Chapter 2
Data Design and
Implementation
1
Lecture 4
Data
• The representation of information in a
manner suitable for communication or
analysis by humans or machines
• Data are the nouns of the programming
world:
• The objects that are manipulated
• The information that is processed
3
Data Abstraction
• Separation of a data type’s logical
properties from its implementation
LOGICAL PROPERTIES IMPLEMENTATION
What are the possible values? How can this be done in C++?
What operations will be
needed? How can data types be used?
4
Data Encapsulation
• is the separation of the representation of
data from the applications that use the
data at a logical level;
• a programming language feature that enforces
information hiding
APPLICATION REPRESENTATION
int y;
y = 25; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
5
Encapsulated C++ Data Type int
TYPE
int
Value range: Representation of
INT_MIN . . INT_MAX
int
Operations:
+ prefix
as 16 bits two’s
- prefix (inside) complement
+ infix
- infix
+
* infix
/ infix
Implementation of
% infix Operations
Relational Operators
infix
6
Abstract Data Type (ADT)
• A data type whose properties (domain and
operations) are specified independently of
any particular implementation.
7
Collection ordered in different ways
8
Data from 3 different levels
• Application (or user) level: modeling
real-life data in a specific context.
• Logical (or ADT) level: abstract view of
the domain and operations. WHAT
• Implementation level: specific
representation of the structure to hold
the data items, and the coding for
operations. HOW
9
Communication between the Application
Level and Implementation Level
10
Viewing a library from 3 different levels
• Application (or user) level: Library of
Congress, or Baltimore County Public
Library.
• Logical (or ADT) level: domain is a collection
of books;
• operations include: check book out, check book
in, pay fine, reserve a book.
• Implementation level: representation of the
structure to hold the “books”, and the
coding for operations.
11
Composite Data Type
A composite data type is a type which
• stores a collection of individual data
components under one variable name,
• and allows the individual data
components to be accessed.
12
4 Basic Kinds of ADT Operations
• Constructor -- creates a new instance (object)
of an ADT.
• Transformer -- changes the state of one or
more of the data values of an instance.
• Observer -- allows us to observe the state of
one or more of the data values without
changing them.
• Iterator -- allows us to process all the
components in a data structure sequentially.
13
Two Forms of Composite Data Types
UNSTRUCTURED STRUCTURED
Components are not The organization
organized with respect to determines method used
one another. to access individual
data components.
EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES: arrays
classes and structs
14
C++ Built-In Data Types
Simple
Composite
Integral Floating
array struct union class
char short int long enum
float double long double
Address
pointer reference
15
Records
A record is a composite data type made up
of a finite collection of not necessarily
homogeneous elements called members
or fields.
For example . . .
thisCar at Base Address 6000
.year 2008
.maker ‘h’‘o’‘n’‘d’ ‘a’‘\0’ . . .
.price 18678.92
16
struct CarType
struct CarType
{
int year;
char maker[10];
float price;
} ;
CarType thisCar; //CarType variables
CarType myCar;
17
Accessing struct members
The member selection operator (period . ) is
used between the variable name and the
member identifier to access individual
members of a record (struct or class) type
variable.
EXAMPLES
myCar.year
thisCar.maker[4]
18
Valid struct operations
• Operations valid on an entire struct type variable:
assignment to another struct variable of same type,
pass as a parameter to a function
(either by value or by reference),
return as the value of a function.
19
Pass-by-value
sends a copy
of the contents of
the actual parameter
CALLING FUNCTION
BLOCK CALLED
SO,
the actual parameter cannot be changed by the function.
20
Pass-by-reference
sends the location
(memory address)
of the actual parameter
CALLING
BLOCK FUNCTION
CALLED
can change value of
actual parameter
21
Using struct type
Reference Parameter to change a member
void AdjustForInflation(CarType& car, float perCent)
// Increases price by the amount specified in perCent
{
car.price = car.price * perCent + car.price;
};
SAMPLE CALL
AdjustForInflation(myCar, 0.03);
22
Using struct type
Value Parameter to examine a member
bool LateModel(CarType car, int date)
// Returns true if the car’s model year is later than
// or equal to date; returns false otherwise.
{
return ( car.year >= date ) ;
};
SAMPLE CALL
if ( LateModel(myCar, 1995) )
std::cout << myCar.price << std::endl;
23
One-Dimensional Array at the Logical Level
A one-dimensional array is a structured composite
data type made up of
a finite,
fixed size (known at compile time)
collection of homogeneous (all of the same data
type) elements
having relative positions and
to which there is direct access (any element can be
accessed immediately).
Array operations (creation, storing a value, retrieving
a value) are performed using a declaration and
indexes. 24
Implementation Example
This ACCESSING FUNCTION gives position of values[Index]
Address(Index) = BaseAddress + Index * SizeOfElement
float values[5]; // assume element size is 4 bytes
Base Address
7000 7004 7008 7012 7016
values[0] values[1] values[2] values[3] values[4]
Indexes
25
One-Dimensional Arrays in C++
• The index must be of an integral type
• char, short, int, long, or enum
• The index range is always 0 through the array
size minus 1
• Arrays cannot be assigned one to another,
• and cannot be the return type of a function
26
Another Example
This ACCESSING FUNCTION gives position of name[Index]
Address(Index) = BaseAddress + Index * SizeOfElement
char name[10]; // assume element size is 1 byte
Base Address
6000 6001 6002 6003 6004 6005 6006 6007 6008 6009
name[0] name[1] name[2] name[3] name[4] . . . . . name[9]
27
Passing Arrays as Parameters
• In C++, arrays are always passed
by reference,
• and & is not used with the formal
parameter type.
• Whenever an array is passed as a
parameter, its base address is sent
to the called function.
28
const array parameter
Because arrays are always passed as reference
parameters, you can protect the actual parameter
from unintentional changes by using const in
formal parameter list and function prototype.
FOR EXAMPLE . . .
// prototype
float SumValues(const float values[ ],
int numOfValues );
29
float SumValues (const float values[ ], numOfValues)
// Pre: values[ 0] through values[numOfValues-1]
// have been assigned
// Returns the sum of values[0] through
// values[numOfValues-1]
{
float sum = 0;
for ( int index = 0; index < numOfValues;
index++ )
{
sum = values [index] + sum;
}
return sum;
}
30
Two-Dimensional Array
at the Logical Level
A two-dimensional array is a structured composite
data type made up of a finite, fixed size collection
of homogeneous elements having relative
positions and to which there is direct access.
Array operations (creation, storing a value,
retrieving a value) are performed using a
declaration and a pair of indexes (called row and
column) representing the component’s position
in each dimension.
31
EXAMPLE -- To keep monthly high temperatures for
50 states in a two-dimensional array.
const int NUM_STATES = 50 ;
const int NUM_MONTHS = 12 ;
int stateHighs [ NUM_STATES ] [ NUM_MONTHS ] ;
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]
[0]
[1]
[ 2 ] 66 64 72 78 85 90 99 115 98 90 88 80
row 2,
.
col 7
might be . stateHighs [2] [7]
Arizona’s .
high for [ 48 ]
August [ 49 ]
32
Finding the average high
temperature for Arizona
float total = 0;
int month;
float average;
for ( month = 0; month < NUM_MONTHS;
month ++ )
total = total + stateHighs [ 2 ][ month ];
average = ( total / NUM_MONTHS);
33
const int NUM_STATES = 50 ;
const int NUM_MONTHS = 12 ;
int stateHighs [ NUM_STATES ] [ NUM_MONTHS ] ;
STORAGE rows columns
• In memory, C++ stores arrays in row order.
The first row is followed by the second row, etc.
Base Address
8000 8024 8048
...
12 highs for state 0 12 highs for state 1 etc.
Alabama Alaska
first row second row
34
Implementation Level View
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 0 ]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 1 ] Base Address 8000
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 2 ]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 3 ]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 4 ] To locate an element such as
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 5 ] stateHighs [ 2 ] [ 7]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 6 ]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 7 ]
the compiler needs to know
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 8 ] that there are 12 columns
stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 9 ] in this two-dimensional array.
stateHighs[ 0 ] [10 ]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [11 ]
stateHighs[ 1 ] [ 0 ]
stateHighs[ 1 ] [ 1 ] At what address will
stateHighs[ 1 ] [ 2 ]
stateHighs[ 1 ] [ 3 ]
stateHighs [ 2 ] [ 7 ] be found?
.
. Assume 2 bytes for type int.
.
35
Example of a 2-dimensional object
36
Two-Dimensional Array Parameters
• Just as with a one-dimensional array, when a
two- (or higher) dimensional array is passed as
a parameter, the base address of the actual
array is sent to the function.
• The size of all dimensions except the first must
be included in the function heading and
prototype.
• The sizes of those dimensions for the formal
parameter must be exactly the same as in the
actual array.
37
Use the two-dimensional stateHighs array to fill a
one-dimensional stateAverages array
const int NUM_STATES = 50 ;
const int NUM_MONTHS = 12 ;
int stateHighs [ NUM_STATES ] [ NUM_MONTHS ] ;
float stateAverages [ NUM_STATES ] ;
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]
[0]
Alaska ? [1] 43 42 50 55 60 78 79 80 77 72 63 40
? [2] 66 64 72 78 85 90 99 115 98 90 88 80
Arizona
.
.
.
[ 48 ]
[ 49 ]
38
void findAverages (
const int stateHighs [NUM_STATES] [NUM_MONTHS],
int stateAverages [NUM_STATES])
// Pre: stateHighs[ 0..NUM_STATES-1] [ 0..NUM_MONTHS-1]
// assigned
// Post: stateAverages[ 0..NUM_STATES-1 ] contains rounded
// high temperature for each state
{
int state;
int month;
float total;
for ( state = 0 ; state < NUM_STATES; state++ )
{
total = 0.0;
for ( month = 0 ; month < NUM_MONTHS ; month++ )
total = stateHighs [ state ][ month ] + total;
stateAverages [ state ] = total / NUM_MONTHS;
}
}
39
Lecture 5
Using typedef with arrays
helps eliminate the chances of size mismatches between
formal and actual parameters.
FOR EXAMPLE,
typedef int StateHighsType [ NUM_STATES ][ NUM_MONTHS ];
typedef float StateAveragesType [ NUM_STATES ];
void findAverages( const StateHighsType stateHighs,
StateAveragesType stateAverages )
{
.
.
.
} 41
Declaring Multidimensional Arrays
EXAMPLE USING TYPEDEF
const int NUM_DEPTS = 5;
// mens, womens, childrens, electronics, linens
const int NUM_MONTHS = 12 ;
const int NUM_STORES = 3 ;
// White Marsh, Owings Mills, Towson
typedef long MonthlySalesType [NUM_DEPTS] [NUM_MONTHS]
[NUM_STORES];
MonthlySalesType monthlySales;
42
const int NUM_DEPTS = 5; // mens, womens, childrens, electronics,linens
const int NUM_MONTHS = 12 ;
const int NUM_STORES = 3 ; // White Marsh, Owings Mills, Towson
typedef long MonthlySalesType [NUM_DEPTS] [NUM_MONTHS] [NUM_STORES] ;
MonthlySalesType monthlySales;
monthlySales[3][7][0]
sales for electronics in August at White Marsh
5 DEPTS
rows
43
12 MONTHS columns
43
C++ class data type
• A class is an unstructured type that
encapsulates a fixed number of
data components (data members) with the
functions (called member functions) that
manipulate them.
• The predefined operations on an instance
of a class are whole assignment and
component access.
44
class DateType Specification
// SPECIFICATION FILE ( datetype.h )
class DateType // declares a class data type
{
public :
// 4 public member functions
void Initialize (int newMonth, int newDay, int newYear ) ;
int GetYear( ) const ; // returns year
int GetMonth( ) const ; // returns month
int GetDay( ) const ; // returns day
private :
// 3 private data members
int year ;
int month ;
int day ;
}; ; must be there!!!
Use of C++ data type class
• Variables of a class type are called objects (or
instances) of that particular class.
• Software that declares and uses objects of the
class is called a client.
• Client code uses public member functions (called
methods in OOP) to handle its class objects.
• . means calling a public member function.
46
Client Code Using DateType
#include “datetype” // includes specification of the class
using namespace std;
int main ( void )
{
DateType startDate; // declares 2 objects of DateType
DateType endDate;
bool retired = false;
startDate.Initialize ( 6, 30, 1998 );
endDate.Initialize ( 10, 31, 2002 );
cout << startDate.MonthIs( ) << “/” << startDate.DayIs( )
<< “/” << startDate.YearIs( ) << endl;
while ( ! retired )
{
// finishSomeTask
}
}
47
2 separate files generally
used for class type
// SPECIFICATION FILE ( datetype .h )
// Specifies the data and function members.
class DateType
{
public:
. . .
private:
. . .
} ;
// IMPLEMENTATION FILE ( datetype.cpp )
// Implements the DateType member functions.
. . .
48
DateType Class Instance Diagrams
startDate endDate
Private data: Private data:
Initialize Initialize
year 1998 year 2002
GetYear GeytYear
month 6 month 10
GetMonth GetMonth
day 30 day 31
GetDay GetDay
49
Implementation of DateType
member functions
// IMPLEMENTATION FILE (datetype.cpp)
#include “datetype.h” // also must appear in client code
void DateType :: Initialize ( int newMonth,
int newDay,
int newYear )
// Post: year is set to newYear.
// month is set to newMonth.
// day is set to newDay.
{
year = newYear;
month = newMonth;
day = newDay;
}
50
int DateType :: GetMonth ( ) const
// Accessor function for data member month
{
return month;
}
int DateType :: GetYear ( ) const
// Accessor function for data member year
{
return year;
}
int DateType :: GetDay ( ) const
// Accessor function for data member day
{
return day;
} 51
51
Familiar Class Instances
and Member Functions
• The member selection operator ( . ) selects either data
members or member functions.
• Header files iostream and fstream declare the istream,
ostream, and ifstream, ofstream I/O classes.
• Both cin and cout are class objects and get and ignore
are member functions.
cin.get (someChar);
cin.ignore (100, ‘\n’);
• These statements declare myInfile as an instance of
class ifstream and invoke member function open.
ifstream myInfile ;
myInfile.open ( “mydata.dat” );
52
Scope Resolution Operator ( :: )
• C++ programs typically use several class types.
• Different classes can have member functions with the
same identifer, like Write( ).
• Member selection operator is used to determine the
class whose member function Write( ) is invoked.
currentDate.Write( ) ; // class DateType
numberZ.Write( ) ; // class ComplexNumberType
• In the implementation file, the scope resolution
operator is used in the heading before the member
function’s name to specify its class.
void DateType :: Write ( ) const
{ . . .
}
53
Inheritance
54
A Short Review of Object-
Oriented Programming
• Three inter-related constructs: classes,
objects, and inheritance
• Objects are the basic run-time entities
in an object-oriented system.
• A class defines the structure of its
objects.
• Classes are organized in an “is-a”
hierarchy defined by inheritance.
55
Inheritance
1. Allows programmers to create a new
class that is a specialization of an
existing class.
2. The new class is called a derived class
of the existing class;
• the existing class is the base class of the
new class.
56
Inheritance
• Inheritance fosters reuse by allowing an
application to take an already-tested class
and derive a class from it that inherits the
properties the application needs
• Polymorphism: the ability of a language to
have duplicate method names in an
inheritance hierarchy and to apply the method
that is appropriate for the object to which the
method is applied
57
Inheritance
• Inheritance and
polymorphism
combined allow the
programmer to
build useful
hierarchies of
classes that can be
reused in different
applications
• Mapping of problem
into solution
58
# include <string>
class MoneyType
{
public:
void Initialize(long, long);
long DollarsAre( ) const;
long CentsAre( ) const;
private:
long dollars;
long cents;
};
59
class ExtMoneyType:public MoneyType
{
public:
string CurrencyIs( );
void Initialize(long, long, const string);
private:
string currency;
};
ExtMoneyType extMoney;
void ExtMoneyType::Initialize
(long newDollars, long newCents, string newCurrency)
{
currency = newCurrency;
MoneyType::Initialize(newDollars, newCents);
}
String ExtMoneyType::CurrencyIs() const
{
return currency;
}
60
Exceptions
• An exception is an unusual situation that
occurs when the program is running.
• Exception Management
• Define the error condition
• Enclose code containing possible error (try).
• Alert the system if error occurs (throw).
• Handle error if it is thrown (catch).
61
try, catch, and throw
Try
{
// code that contains a possible error
… throw string(“An error has occurred in
function …”);
}
Catch (string message)
{
std::cout << message << std::endl;
return 1;
}
62
try
{
infile >> value;
do
{
if (value < 0)
throw string("Negative value");
sum = sum + value;
} while (infile);
}
catch (string message)
// Parameter of the catch is type string
{
// Code that handles the exception
cout << message << " found in file. Program aborted."
return 1;
}
// Code to continue processing if exception not thrown
cout << "Sum of values on the file: " << sum;
63
Namespace
namespace mySpace
{
// All variables and
// functions within this
// block must be accessed
// using scope
// resolution operator (::).
}
Purpose: Avoid namespace pollution.
64
Three Ways to Access Members
within a Namespace
• Qualify each reference:
mySpace::name with every reference.
• Using declaration:
using mySpace::name;
All future references to name refer to mySpace::name.
• Using directive:
using namespace mySpace;
All members of mySpace can be referenced without
qualification.
65
Rules for Use of Namespace std
(within text)
• Qualify names in prototypes and/or
function definitions.
• If name used more than once in a
function block, use a using declaration.
• If more than one name is used from a
namespace, use a using directive.
66
Lecture 6
const
int const x = 5;
x is a constant integer
const int x = 5;
const int *p_int;
a pointer to constant data
int const *p_int;
int * const p_int = &x; a constant pointer to data
int const * const p_int = &x;
a constant pointer to constant data
int method() const; a method that does not modify the object
const char * method(); a method that has a constant output
int method(int const *p_int); a method whose parameter
is constant
const int*const Method(const int*const&)const; 68
Map to Joe’s Diner
69
Which Cost More to Feed?
70
Order of Magnitude of a Function
The order of magnitude, or Big-O notation,
of a function expresses the computing time
of a problem as the term in a function that
increases most rapidly relative to the size
of a problem.
71
Complexity
• Let us assume two algorithms A and B that solve
the same class of problems.
• The time complexity of A is 5,000n,
the one for B is 1.1n for
an input with n elements.
• For n = 10,
• A requires 50,000 steps,
• but B only 3,
• so B seems to be superior to A.
• For n = 1000, A requires 5,000,000 steps,
• while B requires 2.51041 steps.
72
Complexity
• This means that algorithm B cannot be used for
large inputs, while algorithm A is still feasible.
• So what is important is the growth of the
complexity functions.
• The growth of time and space complexity with
increasing input size n is a suitable measure for
the comparison of algorithms.
73
Names of Orders of Magnitude
O(1) bounded (by a constant) time
O(log2N) logarithmic time
O(N) linear time
O(N*log2N) N*log2N time
O(N2) quadratic time
O(N3) cubic time
O(2N ) exponential time
74
N log2N N*log2N N2 2N
1 0 0 1 2
2 1 2 4 4
4 2 8 16 16
8 3 24 64 256
16 4 64 256 65,536
32 5 160 1024 4,294,967,296
64 6 384 4096 1.84*1019
128 7 896 16,384 3.40*1038
75
The Growth of Functions
• “Popular” functions g(n) are
n log n, log n, 1, 2n, n2, n!, n, n3
Listed from slowest to fastest growth:
• 1
• log n
• n
• n log n
• n2
• n3
• 2n
• n!
76
The Growth of Functions
• A problem that can be solved with polynomial
worst-case complexity is called tractable
• Problems of higher complexity are called
intractable
• Problems that no algorithm can solve are called
unsolvable
77
Comparison of Two Algorithms
• Add all numbers from 1 to 20
78
Complexity Examples
What does the following algorithm compute?
int who_knows(int a[n]) {
int m = 0;
for {int i = 0; i<n; i++}
for {int j = i+1; j<n; j++}
if ( abs(a[i] – a[j]) > m )
m = abs(a[i] – a[j]);
return m;
}
returns the maximum difference between any two
numbers in the input array
Comparisons: n-1 + n-2 + n-3 + … + 1 = (n-1)n/2 = 0.5n2 - 0.5n
Time complexity is O(n2)
79
Complexity Examples
Another algorithm solving the same problem:
int max_diff(int a[n]) {
int min = a[0];
int max = a[0];
for {int i = 1; i<n; i++}
if ( a[i] < min )
min = a[i];
else if ( a[i] > max )
max = a[i];
return max-min;
}
Comparisons: 2n - 2
Time complexity is O(n). 80
Find “John Smith”
81
Big-O Comparison of List Operations
OPERATION UnsortedList SortedList
GetItem
O(N) O(N) linear search
O(log2N) binary search
PutItem
Find O(1) O(log2N) search
Put O(1) O(N) moving down
Combined O(1) O(N)
DeleteItem
Find O(N) O(log2N) search
Put O(1) swap O(N) moving up
Combined O(N) O(N)
82
OVERVIEW
Overview
• The application view of a data structure is associated with which of
the following?
• A. What?
• B. Why?
• C. How?
• The implementation view of a data structure is associated with which
of the following?
• A. What?
• B. Why?
• C. How?
• The logical view of a data structure is associated with which of the
following?
• A. What?
• B. Why?
• C. How? 84
Overview
The file containing the definition of class DateType
is called the ______ file.
A. specification
B. implementation
C. client
• The file containing the definitions of the member
functions of class DateType is called the ______
file.
• A. specification
• B. implementation
• C. client 85
Which of the following statements in a client program correctly
prints out the day of the variable day1 of type DateType?
class DateType {
public:
void Initialize(int, int, int);
int GetYear() const; // returns year
int GetMonth() const; // returns month
int GetDay() const; // returns day
private:
int year;
int month;
int day;
};
A. cout << day1.GetDay;
B. cout << day1.GetDay();
C. cout << GetDay.day1;
D. cout cout << GetDay(day1);
E. The day cannot be printed by a client program.
86
What is the minimum number of test cases
needed to adequately test this program?
void CheckTriangle(int b, int c, int a)
{
if ((a == b) && (b == c))
cout << "Equalateral" << endl;
else
if (a == b)
cout << "Isoscelese" << endl;
else
cout << "Scalene" << endl;
}
6
87
True / False
• We can protect an array that is sent to a
function by using const
• C++ ensures we do not write beyond
allocated array slots.
• The position of an element in a one
dimensional array associated with Index is
Address(Index) = Base + Index * SizeOfElement
• In a two dimensional array, component
selection is as follows
table[columnIndex][rowIndex]
88
True / False
• Members of a struct are public by default.
• Members of a class are public by default.
• A struct differs from an array in that its
elements need not occupy a consecutive
block of memory cells.
• C++ provides a way to sequentially iterate
through the fields in a struct.
89
True / False
• Exceptions must be handled within the
function in which they occur.
• Exceptions cannot be handled within the
block in which they occur.
• Code that can cause an exception should
be enclosed within a try clause.
• Exception handlers are enclosed within a
catch clause.
• C++ does have built-in exceptions.
90
True / False
• Each try/catch statement can have only
one catch clause.
• It is the responsibility of the client code to
handle all exceptions.
• using myNames::GetData is a using
declaration.
• using namespace myName is a using
directive.
91
True / False
• Polymorphism has the ability to determine
which function to call for a particular
object.
• Inheritance is a language mechanism by
which one class acquires data and
is-a
operations of another class.
• Composition is a mechanism by which an
internal data member of one class is has-a
defined to be an object of another class
type.
92
True / False
• Static binding refers to compile-time binding
• Dynamic binding refers to run-time binding
• In C++, a derived class's constructor is
executed before the base class constructor
is executed.
93
