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Cactus Opuntia Spp As Forage FAO Plant Production
and Protection Papers Volume 169 Candelario
Mondragón-Jacobo Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Candelario Mondragón-Jacobo, Salvador Pérez-González
ISBN(s): 9789251047057, 9251047057
Edition: illustrated
File Details: PDF, 1.73 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
 Reprinted 2002

The designations “developed” and “developing” economies are intended for statistical
convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a
particular country, country territory or area in the development process.

The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent
those of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations or of their
affiliated organization(s).

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this

information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
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ISBN 92-5-104705-7

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this

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provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this
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should be addressed to the Chief, Publishing and Multimedia Service,
Information Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or
by e-mail to [email protected]

© FAO 2001
 iii

FOREWORD

The cactus Opuntia has been used in Mexico from pre-Hispanic times, and along with maize (Zea mays)
and agave (Agave spp.), played a major role in the agricultural economy of the Aztec civilization.
In recent years there has been increased interest in Opuntia species for the important role they play – and
are likely to play – in the success of sustainable agricultural systems in marginal areas of arid and semi-
arid zones.
Opuntias are well-adapted to arid zones characterized by droughty conditions, erratic rainfall and poor
soils subject to erosion, having developed phenological, physiological and structural adaptations to sustain
their development in these adverse environments. Notable adaptations are their asynchronous
reproduction, and their Crassulacean Acid Metabolism, enabling them to grow with very high efficiency
under conditions of limited water.
While opuntias may particularly contribute in times of drought, serving as a life saving crop to both
humans and animals, they also regularly provide livestock forage in arid and semi-arid areas. They
provide highly digestible energy, water and minerals, and when combined with a source of protein, they
constitute a complete feed.
In 1995 FAO published a book on Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear, prepared
through CACTUSNET, the international cactus network, with only one chapter devoted to the use of
opuntia as feed. The present publication, also prepared through CACTUSNET, focuses primarily on the
use of opuntia as forage and presents many recent research and development findings.
The preparation of this book was coordinated by Enrique Arias and Stephen Reynolds of the Horticulture
and Grassland and the Pasture Crops Groups of the Plant Production and Protection Division, and by
Manuel Sanchez of the Feed Resources Group of the Animal Production and Health Division.

E. Kueneman
Chief, Crop and Grassland Service
Plant Production and Protection Division
H. Kudo
Chief, Animal Production Service
Animal production and health division
 PREFACE

Towards the end of 1990, encouraged by the Mexican Embassy in Rome, a Mexican delegation consisting
of researchers, technicians and officials from the federal agricultural sector, visited the island of Sicily, Italy,
with the aim of initiating agreements to exchange information between the two countries concerning the
cultivation and utilization of opuntia. When the delegation arrived on the island, the spectacular development
of opuntia was noted. It was surprising to realize that formal cultivation of opuntia started only in the 19th
century.
One year later, an International Symposium on Opuntia, with participants from Chile, Italy, Mexico and
USA, was organized in Lagos de Moreno (Jalisco, Mexico), with the purpose of encouraging producers and
researchers to increase cooperation among the participating countries and to diffuse information on the
importance of opuntia.
As a follow-up to this meeting, it was proposed to create an International Technical Cooperation Network
on Cactus Pear (CACTUSNET). The proposal was presented in a special session of the Second
International Congress on Opuntia, which was held in Santiago, Chile, in 1992. CACTUSNET was
established under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in a
specific meeting organized by the University of Guadalajara, Mexico, in August 1993, with the participation
of ten countries from the Americas, Asia and Europe. Subsequently, several African countries have also
joined the Network.
Subsequently, thanks to the voluntary cooperation of CACTUSNET members residing in countries with an
arid environment, it was possible to start a database on countries of production, opuntia uses, and cultivated
areas. At the end of the 20th century, the area under cultivated opuntia for forage was reported to be
900 000 ha, greatly surpassing the reported area for fruit (100 000 ha). For farmers in arid zones, opuntia
planting is one solution to the problem of recurrent droughts. The succulence and nutritive value of opuntia
make it a valuable emergency crop, permitting livestock farmers in Brazil, Mexico, South Africa and USA to
survive prolonged and severe droughts.
It is worth mentioning that most authors of this book are technicians and scientists with wide experience in
their own country of cultivation and use of opuntia as forage. The publication strengthens the written
information on opuntia, since most of the existing publications have emphasized its use as a fruit.
Finally, I would like to mention that the diffusion of information on species like opuntia can allow assessment
of its value for tackling drought in the short term, while in the medium term opuntia can constitute an
important alternative to counteract global climate change and desertification. Other benefits from opuntia
are soil and water conservation, and protection of local fauna in arid and semi-arid lands.
The publication of this book is, therefore, opportune, reflecting one of the basic objectives of the CACTUSNET,
namely the diffusion of technical and scientific knowledge on opuntia

Dr Eulogio Pimienta
University of Guadalajara, Mexico
First General Coordinator of the CACTUSNET
 v

CONTENTS

Foreword iii
Preface iv
Acknowledgements x

INTRODUCTION 1
GENERAL BACKGROUND ON OPUNTIA 1
BOTANY 1
TERMINOLOGY 2
CACTUSNET 3
OPUNTIA AS FORAGE 3
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 4
PURPOSE OF THE BOOK 4

HISTORY OF THE USE OF OPUNTIA AS FORAGE IN MEXICO 5

Marco Antonio ANAYA-PÉREZ
INTRODUCTION 5
ORIGIN 5
DISTRIBUTION 6
COLONIAL MEXICO 7
Description of the opuntia plant 7
Propagation 8
Livestock raising 9
Forage 9
INDEPENDENT MEXICO 10
Livestock husbandry 10
The forage 10
RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF OPUNTIA IN MEXICO 11
Forage 11
Opuntia production 12

ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA 13

Park S. NOBEL
INTRODUCTION 13
DAILY GAS EXCHANGE 13
WATER-USE EFFICIENCY 14
WATER RELATIONS 15
TEMPERATURE RELATIONS 17
LIGHT RELATIONS 17
NUTRIENT RELATIONS 18
ATMOSPHERIC CO2 18
PREDICTED PRODUCTIVITIES 18
COMPARISONS WITH OTHER SPECIES 19
CONCLUSIONS 20
 vi

GERMPLASM RESOURCES AND BREEDING OPUNTIA 21

FOR FODDER PRODUCTION
Candelario MONDRAGÓN-JACOBO and Salvador PÉREZ-GONZÁLEZ
INTRODUCTION 21
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BREEDING 22
OPUNTIA BREEDING TECHNIQUES 22
LIMITATIONS TO BREEDING 23
GERMPLASM RESOURCES 23
Wild stock 23
Backyard sources 24
EARLY ATTEMPTS AT BREEDING OPUNTIA FOR FODDER 24
The improved Mexican cultivars 24
The ‘Palmas of Brazil’ 25
The spineless Burbank selections in South Africa 25
ACTIVE BREEDING PROGRAMMES 25
BREEDING GOALS 26
Cold Tolerance 26
Spineless pads 27
Plant productivity 27
High protein content 27
Pest and disease tolerance 27
IMPROVED OPUNTIA CULTIVARS BEYOND 2000 27

PRODUCTION AND USE OF OPUNTIA AS FORAGE 29

IN NORTHERN MEXICO
Juan José LÓPEZ-GARCÍA, Jesús Manuel FUENTES-RODRÍGUEZ
and R.A. RODRÍGUEZ
OPUNTIA IN NORTHERN MEXICO 29
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF NOPALERAS 29
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN FORAGE SPECIES 30
PRODUCTION 31
Wild stands 31
Cultivated nopaleras 31
HARVESTING SYSTEMS 32
CONSUMPTION BY ANIMALS 33
NUTRITIONAL VALUE 33
OPUNTIA AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION 35
Meat production 35
Milk production 35
Sheep 35
Other animals 36
PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES 36

FODDER NOPAL USE IN THE SEMI-ARID NORTHEAST OF BRAZIL 37

Djalma CORDEIRO DOS SANTOS and Severino GONZAGA DE ALBUQUERQUE
INTRODUCTION 37
CHARACTERIZATION OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 39
Planting density 39
Crop management 41
 vii

Soil preparation 41
Cutting height 42
Species comparison 42
Environmental constraints 43
Shading by mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) 43
Pests and diseases 43
Weed control 44
Economic evaluation 44
NUTRITIVE VALUE STUDIES 46
COMPARISON WITH OTHER FORAGES 46
COMPARISON AMONG CULTIVARS 46
STORAGE EFFECT 48
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS 49

UTILIZATION OF OPUNTIA FOR FORAGE

IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 51
Peter FELKER
INTRODUCTION 51
NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES AND SUPPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS 52
METHODS TO INCREASE THE PROTEIN CONTENT OF CACTUS FORAGE 53
PLANTING, CULTIVATION, FERTILIZATION AND CARE 54
THORNLESS VERSUS THORNY CACTUS FORAGE VARIETIES 55
COMPARISON OF CACTUS WITH HAY 56
CONCLUSIONS 56

OPUNTIA USE AS FEED FOR RUMINANTS IN CHILE 57

Patricio AZÓCAR
INTRODUCTION 57
CULTIVATION OF FORAGE OPUNTIA 58
Climate 58
Water requirement 58
Planting 58
Productivity 58
NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF FORAGE OPUNTIA 59
EFFICIENCY OF WATER UTILIZATION IN DRYLAND ZONES 60
INTEGRATION OF CACTUS WITH OTHER NATURAL FEED
RESOURCES OF ARID ZONES 61

OPUNTIA SPP. FOR FODDER AND FORAGE PRODUCTION IN ARGENTINA: EXPERIENCES AND
PROSPECTS 63
Juan C. GUEVARA and Oscar R. ESTÉVEZ
INTRODUCTION 63
BIOCLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARID AND SEMI-ARID ZONES 63
MAIN CONSTRAINTS FOR CACTUS PLANTATIONS 66
Temperature 66
Rainfall 66
Land tenure 66
ABOVEGROUND BIOMASS PRODUCTIVITY 66
MICROPROPAGATION OF OPUNTIA ELLISIANA 67
ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF FORAGE OPUNTIA PLANTATIONS 67
 viii

Cattle production 67
Goats for meat production 69
PROSPECTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 71

OPUNTIA SPP. - A STRATEGIC FODDER AND EFFICIENT TOOL 73

TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION IN THE WANA REGION
Ali NEFZAOUI and Hichem BEN SALEM
INTRODUCTION 73
IMPORTANCE OF CACTI IN ARID ZONES 74
CACTI AS A FODDER BANK 74
USE OF CACTI AGAINST DESERTIFICATION IN NORTH AFRICA 75
USE OF CACTI AS FODDER 75
Chemical composition 75
Digestibility 79
EFFECT OF FEEDING CACTUS ON RUMEN FERMENTATION PATTERN 80
Rumen pH 81
Ammonia concentration 81
Volatile fatty acids 82
Protozoa counts 82
Cellulolytic activity 82
Intake 83
CACTUS FEEDING HELPS TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF
WATERING ANIMALS IN ARID ENVIRONMENTS 84
Energy content 84
SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 84
STORAGE 84
GRAZING VERSUS CUT-AND-CARRY 85
SPINES 85
LAXATIVE EFFECTS – EASY TO SOLVE 85
INTEGRATION OF CACTI WITH OTHER ARID ZONES FEED RESOURCES 86
Example 1. Poor quality roughages supplemented with opuntia 86
Example 2. Atriplex as a nitrogen supplement to cactus 87
Example 3. Can acacia supplement cactus? 88
CONCLUSIONS 90

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA 91

AS A RUMINANT FEED IN ETHIOPIA
Firew TEGEGNE
INTRODUCTION 91
ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION AND
UTILIZATION OF OPUNTIA IN ETHIOPIA 92
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF OPUNTIA FICUS-INDICA 92
ANALYSIS OF ETHIOPIAN OPUNTIA 94
Dry matter, ash and mineral content determinations 94
Mineral composition 94
Chemical composition 96
In vitro dry matter digestibility 96
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 97
CP content 97
Crude fibre content 97
 ix

Nitrogen-free extract content 97

In vitro dry matter digestibility 97
CONCLUSIONS 99

THE USE OF OPUNTIA AS A FODDER SOURCE 101

IN ARID AREAS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
Gerhard C. DE KOCK
INTRODUCTION 101
CLIMATE 101
OPUNTIA CULTIVATION 101
WATER REQUIREMENT AND USE 102
PRODUCTION 103
CROP MANAGEMENT 104
UTILIZATION 104
Grazing 104
Chaffing 104
Meal 104
Silage 105
Supplementary feeding 105
LAXATIVE ACTION 105

CULTIVATION OF OPUNTIA FOR FODDER PRODUCTION: 107

FROM RE-VEGETATION TO HYDROPONICS
Candelario MONDRAGÓN-JACOBO, Santiago de J. MÉNDEZ-GALLEGOS
and Genaro OLMOS-OROPEZA
INTRODUCTION 107
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH OPUNTIA FODDER PRODUCTION 108
The cladode as a water reservoir 108
Length of growing season 108
Propagation 108
Response to prunning 109
Response to fertilization 110
Response to high planting densities 110
EXTENSIVE CULTIVATION OF OPUNTIA FOR FORAGE
IN ECOLOGICALLY-ORIENTED PROGRAMMES 111
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR EXTENSIVE PLANTATIONS 111
Site selection 111
Site protection 111
Planting material 111
Collection of planting material from wild stands 112
Planting techniques 112
Fertilization 112
Utilization 112
INTENSIVE CULTIVATION OF OPUNTIA FOR FORAGE PRODUCTION 112
Site selection 112
Land preparation 113
Cultivars 113
Propagation material 113
Plantation layout 113
Planting date 113
 x

Fertilization 114
Weed control 114
Management of pests and diseases 114
Harvesting 114
Storage 114
HYDROPONIC CULTIVATION 114
HYDROPONICS: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 115
THE SYSTEM 115
GENOTYPE PERFORMANCE 116
Effect of irrigation schedule and planting method 120
Water use efficiency 122

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITERATURE CITED 123

Annex 1 – SOME OPUNTIA-RELATED WEBSITES 141

Annex 2 – COLOUR PLATES 143

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For the preparation of his review on Ecophysiology, Park Nobel gratefully acknowledges the support of the
University of California, Los Angeles - Ben Gurion Programme of Cooperation, through the generous gift
of Dr Sol Leshin. Likewise, financial assistance from the Secretaría de Ciencia y Técnica de la Universidad
Nacional de Cuyo is gratefully acknowledged for the research reported by Juan C. Guevara and Oscar R.
Estevez, in their paper. Severino Gonzaga de Albuquerque, co-author of the chapter on “Fodder Opuntia
use in the Semi-arid NE Brazil,” acknowledges his dept to his father, César Gonzaga – a grower convinced
of the potential of opuntia, who passed away during the writing of the paper. Final editing, formatting and
production of camera-ready copy was undertaken by Thorgeir Lawrence.
 Opuntia as forage 1

INTRODUCTION

Stephen G. REYNOLDS and Enrique ARIAS

GENERAL BACKGROUND ON OPUNTIA

The utilization by man of the cactus Opuntia was recorded in Mexico in pre-Hispanic times, where it
played a major role in the agricultural economy of the Aztec empire; with maize (Zea mays) and agave
(Agave spp.), opuntias are the oldest cultivated plants in Mexico. There are three crucial steps in the
transition from the use of wild plants to planned cultivation, namely:
* the gathering of wild plants;
* cultivation of (wild) plants near human settlements, and
* cultivation of varieties, altered by selective propagation methods, in intensive farming for the
purpose of marketing.

Opuntias are now part of the natural landscape and the agricultural systems of many regions of the
world. Typically, there are three main production systems: wild cactus communities; family orchards; and
intensive commercial plantations. Opuntias have adapted perfectly to arid zones characterized by droughty
conditions, erratic rainfall and poor soils subject to erosion. They thus contribute in times of drought, serving
as life saving crops for both humans and animals. Some species are even naturalized weeds in countries
such as South Africa and Australia, where the environmental conditions are particularly favourable.
In recent years, plantations for fruit or forage production, as well as for vegetable or nopalitos and
cochineal, have been developed in many countries of Africa, America, Asia and Europe. There is increasing
interest in opuntias, and O. ficus-indica in particular, and the important role they play and are likely to play in
the success of sustainable agricultural systems in arid and semi-arid zones, where farmers and shepherds
must look to those few species that can profitably survive and produce. Thus opuntias have become an
endless source of products and functions, initially as a wild plant and, later, as a crop for both subsistence and
market-oriented agriculture, contributing to the food security of populations in agriculturally marginalized
areas.

BOTANY
There are almost 300 species of the genus Opuntia (Scheinvar, 1995). In Mexico alone, Bravo (1978)
recorded 104 species and varieties.
According to Scheinvar (1995), the name “Opuntia” comes from an ancient Greek village in the region
of Leocrid, Beocia: Opus or Opuntia, where Tournefort found a spiny plant which reminded him of the
American opuntias. Opuntia includes 11 subgenera: Opuntia, Consolea, Austrocylindropuntia,
Brasiliopuntia, Corynopuntia, Cylindropuntia, Grusonia, Marenopuntia, Nopalea, Stenopuntia and
Tephrocactus.
The taxonomy is difficult for a number of reasons: their phenotypes, which vary greatly according to
ecological conditions; their polyploidy, with a great number of populations that reproduce vegetatively and
sexually; and the existence of numerous hybrids, as almost all species blossom during the same period of

Stephen G. REYNOLDS Enrique ARIAS

Crop and Grassland Service Horticultural Crops Group

Plant Production and Protection Division, FAO

2 History of the use of opuntia as forage in Mexico

the year and there are no biological barriers separating them. Scheinvar (1995) mentions nine wild species
of Opuntia (O. hyptiacantha Web; O. joconostle Web; O. lindheimeri (Griff. and Haare) Bens.; O.
matudae Scheinv.; O. robusta Wendl. var. robusta; O. sarca Griff. ex Scheinv.; O. streptacantha Lem.;
O. tomentosa SD. var. tomentosa and var. herrerae Scheinv.) and three cultivated species (O. albicarpa
sp. nov.; O. ficus-indica (L.) Mill.; O. robusta Wendl. var. larreyi (Web.) Bravo), as well as one culti-
vated species of the subgenus Nopalea (O. cochenillifera (L.) Mill.), providing detailed descriptions of
each.
The evolution of members of the subgenus Opuntia in arid and semi-arid environments has led to
the development of adaptive anatomical, morphological and physiological traits, and particular plant
structures, as described by Sudzuki Hills (1995).
The species of the Opuntia spp. subgenus have developed phenological, physiological and struc-
tural adaptations favourable to their development in arid environments, in which water is the main factor
limiting the development of most plant species. Notable among these adaptations are asynchronous
reproduction, and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), which, combined with structural adaptations
such as succulence, enables this plant to survive long periods of drought, and to reach acceptable pro-
ductivity levels even in years of severe drought.

TERMINOLOGY
In this book opuntia is used to refer to the whole genus, of which the most widely known is Opuntia
ficus-indica. Previously, opuntia was used almost interchangeably with cactus pear and prickly pear.
Here, while these terms are occasionally used, the term opuntia is preferred because cactus pear can
sometimes refer to the fruit, and also not all opuntias are prickly pears, there being many spineless clones.
Other terms used include the following:
* cactus pear – opuntia plant
* cladode – shoots or stem-like organs
* jarabe – a syrup product from the fruit
* melcocha – jam
* miel de tuna – cactus pear honey
* nocheztli – highly prized red dye obtained from the body of the cochineal insect (Dactylopius
coccus) living on some opuntias. Called grana cochinilla by the early Spanish in Mexico, now
called cochineal
* nochtli – opuntia fruit
* nopal – opuntia plant (mainly Mexico)
* nopalitos – young cladodes used as vegetables
* nopalli – opuntia plant in Nahuatl language
* notuatl – the original Mexican word (from Aztec times) for opuntia
* prickly pear – opuntia plant
* queso de tuna – cactus pear cheese
* tenochtli – sacred opuntia in early Mexico
* tun/tunas – Caribbean word for fruit or seed
 Opuntia as forage 3

Opuntia ficus-indica
Common names:
* Spanish: nopal, cardón de México, chumbera, chumbo, chumbua, higo chumbo, higo de pala,
higo México, higuera de pala, nopal de castilla, tuna de España, tuna española, tuna mansa,
tuna, higo chimbo, tuna real.
* Portuguese: palma forrageira, figo da India, figo de pitoira, figueira da India, palmatoria sem
espinhos, tabaido.
* English: Barbary fig, Indian fig, prickly-pear.
* French: chardon d’Inde, figue de Barbarie, figuier à raquettes, figuier d’Inde, opunce, raquette.
* Italian: Fichi d’India
* German: frucht des feigenkactus, Indianische feige.

CACTUSNET
Upon the request of member countries, an international network, CACTUSNET, was established in
Guadalajara, Mexico, in 1993, under the auspices of FAO, to increase cooperation among scientists, technicians
and growers from different countries, and to facilitate the exchange of information, knowledge and technical
cooperation on cactus. Cooperation in the collection, conservation, evaluation and utilization of germplasm,
and the promotion of the ecological and social benefits of opuntias are also aims of the network. Twenty-
two countries have since joined. The University of Guadalajara, Mexico, and the University of Reggio
Calabria/University of Palermo have hosted the general coordination; from October 2000, the coordinating
institution became the National Institute for Agricultural Research of Tunisia. Meetings normally take place
in conjuction with the International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal, held every fourth year, but
additional regional meetings and working group meetings are also held, such as those in Angola, Argentina,
Chile, Italy, Mexico, Peru and South Africa on a range of topics, including post-harvest aspects, genetic
resources, cochineal, forage, fruit production, etc.
Tangible results of cooperation through CACTUSNET have been the preparation for publication in
1995 of the FAO book Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear (which has been translated into
Spanish and is being translated into Arabic), the production of a Descriptor List, and the annual CACTUSNET
Newsletter. The fifth edition, published in March 2000, focused on the use of opuntia as forage and is
available on the website of the FAO Grassland Group:
http://www-data.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPC/doc/publicat/Cactusnt/cactus1.htm
The present publication is also an example of voluntary cooperation of institutions and individuals
participating in the CACTUSNET.

OPUNTIA USE AS FORAGE

Felker (1995) has provided an excellent introduction to Opuntia as forage and a synthesis of common
recommendations for cactus use and management for livestock feed. He mentions a number of excellent
regional reviews covering the uses of cactus for forage in North Africa (Monjauze and Le Houerou, 1965),
South Africa (De Kock, 1980; Wessels, 1988), Mexico (e.g. Flores and Aguirre, 1979; Fuentes, 1991),
Brazil (Domingues, 1963) and the United States (e.g. Russell and Felker, 1987a, b; Hanselka and Paschal,
1990). Much of the progress stemmed from the work of Griffiths in Texas in the first two decades of the
1900s.
Opuntia is particularly attractive as a feed because of its efficiency in converting water to dry matter,
and thus to digestible energy (Nobel, 1995). Cactus is useful not only because it can withstand drought, but
also because its conversion efficiency is greater than C3 grasses and C4 broadleaves. Biomass generation
per unit of water is on average about three times higher than for C4 plants and five times higher than for C3
plants. Under optimal conditions, the various types of plants can produce similar amounts of dry matter per
surface area, but under arid and semi-arid conditions, CAM plants are superior to C3 and C4 plants.
4 History of the use of opuntia as forage in Mexico

Cacti, and specifically Opuntia spp., have been extremely useful livestock forage in times of
drought, primarily by providing digestible energy, water and vitamins. Although mainly used for cattle,
opuntia has also been used as forage for pigs. However, it must be combined with other foods to
complete the daily diet because opuntias are poor in proteins, although rich in carbohydrates and calcium.
Since it grows in severely degraded land, its use is important because of its abundance in areas where few
crops can grow. It is estimated that, worldwide, 900 000 ha are cultivated with opuntia for forage pro-
duction.
While spineless types need to be protected against herbivory, the more cold-hardy, slower growing
spiny types require no such protection, although it is necessary to burn off the spines before using for
livestock feed.
Felker (1995) noted the lack of serious R&D and suggested priority areas for research into the use
of cactus for forage.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Opuntia spp. are being utilized in programmes to prevent soil erosion and to combat desertification;
they have a great capacity for adaptation, growing in severely degraded soils which are inadequate for other
crops and are ideal for responding to global environmental changes such as the increase in atmospheric CO2
levels. Opuntias are also important as cover in arid and semi-arid areas because they can survive and
spread under conditions of scarce and erratic rainfall and high temperatures and can play an important role
in the protection of local fauna.
However, this capacity for adaptation and rapid spread has caused problems, mainly where introduced
Opuntia spp. have established and thrived in the absence of natural enemies and appropriate management
to become noxious weeds in a number of counties. In the previous FAO publication Agro-ecology, cultivation
and uses of cactus pear, a chapter by Brutsch and Zimmermann focused on naturalized Opuntia spp.
which threaten native plant genetic resources, and also on the biological, chemical, mechanical or integrated
means of control which have been developed. Biological control has been particularly successful in countries
such as Australia and South Africa. However, the problems of developed countries are not necessarily the
same as those of less developed countries, and what may be considered a weed in one country may be an
important economic source of food in another. Therefore different countries and even areas within countries
may view Opuntia spp. differently.
This book emphasizes Opuntia as a valuable natural resource, which in many countries is underutilized,
and which can provide forage for livestock and enable economic activities to be undertaken and may
contribute to the food security of populations in agriculturally marginalized areas.

PURPOSE OF THE BOOK

Several publications have dealt with opuntia. Previously, through CACTUSNET, FAO published Agro-
ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear. The present publication focuses solely on the use of
opuntia as forage and aims to present much of the recent findings and research in one volume. From
chapters dealing with its early use as forage in Mexico and its ecophysiology, the book presents material on
germplasm resources and breeding for forage production, then deals at length – through eight chapters –
with its use as forage in Mexico, Brazil, USA, Chile, Argentina, Western Asia and North Africa, Ethiopia,
and Southern Africa. One chapter focuses on various aspects of opuntia cultivation for fodder. The final
chapter deals with hydroponic opuntia production, followed by a comprehensive bibliography and an annex
of opuntia-related websites. It is hoped that the book will achieve its purpose of providing readers with an
up-to-date reference on the use of Opuntia as forage for livestock, and assembling in one volume past,
recent and ongoing work on the subject.
 Opuntia as forage 5

HISTORY OF THE USE OF OPUNTIA AS FORAGE IN MEXICO

Marco Antonio ANAYA-PÉREZ

INTRODUCTION
Opuntia, often called prickly pear, or cactus pear as it is now usually known in commerce, is a plant typical
of the Mexican landscape, and a major symbol of identity for the Mexican people. Together with maize and
agave, opuntia has been a staple food, instrumental in enabling human settlement and cultural development
of the Chichimeca groups of the centre and north of the country.
Complementary to its importance as food were inter alia its uses as a beverage, medicine, source of
dye, and as an object of magical-religious practices. Tlacuilos [the native historians of Pre-Columbian
Mexico, who used pictograms to record events], chroniclers, travellers, historians and scientists have left
testimony of this. However, the economic importance of opuntia as forage was not perceived during the
Spanish Colonial Period, or even after independence.
The few records on the use of opuntia during the colonial and post-independence eras indicate that it
was used as animal feed, especially in the northern arid and semi-arid zones. Its use increased from the
early 1600s with the introduction of cattle to semi-arid areas and the consequent depletion of grasslands.
This situation forced stockmen to cut opuntia pads and burn off the thorns to feed livestock in their pastures,
especially during droughts.
In the second half of the twentieth century, the Government of Mexico and some educational institutions
began to recognize the importance of opuntia cultivation, particularly for forage. The Colegio de Posgraduados
released improved varieties to participate in a programme aimed at stopping overexploitation of wild
populations of opuntia, associated with intensive livestock feeding during droughts or as a regular complement
to the diet. Opuntia plantations have been promoted as a foundation of reforestation and recovery programmes
for extensive degraded areas, aiming to control desertification. There are few studies on the history of
opuntia, with the exception of cochineal. This chapter presents a brief account of the utilization of opuntia
as forage in Mexico.

ORIGIN
According to Flannery (1985), between the end of the Pleistocene (ca. 100 000 years B.P.) and the beginning
of the fifth millennium AD, the prehistoric indigenous group of the semi-arid basins and valleys of the states
of Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Guerrero, Puebla and Oaxaca began cultivating a series of native plants,
which later became the basic foodstuffs of the ancient middle-American civilizations. For centuries, these
native Americans had lived as nomads, learning inter alia, which plants to gather and consume, how to
roast opuntia and agave to make them edible, and how to extract syrup from the pods of the mesquite
(Prosopis spp.). The cultivation of beans, squash, huatli (Amaranthus sp.), chilies, tomatillo, avocado,
and, as Flannery (1985) suggests, perhaps opuntia, agave and other semitropical fruits began between 7 500
and 5 000 years BC.
Since the arrival of man in Mexico in the desert and semi-desert zones, about 20 000 years ago,
opuntias have been important as food sources, as well as for drink and medicine. Long before horticultural
management of the opuntia was known, the ancient Mexicans consumed it abundantly from the wild. Fray

Marco Antonio ANAYA-PÉREZ

CIESTAAM
Universidad Autónoma de Chapingo
Mexico
6 History of the use of opuntia as forage in Mexico

Bernardino de Sahagún, in his work Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España –
written during the first half of the 16th century – reported that native Americans lived for many years and
were “healthy and strong.” Their vitality, according to him, was due to the type of diet, which was not
cooked with other things. They ate “prickly pear leaves”, prickly pear fruits, roots, mesquite pods, and
yucca flowers which they called czotl, honey and rabbits, hares, deer, snakes and fowl (Sahagún, 1997).
On the use of opuntia “sacred tree” as a beverage to quench thirst, Friar Toribio Motolinia said, “...
these Indians whom I refer to, because they are from a land so sterile that at times they lack water, drink
the juice of these leaves of nocpal ... ” The fresh and aromatic opuntia fruit, or tuna, was also used for
this purpose; they made nochoctli, or pulque (a fermented drink, generally made from the sap of the
century plant. – Translator’s note). The word tuna originated in Haiti and was introduced by the Spaniards
during the Conquest.
The De la Cruz-Badiano Codex of 1552 shows how opuntia was used to treat several ailments of
the human body. For example, opuntia was used to cure burns: “The burned part of our body is cured with
the juice of the nopalli with which it should be rubbed on with honey and egg yolk ...” (Velázquez, 1998).
The genus Opuntia spread from Mexico to practically the entire American continent (from Alberta,
Canada, to Patagonia, Argentina), and, after the Spanish Conquest, to the rest of the world (Flores and
Aguirre, 1979). In 1700, Tournefort named opuntias Opuntia, because of their similarity to a thorny plant
that grew in the town of Opus, Greece (Velázquez, 1998). In Mexico, several species of the genus
Opuntia of the Cactaceae family are called nopal. All of them are endemic to America, and of the 377
recognized species, 104 are found wild in Mexico, and 60 of these are endemic in Mexico.
There are few studies on the history of opuntia, except in its association with cochineal. Tibón
(1993), in his History of the name and of the foundation of Mexico, describes the drawing done by the
tlacuilo of Fray Diego Durán, of the foundation of Mexico Tenochtitlán:
“To the left of the hill, a beautiful bird with its wings extended has just alighted on a prickly pear and
sings, as its open beak indicates. A large snake with forked tongue rises in the direction of the
plant ...

“Thus, the tenochtli, the prickly pear of hard red tunas, was, from the beginning, the tree of human
hearts. The serpent that emerges from the bowels of the earth is night; the bird that sings over the
prickly pear is at once the same eagle-sun ...”

It is of interest that the opuntia where the bird, or eagle, has alighted is known by the scientific name
of Opuntia streptacantha, which comes from streptos, “twisted” and acantha, “thorn”. The tuna
lapidea, according to Dr Francisco Hernandez is similar to opuntia in its flowers and fruit, but with long,
narrow, twisted branches (Granados and Castañeda, 1991).
Although the sources consulted for the Colonial Period do not mention the use of opuntia, as a
forage plant, without doubt during the droughts which affected New Spain, the livestock that spread
throughout the country had to consume opuntia, as reported in sources from the 19th and 20th centuries.

DISTRIBUTION
The geographical distribution of the genus Opuntia in Mexico, according to recent studies, reflects the
abundance of opuntia and its natural incidence in associations, focusing on the most important species
(Granados and Castañeda, 1991; Flores and Aguirre, 1979):
O. leucotricha Guanajuato and eastern San Luis Potosí, with irregular distribution and variable
densities. Between Santa María del Río and San Luis Potosí, southwest of Villa de
Arista. With high areal densities in Fresnillo and Calera.
 Opuntia as forage 7

O. lindheimeri With a density of up to 1000 plants/ha in General Terán, Salinas, and elsewhere in the
state of Nuevo León, and in Tamaulipas, Guerrero and Hidalgo.
O. streptacantha San Luis Potosí: Zaragoza and north of the capital, north of Bocas and southeast of
Moctezuma. Densities of 200 to 600 plants/ha are found in San Luis Potosí.
In Zacatecas: Noria de los Angeles, Ojo Caliente, Troncoso and Guadalupe.
This distribution indicates that the region of Mal Paso, southwest of the city of Zacatecas, has the
greatest diversity of opuntia species. In contrast, chroniclers and historians of the colonial period recounted
the abundance of opuntia practically throughout the country. From the chronicles of travellers or scientific
works, the present distribution includes Querétaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Nayarit and Coahuila in Mexico,
and Texas in the United States.
Pedro de Rivera, in his trip to northern New Spain at the beginning of the 18th century, reported that
in the direction of San Juan del Río, Querétaro, he found thick vegetation of mesquite, guizaches (Prosopis
sp.), and opuntia. In the direction of Ojuelos, Jalisco, near San Miguel El Grande, he passed through flat
land with scrub vegetation of oak, mesquite and opuntia. On the border between the kingdoms of New
Galicia and Nayarit, he went through rough mountains with many rocks and thick brush of mesquite,
guamuchiles, guizaches and opuntia (Trabulse, 1992a).
Alexander Von Humboldt reported that Villa de Saltillo, province of Coahuila, is located in an arid
plain which descends toward Monclova, the Río Grande, and the province of Texas, where instead of the
wheat he might find in a European plain, he found only fields covered by opuntias (Humboldt, 1984).

COLONIAL MEXICO
Description of the opuntia plant
The morphology of opuntia awed the Europeans, who had never seen a plant like it, leading them to
describe it the best they could. During the colonial period, study and recording of opuntia began with the
work of José Antonio Alzate on cochineal. The nopalli, or cactus pear, was known by the Spaniards as
nopal, and the fruit as tuna, although in the 16th century this plant was also called higuera de indias (fig
of the Indies), higuera de pala (shovel fig), tunal de Castilla, nopal de Castilla, chumbos, tuna chumbera,
tuna mansa, and tunal (Rojas and Sanders, 1985).
In 1539, Friar Toribio Motolinia, describing his experiences in Michoacán, reported that in this province
the tunales were abundant:
“... they are trees that have leaves the thickness of fingers, some thicker and others less, as long
as the foot of a man, and as wide as a hand span...” (Motolinia, 1995).
In the mid-16th century, Friar Bernardino de Sahagún wrote:
“The tree called tuna has large, thick leaves, and green and thorny; this tree gives flowers on the
same leaves [and] some are white, others vermilion, others yellow, and others fleshy; produced
in this tree are fruits called tunas [that] are very good to eat [and] come out of the same leaves ...
“(Trabulse, 1993).
Describing opuntia, Friar Bernardino de Sahagún reported:
“There are trees in this land they call nopalli, which means tunal, or tree with tunas; it is a
monstrous tree, the trunk is composed of leaves and the branches are made of these same leaves;
the leaves are broad and thick, having juice and are viscous; the same leaves have many thorns ...
The leaves of this tree are eaten raw and cooked.” (Sahagún, 1997).

The Nahuas – a Pre-Columbian tribe that dominated central Mexico – identified several native
species whose scientific names, common names and place where identified are the following:
8 History of the use of opuntia as forage in Mexico

* Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck (syn. Cactus cochenillifera L.; Opuntia cochenillifera
(L.) Mill), also called nochez opalli (Nahuatl), nopal de San Gabriel (Oaxaca), tuna mansa
(Puerto Rico), tuna nopal (El Salvador). This plant and nopal de Castilla (Opuntia ficus-
indica L.) are species used in the production of the cochineal insect (Dactylopious coccus
Costa). N. cochenillifera has several varieties; the best known and most used is nopalnocheztli,
namely cochineal opuntia, which the Spaniards named nopal de Castilla. Another variety is
known as nopal de San Gabriel.
* Opuntia Miller (Cactaceae). The most usual name for the cultivated species of this genus is
nopal, and the fruit is commonly called tuna.
* Opuntia amyclaea Tenore (syn. O. ficus-indica f. amyclea (Ten.) Schelle and O. ficus-indica
var. amyclea (Ten.) Berger.)
* Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (syn. Cactus ficus-indica L.). Also known as nopal de Castilla,
tuna de Castilla, nochtli; used in the production of cochineal.
* Opuntia imbricata (Haw.) D.C. (syn. Cereus imbricatus Haw., Opuntia rosea D.C., O. decipiens
D.C., O. exuviata D.C., O. arborescens Engelm., O. magna Griffiths, O. spinotecta Griffiths,
xoconochtle, joconochtle (Jalisco), xoconochtli, joconostle (Zacatecas), cardenche (Durango,
Zacatecas), tasajo (Chihuahua), coyonostle (Nuevo Leon and Coahuila), coyonoxtle, coyonostli
(Nuevo Leon), tuna joconoxtla (Jalisco), tuna huell, velas de coyote, entraña (New Mexico)).
The xoconochtli is a cactus with cylindrical stems with long thorns and very sour fruit.
* Opuntia megacantha Salm-Dyck (syn. O. castillae Griffiths, O. incarnadilla Griffiths), the
nopal de Castilla.
* Opuntia streptacantha Lem. Also called tecolonochtli or tecolonochnopalli; this is the cardon
nopal or cardona tuna. The fruit is an intense red, aromatic and refreshing. It has great
importance in the semi-arid and desert zones (Rojas, 1990).
Friar Francisco de Ajofrín, who travelled through New Spain in the 18th century, reported that there
were opuntia fruit – tunas – almost year-round. Some were white, others yellow, and some were more
fleshy (Trabulse, 1992a). Miguel Venegas indicated in the 18th century that in California the red tunas are
infrequent, and in New Spain they called them tunas taponas (Trabulse, 1992b).
The physician Francisco Hernández, in his monumental work Historia Natural de la Nueva España,
found seven distinct types of tunas: iztacnochtli, this opuntia was known to the Spaniards as the higuera
de las indias (fig of the Indies) which, according to them, was similar to the fig tree, even when neither the
plant nor the fruit had any similarity to a fig tree or a fig (Trabulse, 1992b), coznochtli, tlatonochtli,
tlapalnochtli, tzaponchtli, zacanochtli (Rojas and Sanders, 1985), and nopalxochcuezltic (Epiphyllum
acker Haw.) (Rojas and Sanders, 1985). The Nahuas classified this last plant in the group of tunas, most
certainly because of the similarity of its flowers and fruits to those of the nopal, which belong to the same
botanical family. This is a plant with long fleshy, undulating leaves and beautiful red flowers.
Bernardino de Sahagún also made interesting records of opuntia species and the diversity of tunas,
very similar to that done by Francisco Hernandez (Sahagún, 1997) and Motolinía (1995).

Propagation
Friar Toribio de Benavente explains how opuntia reproduces:
“... and one leaf of these plants is planted and they proceed leaf after leaf, and leaves also come
out of the sides, and they become a tree. The leaves at the foot thicken greatly, and become so
strong that they become the foot or trunk of the tree... In this New Spain the tree is called nucpai
– nopalli – and the fruit is called nuchtli ... “(Motolinía, 1995).
“Wherever a leaf falls from this tree, another similar tree is soon formed; and what is admirable is
that, after some time, stuck on the leaves appears a gum called alquitira, for which many conifers
are used.” (Cervantes, 1991).
 Opuntia as forage 9

Livestock raising
The livestock brought from the West Indies (Cosio, 1987) by the Spaniards caused a revolution in the
economy of New Spain, and immense areas previously unused by agriculture were brought into use. The
livestock came from Cuba, Santo Domingo and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Hernán Cortés brought the horses
(11 horses and 5 mares), and Gregorio Villalobos brought cattle from Santo Domingo (Cosio, 1987). Livestock
gave agriculture a boost, providing animal traction, transport and manure. No less important was its contribution
to the development of mining; animals were used as driving power and transport. In addition, livestock was
used as a basic source of food. For these reasons and because of the immense virgin grasslands that
existed, livestock multiplied and spread from the central high plateau to the rest of New Spain during the
16th century. Although it decreased, notably in the 17th century, the numbers were so great that in many
regions many wild herds were formed.
The Spanish Mesta concept – a formal organization of livestock producers– also came to New
Spain, where it was composed of owners of livestock ranches (Chevalier, 1982). Extensive grazing of
sheep and goats began, moving livestock from place to place for summer and winter grazing. The routes
crossed New Spain in every direction. The Cabildo (government) of Mexico City founded the first Mesta
in New Spain on July 31, 1527. Later, Puebla (1541), Oaxaca (1543) and Michoacán (1563) followed
(Chevalier, 1982).
Contemporary sources indicate the extent of the changes:
* As of 1579, no fewer than 200 000 sheep from Querétaro moved 300 to 400 km during the
month of September, to find fresh pastures near Lake Chapala and western Michoacan, return-
ing to their ranches in May.
* The livestock from Tepeaca, Puebla, and some from the Central Plateau, wintered in pastures
of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico.
* From the Huasteca, livestock went to graze on the shores of Río Verde, in San Luis Potosí.
* In 1648, more than 300 000 sheep from the mountains of New Spain were taken to the extensive
plains of the Kingdom of Nuevo Leon, where they grazed for more than six months. In 1685, it is
said that 555 000 head of cattle arrived (Chevalier, 1982; Humboldt, 1984).
* At the end of the 16th century, in the High and Low Mixtec regions, the indigenous people came
to own 250 000 head goats and sheep. In Tlaxcala and Puebla, the communities had more than
400 000 head of sheep and goats, and the communities of Zimatlan, Oaxaca and Jilotepec, State
of Mexico, together had more than 350 000 head (Rojas, 1990).
The migrating livestock damaged the crops of the indigenous people, in spite of the ordinances of
1574, which obliged the ranch owners to open up roads reserved for livestock to go from one place to the
other, but most never obeyed. The irrigated, cultivated areas of the towns were what interested the ranchers,
much more than the plains covered with opuntia or the bald mountains they crossed.

Forage
Livestock feeding was mostly provided from natural sources, and that included opuntia. Reproduction of
livestock was spontaneous, and often the owners themselves were ignorant of how many beasts they
possessed. Sheep and goats were husbanded under nomadic grazing; cattle, only on a small scale, were
raised on ranches and specialized haciendas. The harsh environmental conditions affected the animals, and
– coupled with losses from robbery, pests, disease, frosts, hail and severe drought – decimated the livestock,
especially because a large proportion of the animals was raised in the arid regions.
A drought meant lack of drinking water and grass, followed by hunger, malnutrition, disease and
finally death. This situation obliged the owners to leave the animals free to forage for themselves. The
historian François Chavalier reported that in the years of drought animals died by the thousands (Chevalier,
1982).
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an ac誦 I f tive or neuter verb. To desist; to be still; to rest or abide
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hence; only; the point at which any transaction closes. Che lew 止 留
to stop; to detain. [H 怒 Che noo， to desist from anger; to be
pacified, XL Che seTb, to desist from. |h Che she, only is ； only ；
but. Xt 'f *f Che tih, only can. Che or Te, to bewail with i|l cries and
tears; the crowinpj of a cock ； tlio note of a bird. 哭哭 p 帝啼
weeping and lamentation, 啼 Neaou te, the bird sings. 啼哭 Te kuh,
to bewail and f |I A foundation; that which JlL is fijnd;nnmtal. If Jit
Ke cbe, a foundation, as of a house or a family; seems also used
metapliorically. Tsun or tontlis 卜 f Kg 尺 Che ( chTh, measures of
length 乂 \ generally. Near to; not far. A large stone; a stone for
beating silk. ^ A small island ； a small pond in which is an island.
Happiness; felicity. 祉 一 一 Che full jjilt ！ US or reversed, Fuh che,
happiness; joy; felicity. jtj-^ To be supplied^with provisions is
expressed by 供時 Kung che. Tu halt; to 咫 Certain rushes or grass
platted into a cord. "HjL Yulpar form of 恥 Che, ^flL a feeling of
shame; to put to shame. Che jul» Jit to disgrace or insult 'la* Che
sin, a feeling of shame. ""TTp-* A certain fragrant mediI j ^ cinal
plant; also called Q i£ Pih che, and 芳 § Fang lieang. The name of a
place. ^'iL To accuse; to accuse face to face; to impeach a superior.
The toes of the feet; the foot of a wall; a foundation. 交 足止 Keaou
che, Cochin-china was formerly so called; appears to have been a
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48 CHE CHE Clie kaou sin puh koo 趾高心 不 固 he who

trips lightly has an unsteady mind. Same as the preceding. f_lL Used
also for ijt Che. From liL issuing forth Ksb^ from; i^oing to; meeting
with. The lower stroke represents the ground; the middle one the
stem of a plant; those on the side, leaves or shoots which go forth
from the stem; ]»ence, borrowed to denote the possessive case of
nouns. Impressive of that which comes for ill from, or belongs to. It
may often be translated by of] or the sign of the genitive •~ 4 人 $
子 YTh jin chc t>zo, a man 's son. 天 S 恩 T ； ， u che puti, the
favour of Heaven. When coming between two nouns, the first of
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virtuous man. 事 Yew been che sze, an affair wliich has danger; i. e.
a dangerous affair. It is the same between a verb and a noun, as >^
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detestable affair. After a verb, it may be translated by the pronouns,
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same sense it occurs before the verb, as 臣 *S 闢也 Chin we che
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CHE CHE 49 to iiie beneficial intluences ot lunnari

happine33. ■ 1^' A hand pulling off a Ijriuic.h of bamboo. A branch;
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brjirich ； ancestors and posterity. tjV Tftung die, those who are (le-
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50 CHE CHE Che wang 践 望 to stand on tiptoe with

expectation; to hope anxiously for. Wings of a bird, fins of a fish.
The zi0^ Ch'e or 嫣 S$ Ch'e t?lo. a certain bird referred t<> in Fable
and in Poetrv; lmr binger of glad tidings. ^^JU Many; much. , I , ^
That on which the mind Jf^、 I determines ； the indiV nation; the
will. Topol graphical and stati>tir;il J work. Che e 意 the inclination;
the bent of mind ； the will 志向 Che heang, that to wlucli the mind
or inclination is dir«M'teH ； the inclination. 意 Che e kaou yuen, an
elfvaicd and comprehensive mind. To forget. m A dark black spot on
the human body ； a spot ot any kind or colour. ^1 藏 的 Jin yew
suti^ luin'_' che teih, there are soni(? *who hreak nut in r^d spots
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dynasty, that he bad on his legs seventy two dark spots. ^ 士 Che or
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fit "，r grinding or rubbini; t('，'l、 on. Lfa«linle, and infty be carri»
*l into effect. ( »Sliooking.) ^£ Che rhoo, name ol a hill. Che, to
stop; a bHiik ； a smull strt'Hm which is hiuiked in. Usr.] fur 至 Che,
to or at ji *：! ven point. Com Timnly read Te, which see. To strike;
to beat or strike with the luinds; to 辰 bant 底 柢
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CHE CHE 51 砥 cla[) the hands. More tVi-quently read Te，

which see. A grind stone on which to rub tools. Even; flat ； level as
a stone which is rubbed plain ; equitahle. Che le fj^ ^| stone on
which to rub or grind tools; to exerci>r one's-self in moderation; to
rub off vicious angles or asperities. 爷兒 Che gae or yaef a certain
valuable stone. Respect; awe; venera- I tion, such as is felt when a
coaiinunication is nnnlc from a divinity; to recei vc rrspt'ctf 'jli) .
S.iliu' as the following. Only ； but, as i'、tr ('山 icing /J)i^\ suint- r
Also read Te. ^fit^ Gruin beginning to ripon. '^- One says, it
denotes replanted. Also read Te . J Che, denoted smooth; 川""，
""ng mjl^° l，'\''l 《 I ;iim1 smooth by rubbing I ^ on a stone.
P;iper; it ' should be written without the 'lot. The character is formed
from Silk, because m former times documents were written on silk. A
surname. ^ (命 TVae lun, (A. D. 940) cut to pieces old cloth,
pounded and made paper of it, from which time 巾 Kin, a piece of
cloth entered into the composition of the character, 白 Plh che, white
paper. SO* 紙 Hung ( he, re'l paper. 草紙 Tsaou che, paper made
irom plant3. Che fhang 紙 張 paper in sin ets; a sheet of paper. 紙
C'lie t:ik'n. paper money; means paper burnt in certain rites. 紙 牌
Cl!e pae, gaming cards. 打紙牌 i'a che pae, to play at cards. Tliey
are of v;n ;"u" .-'Tts. Tlir m".、t ancient and most elegant are called
點子牌 Torn tsze pae, dotted cards. The dots have a reference to the
stars. Tli^y \vr re introdui'ed by the 卜 peror ^fl Seiion-lio, origiluilly
called Ya pae, bone or ivory tickets, ^yj^ Che t'ung, tlie paper-like
laruin:i of the plant T'ung, known in England bv the U v\n Kico
Paper. 紙道花 Che t'unp: h wa, artificial llowers made of rice paper.
Name of a certain insect, or shell- fish. ltt ) Che or 聰 胝 Pe cl.e, f
the stonjach or crop of a bird. The stomach of a cow. 蜓
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52 CHE CHE 爾 艇 A certain drinking \ ■■ -sel. Same as

Ch'e, a win^ Occurs in the Sari- k wo To tread with the feet. A
certain pearly kind of shell-fish. A certain fish. Ch，e or Te, a certain
bird. Se or Ch，e, slow ； not progressing ； length of fime;
stillness. Str'>')ir 厚利 CU'e le. strong beneficial or usefnl; applied to
utensils. 3 Ch，e， a raised patli leading to the hall or principal
apartment; the vcMibulc. or open landing 〖>la(:e in front of a Inill,
to which th«M*f i、 ：h ascent by one fliirht of the name of a
couniry. 天"^ * 以丹 漆地故 稱月墀 T'een tsze e tan tslh te kou
oh'ing tan ch'e, the Emperor varnishes the ground with a red colour,
and hence the piith or vestibule is called Tan-clie. The landintr place
is rominonly called 天 階 T'een keae. That of the Emperor is
otherwise 犀 Jenoimniited Chth ch'e fuid 玉導 Yuli r\\e. The first of
wliich t^nns denotes tliat the ve.-fil>ul^ i> oi t-iirnation rulour; and
thr last, tlmt it is of g*-inA "'r,':" v urirt y ，"• -、 are applied to this
vestilnile, open to the lu'HveiH. ，" 天 T'een 'h e. 階禪 K.k I.V 金墀
Km i ill.* v«-siil»ulc or por ch'e, the pr«M ；' "、 >tt»ike drniroii
vestibule, and so on. ^ Pfte yui r\\\\ i\w vl»i|)the bnrnli'»o's l、
riish， the vr、lit lit' 、- i、t "'，"，• ，'，》v,'r， ，1 Willi dew.
Tliouirli the word vt'^ihult, is not >u i. tly n| 屮 I" to an uncovered
porch, it is here uded t«» :i void cirriimlocution. Samv 丄 择 Ch'e.
^r:iin licit is ]:iti- hi rip*Miin<:. li:ilrv="" i.s="" younic="" and=""
is="" expreffted="" by="" c="" he.="" mir="" srll="" tiiirrltcd=""
che="" kv="" ment.="" j="" li="" tsz="" fi="" ynnnjj="" :i=""
i.uv="" fh="" tsfe="" kwang="" young="" wild.="" name="" of=""
a="" plant.=""/>
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CHE CHE 53 Lan^ua^e serious and impressive. A man's

name. fL To walk leisurely; to be long in dointr; to impede by being
in too much haste. Slow; dilatory; lat ，'； to (iciav or stay for. A
surname. jlj^ Wei ch'e, remote; distant a|>pearance. i^f La« till t
ire, come kte. \)X ；! ll T、'' ch'e, to desist; to lay by and wait for; to
stop. Cb'o che ^ ^"ij' impeded in iicourse. j^L U ( 1'、' lay; dilatory.
久 （'I"' slow and long. \(\ 1,'w, to detail'; or I"' delnined. iit itt 吾行
（，" c"'e wo hing, slow and leisurely do I walk. Hfj Ch'e ming,
before or ab"ut day- break. 速不同 （Ve-sGli piih t'ung, slow and fast
are different. ■5:1:1! Slow, leisurely mode of P:l$ Speaking in a slow
leiV 干 sim'l), t''m 、To seize or grasp with the hand ； to hurt or
break ； to reach or extend to; that which extends to and mauifests.
To take a thin^ and offer it as a present when about to see a
person. A present; to introduce to; to carry to tho extreme. Name ot
a country; the name of a person To ioost-n or open up. Read Che, to
th ai: along the ground. Read Cluh, a surname. Che kiVn le wuli 挚
見禮物 to take a present, when vi、itinpr a superior. A present, or
offVrinj; made at the first visit to a superior, or a person from whom
one has to request something. The presents mentioned are valuable
stones, or pieces of silk, these are called trreat presents. Rare birds
arc called smaller presenU. Wuuieu give trviit. ( 'lie r 偽 ll"' present-
which are proper or suitable for ihe orcasion. 十/ ( A cart heavily
laden on ^'v^ A bird of prey; any ra^ venous auimal; to grasp; to
seize by violence. To cut things. 1 1 "| To cut wnd form; to adj yjjtj I
just; to regulate; to direct; to rule; to make; to 制 j iuveut 
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54 CHE CHE Kwo che 國制 the rule or government of the

country. ^jlj Kin che, prohibitory regulation. 制 Hee che, to restrict;
to confine. 品 制 P'"、 che, the laws of rank. 制 Che fa 。r 制 令 Che
lin-, rules; laws ； national regulations 制 作 Che t.so, to make; to
do. 制 度 Che too, to form rules; rule ； management; direction;
(>hins at government ； laws. Che ise, to cut and divide a victim
about to be sacrificed. 制^^ < 'lu» tae or ^ Tue, also 制 軍 Che lu
mi, the person at* tUe head of tlie government in a province. To
drae upon the ground. 擊 財 Ch'e ch。、v， to im.| l>ede as by
holding under f|| r ihe arm ； to put an obstacle in the way of
prosrresg being made; to embarrass or hinder. Che or ^)) 河 CUe
ho. the name of a river. ^j^l J "J To out out clothes for [ garments
； to make ； to f form ； to fashion ； to re^mjl I gulate; to
decide; to compound, as niciioines. A pattern for clothes. 裁 製 衣 服
Tsae che e fiih, to cut out clothes. 法製藥 Fa che yu, to compound,
or make tip nuMiicines. 他製的 是什麽 樣 衣月艮 l urluM^ Ihslieshe
mo y aiig e iuh, what is the pattern of the clothes which he is cutting
out? Che t,v ^l- 作 or 製造 Che tsaou, to make; to do; to invent. 11
A clear bright eye. Fish hrine; the brine from salted fish j pickled or
preserved fish roes. Perverted speech. An instrument for eradicating
plante. Name of a certain fl>h ； certain pickled or preserved fish,
of wliirh tlie head is much f^tccnicd. IIer)ce the ，1 + 去^ f 1卩：
宅不 去 PI S 額 Nin? k'cu luy she tsili, puh kVu che yu gllif better bo
dc(>rived of An house which I "i— hrrn |>"— ,'s、'd for ages, than
be deprived of the head of the Che fi，li. Jftj^ Soraethinc i' It for
security as a ； to pUd^r ； to pawn ； to jrive a person as a
hostage. 質 Kcacu che, mutual hostages. Soe ChHi.
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愼 ^ X^hff To stumble by someihinjr embarrassinc the feet.

stumCHE ^utl Clie or Chili, the stone below a pillar; the base of a
pillar. 噴 . Che urh leen 躓 fflj 顚 bled and (ell lu-adlong. 躓 礙 Che
keuS, to stumble; to tall ； familiarly 0 Sliih klo, to slip the foot. Jf ^\
The morning; to begin ; y\ pf (hen, ； is (h-iiofiiii: the begiinnng of
one (，imimst:u" (' alter nnother has elapsrd. Formpart of the name
of medicines; of a star ； and o( a hill 四 始 8ze ch'e, refers to the
oripin of ruateriul existences. ZH ^fp San oh'ef refers to the year,
the sun, and the moon Tseih chV, tlie name of a medicines; applied
also to heaven, earth, man, and the four seasons. Ch'e chunu the
beginning and end of any affair; applied also to human existence. 始
終 俱 善 Ch'e chung keu shen, the beginning and end of (human
life) hoth such as are desirable 始 f 腎贖罔 〔，h,e«h shuh hwuy,
then succeeded in being restored by ransom. \/y 、 The name of a
stream ot I p| water. To put in order. To heal; to rule; to direct; to
CHE 55 govern a family or a nation ； to form Denotes some end
being sought ; experienced, or accustomed to; the petty affairs of
prisons. The retired apartments of the sect Taou. Also read T;ie Hitd
E. Che hea /p 下 to rule those below one. Vp 家 ^ Che ki a jin, to
chastise domestics, /p 家 Che kea, to rule a family. 7p 國 Che
k、、'G， (o rule or pnvern a nation. Vp Che jin che taou, the
principles by which to govern others. */p 病 Che ping, to cure a
disease. */p 之 Che she che tsaef taleuts titled to rule the world. To
beat with a bamboo or stick ； to flog ； one of the petty
puni>lunei»ts of China. To cliHstise ； to correct; it is intended to
cause a feeling oi shatne. Che ch'ang lew too 笞 杖 流 to b;i^tinade
and transport. The two first and two last ex* press different degrees.
^ 所以 教之也 Chechay so e keaou che yay, correction is the means
of instruction. Vulgar form of the pret 笞
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56 CHE Near to. I f Only; simply; singly; this ^\ and no

more ； merely. Also read Clah. Sometimes denotes particuhirly. Che
tih j。。 ts'ze H 得 如 止匕 only obtain this; merely ll»i>; obliged to
act thus. 只 些 西 Che sfe'ay tung se, only a few things. Opf 'I'lio an
-icnt ciiliit, t'、 bruise with the baud or CHE with a stick; to peel the
skin off and discover the part, but not cut the flesh. rgp| A certain
appurtenance -fV^ of the wlieel of h cart; a kind of covering for the
end of the axle. Name of a district. Diverging. Same as 只. ^ ^4 I 時
Kung oh'e, provided willi ； prefxtred lor. to st;in«1 firm h.s a
mountain |l| j: J^- j^， li'e ke ohanfj, well provided with a supply of
provisions. rX^T Placed benoatli a house / or cover; provided with
； having a Piippl v. Clip rliuu )}y ffj^ arouinnlated toj:etlujr; laid up
in store; SHid of prain or provisions. ^flfc To grasp; to hold i ? 11 待
守太 ffi to liold fast with too great se待一心 念 沸 Chfe yih sin neen f
uh( (o tix the whole heart in meditation on Biuldha. ^ Wiitcr^
diverging and f K'avin^ places dry; an island; an island in the midst
of a stream. [TfJl A place of sacrifice. The jJJ^J name of a place.
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CHE A disease in the poste, riors; an ulcer of the anus, of

which there are 內 Nuy ch'e, internal, and 外 涛 Wae ch'e, external.
Ch'e denotes to ^naw or eat; as if corroded by insects. Ch'e-cli'wang
涛 资 a posterior ulcer. To halt; to stop. 時! 5| Ch,e cboo or Choo,
irresolute; undetermined; unable to make progress. The plirase is
variously writt' n. fji. Prepared. Same as the l^Tj" precedm*: A/Jl
T<>:、v:"t; to stand; |,n'' I *J pared lor Syn. with Larjre.; (end i to
expand; extendcMl; profuse; prodipnl. To screen or *、l"'lt('r , tlie
ribs. (Miav rl，，，'， ,'\、 travajrant ； prodigal. 侈兮 ('hay he cWv
\u\ *]mo\v> the apparent exfmmh'iip. or the 1 scintillation of tlie
stars. irregular, extraWide; large; extensive; to extend; to incre:i>i«l
slcps. Ch'e tac a kind of terrace, appended to a royal palace
mentioned in history. Same as 馬也 Ch'e. The rushing down of a hill
or uiountain.
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58 CHE CHE A kind of tripod, or other distorted vessel ； a

kind of steel or vessel for chemical purposes. Z^tL Read ChTh, but
in a sense which is lost. Read Che, clayey, adhesive earth. A kind of
banner or flap; a pendant streamer; to attach to, or fasten, as by
sewing, or with cords. To make a record of; to record. To grasp
something and • stand opposed to; to oppose. The flame of fire;
light or splendour issuing from a flame, from a star. To burn. 三 To
inscribe on a tonihstone; an inscription ； to remember. 墓 識 Moo
che, an epitaph. Read Shih, to know. Dyed silk of which scho'r^W
la" garments are made; the coloured silk of which banners or
streamers are made; hence used as 趁. Read Cinh, to weave.
Hindered ； impeded; wishing to advance, hut prevented by
something which embarrasses. Read Te， the bit of stalk by which
iruit hangs from the tree. C^jk Excellent in its kind; a I J pleasant
taste- The meaniog; sense; or import of; the declare
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CHE tain, said in compliment, 由 Che nan chav, the

compass and needle. 指 事 Clie 6ze, to point to an affair; to make an
allusion ； the second class of characters t，een, to point to heaven.
B 匕 Horn''! fat /J 曰 mals, \v!i"(!i* r q〖m"ru peds or birds. Atiiruals
destitute of horns are denominated ^ Kaou. Congealed fatty
substance or lard, is called Che; unctuous or oily matter i-; called
Kaou. A greasy pigment or cosmetic is called Clie. Figuratively used
for honours and emoluments To gr,'w. NiUiif of a bird; of a plant;
ai;d
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60 CHE CHE dollars. 不値錢 Puh clnli ts'een, it does not cost
much; it is not expensive. 不 i 直 — " 錢 Puh chih yih ts'en), not
worth a farthing. 不値與 他計較 Puh cluh yu ta ke keaou, it is not
worth while to argue with him. A kind of bow. An iron pestle or
wooden beater; a club; to lean upon. To strike with a beater or club.
Read (】lnh， to slick into the ground; to plant. To establish ； to
appoint; to place; to purchase. Che nee to purchase an estate. 置 身
無地 Che shin woo te, no place to put myself; expresses feeling of
shame for having done, or said something disgraceful. 《 度 外 Che
che too wae, to place or put it without the mark; to be careless or
indifferent about. To stand erect. The teeth ； the upper teeth. The
inferior are called ^ Ya， the mark of one'> age; the order in which
p(n 屮 Itare arranged according to their age; to arrange; to sort; to
class persons. Cire yaou che @ ^ to bite 、vith the tonh. 齒 牙 之 ^
Ch'e ya che h wuy, the smartWi!>< I'f ili'， it't-lh ； expresses a
ready elocution. 根 肉 Ch'e kan jow， the flesh at the roots of the
teeth; the gums. To bite; the root of the teeth ； tlie ^ums. Ufc^t )
To chew over a nale. This word is used \ i('r the cow ； other words
1^1 M ) Hre used for other ani* mats. The rt'^rptarle of (lie teeth ；
the socket whero I hey are fixed. Name of a plant. IT Same as 掣
Chfe. A certain wine vessel. A fine sort of bemp or flax, after it is
prepared, or cloth made tln'refrom; the name of a place. A surnnme.
Ch'e keth 綿 ^\；\ 。》' line and (he coarse sort of the above. Ch'e
is il"、 tint.* sort, und Kelh the r. Che, a certain round vessel for
limiting the quantity of food and drink. A syphon; a wine vessel,
coutaiuiog
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CHE CHE 61 four 升 Sbing. 玉 危 Yuh che, a cup made of

stone. ))\]) ]^ Low che, a syphon to drain off liquids f@ Tsew rhe, a
wine syphon 力 C Shwnv die, a water syphon. ^ H 出 Che yen jih
chuh, Innguage daily cliiin«:es, like a vessel, now lull then empty.
(，he or ^§ 子 Chr 卜 ~. a safTroii coloured fruit, or nut which
serves for a dye. A certain flower, white coloured and fragrant; the
preccdini; is also used for it. wide p:mt; 螭 魑 Same as 齒 Read Lae.
To disper>«*; to or st'[):irut«- Iroiu. Eietno: lean'—' shur che^y^ 魅
魍齙， superhuman and mons- | trous appearances ot an internal or
diabolical nature, are tlie expressions of the wrathful displeasure of
the gods emanating from hills and rivers. ^&Tx| A glutinous
adhesive kind ,Ji^J of substance j paste. Also read Le. Ch> keaou |^
^ birdlime. 鳥 Cli'e m'aou. to fHtch birds with adhesive substance
put upon a bamboo. •4!^ A wlieel. Also the same as the following.
J^jj^ Uneven. X/cV- \ A musical instrument of 卜 HPipe. 履壞 C" I
heun, names of two inJjflJ J struraents which form a cord; and
hence the expression denotes brothers living in harmony with each
other. ■TjJjTi To put off one's clothes; \JJjli the fringe of a garment;
to put off tlie garments, peculiar to a magistrHtu. CL'e klh 锻 革 to
dismiss from office. 被 ^ Cli'e dmn, a couch or xuatress on which to
lie down. To split up fire wood; to split or cut up wood. A pool ； a
}><>nd; a ditch J uv a rtv
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62 CUE centre ; the li^art. Ch'e tang '/fe 塘 a pond; a fish

pond. 池 * Ch'e yu. fi、h from a pond. 池中物 Ch'e chung wuh, a
thing in a pond. 'I'h is and the preceding expression are used
figuratively, to denote being limited to a place for want of talent to
acquire promotion. To run at full speed. To gallop, to ride on
horseback. To propel, or go with a ship or boat, as i( at lull speed;
that which extends remotelv. Ch'e keu hwan^ loo 馳驅皇 路 to
gallop on the Imperial road ； i. e. to be employed in the service of
government. 馬 試 劍 Ch,e ma she keen, to practice riding and a
kind of sword exercise. ming, a name which is known at a trreat
distance; famous. 馳 (； h'e taou, the imperial road; that on which
the Emperor himself travels. A surnurae. A worm; an insect. Up1) ;
crawling; destitute of knowledge; ignorant. To treut as if ignorant ；
to impose on. The gait or motion of an animal. Ch'e ming Ifi^
ignorant people ； poor labouring classed; plain honest people, 贵
CHE Ch'e cli'e, plain bonest appearance. |.L| Appearance of
laughing. Ch'e che 卩 S 之 laughed at him. JtJ^t A worthless woman
； ugly and lewd ； foolish. Long lian(lsorae parments; i, " 、 lir.nl
1':， tlu' n;iine of a place. Also read No. Aq/J^ The fowl speciea;
they /V|£ say there are lorty sorts. An open aperture on the top of a
city wall; an embrasure A surname. Name of a district. Che neaou 雄
\}l 。r 雄 '雞 Che ke, a bird of tlie fowl or the pheasant spe
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CHE CHE 63 耻 Repose; rest; liappine?s 川 Also read Te and

She. Onlv. Used in the sense of 但 Tan, and 止 Che >^ Puh ch，e,
not only. Also denotes, an overplus; an excess. 不 资 父毋 ch*e foo
raoo, not only as father and mother; i. e more than father and
mother. Walking .slowly leisurely. From heart and ear. Because
shame heats and didcolouri4 the ear. To RTf^ 1 i'*jel shame; to be
ashamCh*e sew 羞 shame manifested in the coiniU*n;infMv Ch'e sin,
in\v;ird feeling of IR、 }\' 人 Ch e puh jo jin, nsliauu'd of being
interior to oilier people. 取、 ( h'e 6 e, to lie Hshame
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64 CHE To relish much. Usually reaH She. ( b'e e 嗜義 to

relish or delight in truth and righteousness. CHE Swioe; pigs; a sow.
Name of a plant; and of a place A surname. CHE. 祈 To break
asunder; to break off; to break off a part, as of a piece ot a thin? ;
to defluiness, by vicious practices. 中 Che chung, to break in the
midst; to decide equitably. 折 化 （ Mir hwa, to pluck a flower. 析 §3
( I" liwuy. t'、 pull down ； to l;iy in n'i"?;. ('lie kwei lifting, to pli"'k h
branch of tin* lra"'，;"U olive; d' ii 'tt" aUaiiiing the rnnk of K' ,t jut
； 卜'' tliat (lower is ill hlos>nm in Autumn when tl"， oxaminntion
occurs. ( hr- I ' i» ^Jp[ to dt*l»ate or disri 卜、 ;i |M'r、' ：l'、
r''ll'l"''t th' r ri」》t or 、vr"""' 衫 1 \\\ Che siiii, to broak ； to injure.
析 ifij 才' 友 （ 1" shoo clie, to hreiik ri(nis 析 斷 Cbg twanf to break
asunder to decide or determine. ( 'lir yo, to decide who is to tM»tcr
ju*i>on ； i. e. to determine as a magistrate. 塑 我 CI: to wo, break
and sink me to hell; a vulgar imprecation. Reciprocal; mutual.
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CHE CHE 65 To know; to have a clear |£z| itn(l thorough

knowledge ot; possessing great knowledge and keen discernment.
Wise; sa^e To rhyme, read ChTh and CI.,. 知之 曰明哲 Che che yuS
raing die, to know a thing is called Ming-cliS "j^ 哲 王 Koo seen chg
wan^r, the wise king* of ancient times. A high degree of intclP 口
l^ctual lielit «nd intflt—ce. 聖誌之 治 Shing chC che die, Uie rule or
government of tUe enlightened sages. A certain in.-ect; a species of
locust. of Keang-nan; the river which runs through it is also called
Che Keang. The province seems named" trom the river. Che "or Che,
a lance like weapon. C'Le ur Che, to hear. m 浙 Clear menial
Jisrern； acute intelligence; perspieuitv ； innn'tive \ "0、、丄'"" 不
^ Pilli \ I ) eli^, indistinct vision ； wiint of dear discernment. 明 哲
之 性 Min"' chS die sine, naturally endowed with clear dix'eriunent
and acute intelli菥:; 哳 i] Clear, bright; luminous: splendid, as a star,
or as the sun. Also read Cho. tl Name of a rivrr. To 'J wash or soour
rice, -keang /X a province on the east coast of China, soutU The
sting of an insect; to sting. ChS p'e ？ g 皮 or 海 蜇 Hae chS, or 水
毋 Sliwuy inoo, a kind of blubber fish ； which is prepared and eatea
by the Chinese. Tl J The skin or scum on fatty AjV I substance. Fat;
lard. 、o break pflf or cut down plants; to cut grass. Mats made of
sedge, reeds or rushes, ； r^|4l A case for a knife; a ■"j^l scabbard
for a sword. " The smell spoiled ； stink一 I-fZ Read Nee, to place
tlie X\ ear to another person's mouth in order to listen, which, makes
a union of three ears. To whisper. To take. Read She, in the same
sense. Read Che, to cut smail; to mince; to unite together. Read She
and Ye, a waving appearance, as ot trees, Clie, a mouth without any
rule or law to itaclf. Tho
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66 CHE CH'E mouth moving or chattering and talk :

vilifying; backbiting. CJiejoo 猎 卩 霜 loquacious, wordy: indistinct
murmuring. Che iit:e, indistinct whispering Che, a certain earthen顿
ware vessel to contain wine or water, r-i Grain shaken by tluwind. A
kind of earthen -ware basin. Loquacitv: talkativeness. "1 Che noo ^
much talking and chattering ； indistinct prattle. h9\ Ch6 ke5,
verbosity, loquacity; uufounded prattle and chattering. The small
leaves of a tree. 取 The internal part of the bamboo, used as a
medithe bamboo used for fuel Grass or herbage; ^rra-s or herbs
growing, llnnp prepared by steeping. A pood arrow or dart. Excess,
overplus. Read Chow, a bird — nest. Read Choo, to tako wood and
cover over a coffin, after which mud was applied as a plaster. To
destroy ； to complicate; to fold or gatiicr up; to double up as
garmenis; to plicate; a paper folded up; aii official document send to
the Emperor; to send or slate, by that means. Chg tsze 招 子 an
official document, send to the Emperor by his higher officers of
government. Head Lu, to drag; to sri/c. ^% Tsow clie, to report by
an olfiv ial document to the Empcn.r 措 ^ Che ti t-, to heap one
thing over another ； to complicate with runny tolds. Vjj:, Mint
minced and half ^4^^ dressed. •p^lt To cut or mince meat. 4、tl
Originally written •t'hr, a knile to cut l"'rbs into suihII parts. Disease,
Yen cli5f .^li^ht disease. From meat and a leaf. JJ^ Vo cut into
leaves To cut into ^niall slices, or hi 卜； to tnince mi-Jit ; minc ed
meat whether beef, mutton or fi>h. Tu run an arrow t](rou?h 、 the
eur ； a military punishment. CHK. That which unites two leaves or
planks. Ch fung 浙 to join a seam. Also read Che, to carve or
engrave.
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CH'E A glance of the eye; the lustre of the eye; clear

sighted; beuutiful eyes. Ch'e. To pick ujj -toiiesi to throw s tunes at.
VET Submissive. Al、 服 也 Sin fuh yay, the heart .submitting. Timid;
timorous; fearful; apprehensive; wanting courage; wanting boldness;
pusillanimous. Also read She. Ch'e ch'c afraiJ ； tri-]»tened;
pusillaniinuus. take. 献 職 Ch'g to pant or palpitatt ; heaving or
motion < au. 化' 1 by tin? breath. The branches of' lives sliukcn by
the wind ； trees J^M^ ( with ponderous leaves and weak branches
wave bi'iiutiiully ; creeping planto. To fold or double up garments; to
plait or told; to pliiate. Plaited, puckered, rumpled. A plant. Flt shcut
intosmall pieces; minced meat. Adistorted mouthing, and incorrect
speakiug. CH'E 67 To < 徹 Pervious; penetrable; to penetrate;
penetration, perspicacious; intelligent, discerning; that may bo
passed through; passable; a roud. To skin; to peel oft' the skin. To
cultivate land; to throw in ruins; to pull to pieces; to remove, or take
away food whilst the music plays. Ch'g clian 徹 to take away food, or
the remains of a sacrifice. 徹俎 Ch'e tsoo, to remove the 、' 、化 Is
used in sacrifice, 徹終 Ch'e eh'e cb e chung, to discern clearly the
whole Irora beyinninp: to end, from lirst to last. ^ I^Cbete, to
penetrate to the bottom, as in exaiuining a< 'w 徹底做 過 Ch'Sto
t>u k、vo， to make entirely over again ； to begin again and uiako
from the very bottom. ^ifrth ^ Clear water; limpid; pellirJ)y / lucid
； water through I which you may see to the illZ bottom. Traces;
footsteps of; print or mark left on a path or road. To send away; to
put aside; to reject; to remove either. />7>，" one, or to one. Che
k，eu 微 去 to seud away.
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68 CH'E CH'E ^ 囘 Ch'e hwuy. to recall ； as, an officer of

the government in case of causing dissatisfaction. St 席 Sfc 坐 Ch'S
seih san tw, to remove the tables and sit round the room. 樂 Ch'e
yo, to send away the inu>ic. A certain fruit of the plumb kind. Torn
or tattered garments. The ears hanginor down. 耳 Ch e u〗 h, the
name of a state. /ftrT Cha 像 饥 ，he appearance of a meau
worthless man. Cha ch'e 羅 tl»e appearance ot a vicious woman.
WjuT Th e cloth which goes *|UiU round under the ear- ； ;i kind ot
collar. Ch'e, T'e? or Nee, to take hold of iirmly with the fingers. The
sides of a wheeled less 挪 十^ llj vehicle; of a war chariot, where
the weapons are stutk. Suddenly; abruptly; fortliwilh ； without
ceremony; without taking time to ask permission; without enquiry;
hastily; diseased in the feet. A surname Ch，S kan $JL 敢 forthwith
dare. A common, but erroneous \ form of I he preceding. Ch'^, or
Ne5, small twee* Uj^y zers for plucking out hairs; to eradicate hairs;
nippers. Fish prepared without salt; dried fish ； curtd without salt.
^I'V. >u ffL 魚 w 輒 醇 魚 Cli e pn yu( fi，li cured williout salt.
Fearful; timrd; timorous; I to tremble with l\'ar; cowardly. Same as \
also read T'ee and SeTh, in the ?<:ime sense.="" ch="" filh=""
lo="">; to submit in a dastardly manner. Indistinct, erroneous pro*
p nunciation; precipitale» hurried ernin^iation. ('liV' ( I" ^ 習 hurried
indistinct pronunciation, such as is iniluced by ft'jir. To drair (»r ！" ill
； to tJik
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CHEN Ch'e pcih, to take liold of a pencil. Tlie hurried.

inartif> (Mien puli ling, a prediction from cer【ai" signs, wliich fails
of being accomplished. 占 /^ Chen li(i、v， to wait; to look tor; to
expect ； i" the sense of 膽 （Jl"'n. 占 >/J、 善 Chen seaou shen, to
pobso6S a small yortiou of goodness. 遗 占 Eclien, a posthumous
command, or order. A I— To see; to look at ( omII— I moiilv \\>vk\
fur 擅 ChVn, to denote assuming or usurping. Chen p^:en e 佔便宜
to assume that mode of ariing which is for one's own convenience or
benefit, without regard to o" 佔身分 ( li' n shin fun, to have refjurd
to one's station, a?ul mrelul not (o disgrace it. ^ 先 去 Clu-n seen
k'eu, to ashume ilie precedence rudrly in wulkinfj. (Mit n cl" \ |^
interrupieii, broken discordant sounds. Otherwise read 十 A carpet or
cloth for a KlL or. Same as Chen. C'Im-n sliar»pr I a t'eaou nmou 辛
占 上拔 條毛 (easy awl as little
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70 CHEX CHEX from; to be the recipient either of good or

evil; to be affected or infected by. Read 'lS，'n, the naioe of a river.
To aei, llie perspiration conit^ lorth and wets the back. 、/占 恩、
Chen ngan, to receive acid of luh che t'ae, a halting, interrupted,
embarrassed manner. 、/占 潤 Chen jun, to be moistened, mollitied
or wet by; figuratively. To receive and be benefited by. Chen yen, to
be infected by some noxious air /or inHuence, which induces
disease. Chen, or Chen ch e it '"、 with small ruin. 靈 ff 塗 >^ Chen
t'e t'oo isuh, the body wet wilh rain, and the feet daubed with mire.
CT To peep; to spy; to look 真 j i-l slily and clandtistinely at; Jo e;. e
a persou in hm underhii ntanf、 f:^ (，|"'n puh ua'i. to stand
insecurely ； to be in unsafe and uncertain circumstances Name of
an insect, described as a liairy worm like iiHt'et on the pomegranate
蛄 tree. disoordant sounds; broken, interrupted, and tumultuous
sounils which distress and annoy. A drizzling rain. To wet with a
drizzling rain. Cben fuh ^ 服 wet clothes. f§ i^k C、lieu ^hlh, damp
or wei 帖 L 1 ht* appearance of uarim-nts w.ivincr or slinkcn. Read 'li
vn uud T;:'，. ； in upper parment or fold 、v!"rli (？ overs thfl
joining of llie inft i ior one. ry^ To spy ； t(» [»e; to lake rjyjj a side
Ay louk at. ^ To chatter and talk much; M tipcciuu^ clever, sedac
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CHEN CHEN 71 tive language. To play or joke with, as with

children. The appearance of disagreeing witli. A tnau's name. To
walk; to go. 迠 0 a To open a door in a slight |*-^| degree; to set
the door ajar in order to wait for. K，、vei chen, to peep through an
opening amon'jst the grass, as a frightened bird. Any thing moved or
shaken by tlie wind; the waves agitated by the wind. ^-t^tr Many
words; verbose; nt 入 4 such a time; to examine into and give
directions and orders about; name of an officer wliu presides at
divinations. TIk- name of :i hill A surname, lvoad Tan, tho feet. Clien
sze foo)^ 事府 a certain olli*:er at court, whose duties consist in a
kind of supervision. Chen an officer wlio pi c^kK's over divinations,
rt^^ 1 Conversation ； talk ； lorj^ I quality. Head Tan, 《, Tan tan,
troublesome verboseuess; fatiguing loquacity. Originally written g)^
Chen, t Chen, or Chen shen 數 ^5 "ie appearance of raising the
Land. A kind of curiitin that surrounds a wheel carriage; that which
covers or screens an aperture; an outer part or told of a vest, which
hides the joining of sin uiK^r ofie. Ch'ay clien 中膚 a carriage
curtain. The peak of a hill or mountain. ftt^^ To look upwards to: to
look up to with reverence and awe as to a sovereign, or as man to
the deity. The name of an office ； of a certain landscape. A
surname. The name of a certain state or country, Chen t'eaou ^[j [|
兆 to look upwards and reniotelv. ^0 Jfj 見 Chen wh，e， to look
upwards to somethinjr superior, or to (he gods. 仲 Chvn y;m^, to
rnise the head and look upwards to ponielhinj; ^reat or striking; to
look up to tlie Emperor of China as the Sovereign of the world .
Foreign Enihassadors seeintr his Imperial Majesty, is expressed by
Chen-yang. jjj^ Chen le, the rites and ceremonies, attending state
interviews or religious solemnities. Verbose; a multitude of 禹 words;
loquacity. Il^fe A horse running at full l^J^ spend.
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