonloen un lugar, ¿quién será poderoso paro
contradecirle, 3 decirle : por que l> u Gran. Simb. 1.37, §1 (R. 6.
272 Hasta el En s¡i casa la plata amontonaron. » León, Po :. I ■■' 3
(R. 37. 59'). • Vnsl la luí que ■ Serena rcluí i i, con nublados \ réis
negra á deshora, ¡ \ los vientos alados amontonando luego Nubes,
lluvias, horrores, trueno j fuego. Id. ib i . La cana >i nliii cumbre il!.
37. I i1'- • ^ las nubes derraman sobre el suelo, | Qi I cieno nmoni,
un mar entero. » Id. r'6. 2, Geórg. I i!;. .. ia) /;•/'. i En el río Jordán i
n indo se puso en medio del el arca de la lev pai i uací i- p iso al
pueblo que • «mi al di n la porto de arriba del, las que venían se
intonoron creciendo, \ , n |a parte de abajo siguieron su i urso na
The text on this page is estimated to be only 21.18%
accurate

AMONTONAR — 135 AMONTONAR tural v corrieron. »

León, Nomb. 3, Hijo (R. 37. I72jí. — pp) Part. « Blanqueaban
calaveras de hombres y huesos de caballos, amontonados,
despareidos, según como y donde habían parado. » Mend. Guerra
de Gran. í ÍR. 21. US1 — Este pasaje, en que se piula el campo
donde se perdieron don Alonso de Aguilar y el conde de Ureña,
ofrece notable semejanza con el de Tácito, An. 1. 61, en que se
describe el sitio en que fueron deshechas las legiones de Varo : «
Veíanse por la campaña los huesos blanqueando, esparcidos ó
juntos, según habían huido ó hecho rostro. » Coloma). — ¡3) Con
so&re. « La gran plaza de muertos deja llena; | Que su espada á
ninguno allí perdona, | Y unos cuerpos sobre otros amontona. » Ere.
Arauc. lí (R. 17. 57'). — ■>) Tratándose de seres animados,
Estrechar y reducir á un apiñado grupo (trans.). a) « Mendoza, que
manda el ala izquierda. — avanzará á viva fuerza sobre la opuesta
de los enemigos á lin de amontonarlos por aquella parte, i Mor. Uerr.
de los pedantes il¡.2. 571 '). — aa) Refl. Atrepellarse
desordenadamente. Rivad. Cisma, 3.9 li. 60. 31 I-i. « En pos de la
codicia torpe y ciega | Amontonar riquezas excesivas, d Jáur. eleg.
Engañaste, Licino (R. 42. Ill-i. — « ¡ Cuan en vano j Se cansa
amontonando | Lo que deja, y no sabe á quién v cuándo! » León,
Poes. 3, salmo 38 (R. 37. 49-). — ,3) Absol. « Los individuos como
las familias se afanan para amontonar. » IJalmes, Protest. 17 (3.
175). — in Tratándose de cosas inmateriales, ai « Si dice David que
es Dios admirable en sus santos, ¿ cuánto más ln será en aquella en
la cual amontonó halas las prerrogativas, gracias y dones de todos
los santos? > Gran. Serm. Concepc. (R. 11.35'). « Todas lagracias
que Dios repartió á lodos los otros santos, las amontonó y juntó en
María con mayor perfección j con medida más colmada. » Rivad.
Flos SS. Nativ. de Ntra. Sra. (Vida de la Virgen, 78). « Pudiera —
amontonar ejemplos ile heroicidad v patriotismo, de valor y
constancia, de prudencia y sabiduría, d Jovell. Elog. de Carlos IlUti.
16. 3121). — xa) Parí. « Los tiene todos [los bienes], y amontonados
en sí. » León, Nomb. 1, Pastor (R. '■','. !)2-i. — c) Tómase á
menudo en mala parte, ora por razón de la calidad de las cosas que
se allegan, ora por el poco acierto de su elección ó la poca
oportunidad de su empleo. x) i Las condones y razonamientos que
tinge liare el santo, cuando está ya en el extremo, son indiscretas,
largas, desaladas, sin propósito, caídas por el suelo, y de un
entendimiento bajo; y amontona Escritura á troche moche, como
dicen. » Sig. Vida de S'. Jer. 6. 3(570). i No aguardes ni confies que
el discurso del tiempo temple la justa saña que contra ti tengo, ni
quieras amontonar los agravios, t Cerv. Nov. 6 (R. I. 167'). « Lo que
ha de hacer id alma en los tiempos de esta quietud no es más de
con suavidad y sin ruido : llamo ruido andar con el entendimiento
buscando muchas palabras y consideraciones para dar gracias de
este beneficio, y amontonar pecados suyos v fallas para ver que no
lo merece. » Sta. Ter. Vida, 15 (R.53. 541). « Siendo chistoso y de
felices ocurrencias, amontonaba contra Mina acres y á veces
ingeniosas frases de vituperio.» A. Galiano, Recuerdos, p. 181. « En
otras cuatro comedias que escribió con el mismo título, amontonó
cuantos disparates le pidirciin \ i'l'I s niás. .i Mor. Com.diSC. prel. (II.
-. 311). 8 ¿Qué quiere decir aquel recitado monótono y fastidioso,
aquellospreludios instrumentales que enfrían y detienen el progreso
de la acción en las situaciones
The text on this page is estimated to be only 19.29%
accurate

AMOli — 436 — AMOR mas agitadas, aquella lentitud con

qu vehementes, aquellas repeticiones fuera de sazón, donde apura
la música todos sus esfuerzos, haciendo lo lo que ha de ser grave,
haciendo I lo que ha de ser breve, renovando mil una misma idea,
dando expresiones distintas \ contrarias entre si aun mismo afecto,
amontonando conceptillos, retruécanos y repiqueteado de voces, en
vez de expresar con sobriedad, vigor j sencillez las agitaciones del
ánimo'.' i Id. Úbr. póst. 1, p. 394. < En los versos burlescos
amontonará las alusiones forzada . los equívocos j Los
despropósitos.» Quint. Intrpd. al Parn. esp. 5 (R. 19. 1 I21). — aa)
Part. El odio amontonado en ocho siglos, i M. de la liosa, //. /'. del
Pulga í i Con sobre. « Los europeos del presente están insufribles
con las alabanzas que amonl tn sobre la era en que han naidalso,
Cart. marr. í (2. 31). « La mal, i estrella del duque de Vri maba
nuevas borrascas sobre su frente. » A. Saav. Masan. 2. I (5.157).<
Los ojos alza, ^ templando los inmensos males Que amontonaste
sobre mi, tu alma Digna de su intención goce leleite. i Quint. El duqv
Viseo, 3. 7 i li. 19. •",:,- 1. Dando rienda á su imaginación inventiva,
amontona episodios episodios. Id. Introd. á ln Musa ép. (R. 19.
I721). — xa) Refl. « En esa tragedia se amontonan incidentes sobre
incidentes. > M.di la Rosa, Trag.esp.tf 67). pp) Parí. i Ellos en tanto
a la ganancia atienden, \ absurdo sobre absur I" ai il idos Contempla
la raz a i uanto emprenden, i Quint. Reglas del drama, l (R. 19. 76').
-y) Con ,i. que expresa agregación, asi como sobre supi 1 1 Por
haber desde su primer pnncij lomcnzado á apartarse de Dios —
amontonando á pecados pecados, mereció ser autor déla mayor
ofensa que se hizo jamás. > León,Arom6.2,pr¿am6.(R.37 I Quién ha
lará á decirte las gi indi zas --- ; Títulos, nombí e ios, riquezas Que
este tiempo á -u casa a tonaba? i Valb Bci n. 21 (R. 17. 31 3. Uel.
Refl. "> Montar e leí a, enfadarse sin querer oír razón alguna (fam.).
< Escucha, Rufina, un rato. Mu\ de prisa le amontonas, i \. Saav.
Tanto vales cuanto tienes, 3. 86). ■>> \m :ebarse (fam. . Acad. Di
Per. antecl. Siglo XI] I LOS indis ll esle mundo cobdician amuchiguar,
Riquesas e podei ios luego en i a punto a tonar. » Rtm. de Pal. 966
(R. 57. I Etun. Comp. de a. que expri u ion, ¡ montón. imob. s. ni. i.
ii Pasión que atrae un hacia el otro. •• Calisto amia de amor quejoso,
j no I" juzgues poi e o poi Hai o, que el amor improbo lod I test, i
(R. 3. l- i. < El amor no tiene ¡i- facción • I mismo amor, j él proj - -
ii propia j verdadei por esta imposible que el amante ni alo ha • la
que & La i lara i onozi o que verdaderamente es amado,
certificándole desto las amorosas señales que ell ¡ así esliman en
tanto un regalado volver de ojos, una prenda, cualquiera que sea, de
su imada. un no se qué de risa, de habla, de burlas, que ellos de
veras toman como indicios que les van asegurando la paga que
desean, i Cerv. ('mi. 1 K. 1. 60' . i Aquello que dicen que se llama
;uu >r, que os una vehemente pasión del ánimo. — va que no dé
celos, puede dar temores que lleguen á quitar la vida, del cual temor
á mi me parece que no puede estar libre el amor en ninguna
manera. Id Pers. :;. L9 (R. L 658'). < El amor ni mira respetos ni
guarda términos de razonen sus discursos, \ tii la misma condición
que la muerte, que así acomete los altos alcázares de los reyes
como las humildes chozas de los pastores, v cuando toma entera
posesión de una alma, lo prima ro que liare es quitarle el temor y la
vergüenza. • Id. Quij. "2. 58 ili. I. .yj.v i. , r el pecbo mío | Nosé
deque raíz (c( > la hierba, Que suele de si misma ella nacei se) I i
Ígnito i Que mi deseo movía l ver siempre delante Mi compañera
Silvia, ^ de sus bellos ojos Solía gustar una dulzura extraña, I Que al
lin dejaba un no sé qué de amarj Mil reces suspiraba, j a i sabl i Cuál
mese la ocasión de mis suspiros. De manera q te Fui primera
amante Que al amor conociese. » Jáur. Aminta, l (R. i-. 135*). Ese
llanto es ile amor, yo I ",|". De amor, constante, sin doblez, -ni
tacha, Ferviente, abrasador, i-iul al nuil. ,, llartz. Las (iiiimili-x i/e
Tt'iuel. i. " (22). — x) Dicese por extensión de los animales, c Pues
la culebra, si es que no lo Deja el veni Fervorosa al amante ; Siente
de anuir el tigre, \ma el bravo león, i Jáur. Aminta, i R. 12. I , Peí
sonifn ado. xa) Como dios mitológico. Bravamente la debe de tener
herida \ Eraspasada aquel que llaman Amor, que dicen que es un
rapaz ceguezuelo, que, c ist ir 1 1_ iñoso, ó por mejor decir sin vista,
si toma por blanco un corazón, por pequeño que sea, le acierta i
traspasa de parle á parí Dechas. i Cerv. 58 (R. I 525 , l'n. sacro
Amor, que con doradas alas atraviesas del austro al oriento, \ abres
con tu fuerza el mar simante. 'í ,i Febo, al arrogante I M irle
subiendo vences, j alio igual i¡ \ \ sobrepujas; tú présenle, Pues viste
la Luz mía, dame alíenlo Para cxlremai sos glorias, i lien-. 2, cune, i
(R. 32. 300*). — I. o plural, i \i estéril hiele .i soplo crudo os hiera .
tales \ enus, las Gracias, los \ ■- Os miren. \ en vos reine la alegría.
> II, i.-, i. son. 112 R. 32. 281*). ■ Vqi o ,i las llores, , \l pie de esle
alto lauro coronado, Volaban los Vmores. » Id. I. canc. 7 (R. .; El
marido do Cileres Allá en sus fraguas de Leí - Las Hechas de les
Vmores I abraba del duro hierro, i Castillo \ Uensa, Inacj . 35, -, . i Ei
muj i . iniun el lin livo amorcillo, amorcito. « Mil lin>i 'citos Jugando
en lorno vuelen. > Mil. Anacr. 16 R. 63. 8 Bajo un parral
The text on this page is estimated to be only 24.74%
accurate

AMOR 437 AMOR frondoso [ De racimos cargado | Pon

Gracias v Amorcillos | Sin flechas y sin arco. í Castillo y Ayensa,
Anacr. 39. — ítf) Se usa á veces sin alusión directa á la mitología,
pero en virtud de la personificación, todavía aparece con frecuencia
sin artículo. « Hirióle Amor con su azote, | No con su blanda correa.
» Cerv. Quij. 1. 26 (R. 1. 3181). « Suelen las fuerzas de Amor |
Sacar de quicio á las almas. » Id. ¿6. 2. 46 (R. 1. 499-). « No te
pese que tenga Amor deshecho | Tu preso corazón en dulce fuego. »
Herr. i,eleg.6 (R.32.3682). « Ahora en instrumento menos grave |
Canto de Amor suave | Las iras y desdenes, | Los males y los
bienes.» Lope, Gatom. 1 {Obr. suelt. 19. I72i. « A Aminta y Lisis en
unión dichosa | Amor unido había, | El casto Amor, de la inocencia
hermano. » Mel. égl. 2 (R. ti:!. 17N-I. — V i Se usa en plural con el
mismo sentido que en singular, aunque más á menudo se toma por
la pretensión amorosa ó por el amor liviano ó incasto. « Se dio á
entender que no le faltaba otra cosa sino buscar una dama de quien
enamorarse, porque el caballero andante sin amores era árbol sin
hojas y sin fruto v cuerpo sin alma. » Cerv. Quij. 1. I (R. 1.258').
«Andaba Anselmo perdido de amores de una doncella principal y
hermosa de la misma ciudad, hija de tan buenos padres, y tan
buena ella por si, que se determinó — de pedilla por esposa á sus
padres. » Id. ib. 1.33 (R. I. 341a). « Nuestros amores | Mantuvo la
virtud libres de mancha : | Su pureza de armiño conservemos, i
Hartz. Los amantes de Teruel. í. 7 (22) « Ella siempre me
preguntaba cómo á mi amigo en sus amores te iba, y si su dama
tenia ya alguna noticia dellos. » Cerv. Gal. 3(R. I.332). « De Teodoro
entiendo | Que estos amores dirige | A lin tan justo y honesto |
Como el casarse conmigo. » Lope, El perro ilel hortelano, \. 10 (R.
24. ■ IV.',1). — « Los amores que con vos tuve fueron de
pasatiempo, sin que dellos alcanzase otra cosa, sino las flores que
vos sabéis. » Cerv. Nov. 9 (R. 1. 2081). « ¿Casóse vuesa merced?
replicó Peralta. Sí, señor, respondió Campuzano. Seria por amores,
dijo Peralta, y tales casamientos traen consigo aparejada la
ejecución del arrepentimiento. > Id. Nov. 11 (R. 1. 222'). «Tan bien
suelen andar los amores y los no buenos deseos por los campos
como por las ciudades. » Id. Quij. 2. 67 (R. 1. 546-). « Mujer que
tuvo amores | No es buena para casada. » Lope, Losmilagros del
desprecio, 2. 10 (lí. 34. 2432). — b) En general, Afecto por el cual
busca el ánimo el bien verdadero ó aprendido, y apetece gozarle
Acad. Dicc.t El amor es una especie de deseo que atiende y mira al
bien que se llama bello; pero para más clara delinición y división del
amor se ha de entender que en tres maneras se divide, en amor
honesto, en amor útil y en amor deleitable. Y á estas tres suertes de
amor se reducen cuantas maneras de amar y desear caben en
nuestra voluntad, porque el amor honesto mira á las cosas del cielo,
eternas y divinas; el útil, á las de la tierra, alegres y perecederas,
como son las riquezas, mandos y señoríos; el deleitable, á las
gustosas y placenteras, como son las bellezas corporales vivas, que
tú, Lenio, dijiste. » Cerv. Gal. 4 (R. 1. 5SJ). « El amor es una
complacencia en el bien por la conveniencia que tiene con nuestra
naturaleza. Sus principales actos son tres: el primero es general y se
llama benevolencia, que es querer bien á otro, complaciéndome en
el bien que tiene ó queriendo que le tenga. El segundo es amor que
llamamos de concupiscencia, amando alguna cosa por mi provecho ó
por el provecho de otro, como amo el dinero, el manjar, el esclavo.
El tercer acto es amor de amistad entre dos personas, amando la
una á la otra por el bien que hay en ella, conociendo que se aman; y
cuando este bien es sobrenatural, la tal amistad se llama caridad. »
Puente, Med. 6. 9 (3. 290). « Esta fuerza tiene el amor (si es
perfeto) que olvidamos nuestro contento por contentar á quien
amamos. » Sta. Ter. Fmw¿.5(R.53. I882). « De suerte que el amor
es una alienación v destierro de sí mesmo que nace de estar el
hombre todo trasladado y trasportado en el amado. » Gran. Mem.
vida crist. 6. 6, S 4 (R. 8. 3572). « Muchas veces habréis oído decir,
Sabino, respondió Juliano, que el amor consiste en una cierta
unidad. — Sí he, dijo Sabino, oido y leído que es unión el amor y
que es unidad, y que es como un lazo estrecho entre los que
juntamente se aman, y que por ser así se transforma el que ama en
lo que ama por tal manera, que se hace con él una misma cosa. »
León, Nomb. 2, Principe (R. :¡7. lís'i. « Aquel amores
verdaderamente grande y de subidos quilates, que vence grandes
dificultades. » Id. ib. 3, Amado (R. 37. 19i'). « El amor no lo es. si es
tibio ó mediano. » Id. ¿6. (I!. 07. 1921). « No hay mayor señal de
amor que morir un hombre por sus amigos, i Avila, Audi, 10 [Mist. 3.
203). « A la medida del amor es el gozo de los bienes que tiene la
persona amada, y el dolor de los males que padece, t Puente, Med.
4. 1 (2.369). — «El amor es muy mirado, humilde, recto; y no
liviano, ni regalado, ni entiende en cosas vanas; medido, casto,
firme, reposado y guardado en todos sus sentidos. El amor es sujeto
y obediente álos prelados, y á sí mismo vil y despreciado. A Dios
devoto y agradecido; confía siempre en él con viva esperanza, aun
en el tiempo de la sequedad, cuando no gusta de Dios ; porque no
viví' ninguno en amor sin dolor. » Gran. Imit.3. 6 (li.ll.4001). «
Paréceme que es el amor una saeta que envía la voluntad,que si va
con toda la fuerza que ella tiene, libre ile todas las cosas de la tierra,
empleada en solo Dios, muy de verdad debe de herir á su Majestad;
de suerte que metida en el mesmo Dios, que es amor, torna de allí
con grandísimas ganancias. » Sta. Ter. Conc. 6 (R. 53. 4021). «
Quiero concluir con esto, que, siempre que se piense de Cristo, nos
acordemos del amor con que nos hizo tantas mercedes, y i'iiin
grande nos le mostró Dios nuestro Señor, en darnos lal prenda del
que nos tiene, que amor saca amor. » Ead. Vida, 22 (l¡. 5:1. 72'). « ¡
Oh quién pudiera rastrear la
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookname.com