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English As a Foreign Language Teacher Education
Current Perspectives and Challenges 1st Edition Juan De
Dios MartÃ​nez Agudo Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Juan de Dios MartÃ​nez Agudo
ISBN(s): 9789401210485, 9401210489
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 5.55 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english
English as a foreign language
teacher education
Utrecht Studies in Language and Communication

27

Series Editors

Wolfgang Herrlitz
Paul van den Hoven
English as a foreign language
teacher education

Current perspectives and challenges

Edited by Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo

Amsterdam - New York, NY 2014

Cover photo: www.dreamstime.com

The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO
9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents -
Requirements for permanence”.

ISBN: 978-90-420-3800-4
E-Book ISBN: 978-94-012-1048-5
©Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam – New York, NY 2014
Printed in The Netherlands
 Contents
Foreword by Jack C. Richards 1

Preface 5

Section I. Theoretical perspectives and approaches

to L2 teacher education

Incorporating second language acquisition research

into teacher education
Juana Mª Liceras 11

Integrating the European Portfolio in a competency-based

teacher education approach
Daniel Madrid Fernández 35

Action research in English as a foreign language teacher

training in Spain: Trainees’ perception of their development
of competencies for effective teaching and a comparison
with language teacher competency development in the UK
Mª del Pilar Montijano Cabrera and Dawn Leggott 59

Language teacher education models: New issues and challenges

Marie-Christine Deyrich and Kari Stunnel 83

Practicum experience in teacher education:

Is experience the best teacher?
Muriel Grosbois 107

Teaching pronunciation in the post-EFL area:

Lessons from ELF and implications for teacher education
Nicos C. Sifakis 127

The importance of developing multicultural awareness

in EFL teacher education
Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra 147

Section II. Teacher identity construction:

Emotional and cognitive dimensions of teaching

Teacher emotion, emotional labor and teacher identity

Paul A. Schutz and Mikyoung Lee 169
NNS imagining a future self as teachers in bilingual education
María E. Torres-Guzmán and Patricia Martínez Álvarez 187

Beliefs in learning to teach: EFL student teachers’ beliefs

about corrective feedback
Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo 209

Native or non-native? The nativeness factor

from the student teachers’ perspective
Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo and Ian Robinson 231

Section III. Lesson plans and classroom materials

and resources

Teaching and learning how to plan lessons

for EFL classrooms: Implementation of classroom
techniques and activities
Mª Sagrario Salaberri Ramiro, Nazmi Abdul-Salam Al-Masri
and Mª del Mar Sánchez Pérez 249

Textbook use training in EFL teacher education

Mª del Pilar Montijano Cabrera 267

Human drive and humanistic technologies in ELT training

Gabriele Azzaro 287

Section IV. Focus on CLIL and ESP teacher education

CLIL pedagogy in Europe: CLIL teacher education in Germany

Christina Brüning and Maja-Svea Purrmann 315

Challenges facing pre-service ESP teacher education:

Legal and medical English
Eduarda Melo Cabrita, Isabel Ferro Mealha
and Rita Queiroz de Barros 339

Notes on contributors 359

 Foreword

Five issues strike me as central to an understanding the nature of second

language teacher education or SLTE: context, content, learners, delivery, and
impact. Readers of this collection of papers will find each of these issues
addressed in different ways and to different degrees, and keeping them in
mind will help readers better understand both the scope and nature of SLTE
as it is reflected in this volume.
Context refers to both the site where teacher education takes place as well as
the settings where teacher-learners in the program carry out their teaching.
The former may be a campus lecture room and the latter a school, private
institute or other learning setting including both face-to-face as well as on-
line learning contexts. The role of context for example, is reflected in
Grosbois’ account of how an overseas practicum experience for student
teachers facilitated not only improvements in language proficiency but also
provided opportunities to link campus-based and classroom-based
experiences and to lay the foundation for longer term professional
development. Classroom-based action research as an opportunity to move the
learning site from the lecture room to the language classroom is also the
focus of the chapter by Montijano and Leggott.
Content refers to the knowledge base and skills that constitute the curriculum
of the SLTE program. In cases where teachers are not fluent speaker of the
target language it may also include language proficiency. Content knowledge
can be thought of as constituting the ‘theoretical foundations’ of language
teaching, in comparison with the practical, teaching-skills aspects of
teaching. Content knowledge, however, is of many different kinds. One
important distinction is between disciplinary knowledge and pedagogical
content knowledge. Disciplinary knowledge refers to a circumscribed body of
knowledge that is considered by the language-teaching profession to be
essential to gaining membership in the profession, but which may not have
practical application in the classroom. A course on the history of language
teaching or on trends in linguistics would belong to the domain of
disciplinary knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge, on the other hand,
refers to knowledge that provides a basis for language teaching. It is
knowledge which is drawn from the study of language teaching and language
learning itself and which can be applied in different ways to the resolution of
practical issues in language teaching. However it should be noted that there is
no consensus in the field of SLTE as to what the essential knowledge base of
SLTE is, either in terms of disciplinary knowledge or pedagogical content
knowledge.
2 Jack C. Richards

Many of the papers in this book focus either on particular approaches to

content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, or both, and the range of
papers in this collection on content issues reflects both the changing state of
understanding of content in SLTE, as well as the need for content to reflect
the contexts in which SLTE programs take place. Thus the paper by Liceras
makes a case for information derived from contrastive analysis and SLA as a
component of the knowledge base for teacher learners. Sifakis questions the
models of pronunciation taught in SLTE courses in the light of the emergence
of English as an international language. Montijano emphasizes the need for
language teachers to develop a critical understanding of the nature and role of
textbooks. Bruning and Purman discuss the need in some contexts to prepare
teachers for curricular innovations such as CLIL, while Cabrita et al. see the
need to provide teachers with the knowledge they need to teach ESP.
Papaefthymiou-Lystra introduces multicultural awareness and multicultural
competence as component s of the SLTE curriculum. Familiarity with the
role technology can play in language teaching is also a theme addressed by
several contributors. The use of technology in teaching becomes more
important in present times, because teachers also have to be able to keep up
with the technological knowledge of their students.
Learners refers to the recipients of SLTE, in this case teacher-learners, who
may be both novice as well as experienced teachers. The field of SLTE has
added much to our understanding of teacher-learners in recent years through
a focus on teacher cognition and on the attributes, attitudes and identities
teacher-learners bring to learning or develop through the teacher-learning
process. A number of contributors to this book describe research in these
areas. For example Schutz and Lee discuss the emotional demands of
language teaching and remind us that SLTE programs generally do not
adequately prepare teachers for the emotional demands often made on them
in the classroom or teach them strategies for dealing with these issues. How
bilingual teachers construct their identities as language teachers is the focus
of Torres-Guzman and Martínez-Alvarez’ paper. Martínez Agudo examines
student teachers’ beliefs about error correction, while Martínez and Robinson
discuss student- teachers’ attitudes towards native versus non-native teachers.
Delivery refers to the teaching/learning process the SLTE program employs,
which may include lecture-based input, on-line or face to face teaching,
workshops, teaching practice, discourse analysis, teaching portfolios and
classroom research. The contributors to this volume generally draw on
constructivist, experiential, and collaborative approaches to teaching within
an SLTE program. Montijano and Leggott’s describe the use of action
research as an alternative to transmission-oriented teaching methods.
Experientially-based approaches are also described by Deyrich and Stunnel.
Madrid’s paper covers both content and delivery, since the competency-based
model it describes identifies the core skills that constitute the focus of the
 Foreword 3

SLTE program as well as the use of student-teacher portfolios as a means of

learner-directed management of learning.
Impact generally refers to the changes in teachers’ beliefs, identities,
understandings and practices that the program and its related activities is
intended to bring about or that take place once the student teacher starts
teaching. Impact however can be two ways in SLTE . One direction is to
consider the impact of SLTE on teachers’ beliefs and practices, which are
often very resistant to change. Research of this kind could explore the extent
to which courses in such areas as pedagogical grammar, SLA, or
methodology, serve to inform teachers’ understandings and practices after
they have completed the SLTE course. Unfortunately there is not a
substantial body of research in this area. Another aspect of impact is the
extent to which research on language teaching itself serves to inform the
content of SLTE programs, which can be considered as a form of needs
analysis. In the present collection, impact receives less attention than the
other issues referred to above.
Taken together the papers in this useful volume emphasize that teacher-
development in language teaching involves mastering practical classroom
skills, as well as acquiring the specialized knowledge that teachers make use
of in their teaching. It also involves developing a deeper understanding of
teaching, over time, through the experience of teaching. At the same time,
teaching is, to some extent, an activity that draws on the teacher’s personal
beliefs, values and individual teaching style. The language teaching
profession has developed and continues to refine the professional knowledge
base expected of language teachers, as reflected in the standards set for
language teachers, and the professional and academic qualifications available
for teachers. However, teacher development is also dependent upon the
teacher’s individual initiatives and efforts, and participating in activities that
involve reflection, monitoring and evaluation of one’s own professional
growth. This book provides research-based accounts of how teacher-
educators in SLTE programs have explored issues of this kind, illustrates the
scope of current research in teacher-learning in language teaching, and helps
identify an agenda for further accounts of theory and practice in second
language teacher education.

Jack C. Richards
Honorary Professor, University of Sydney
Visiting Distinguished Professor, City University of Hong Kong
Adjunct Professor, Regional Language Centre, Singapore
 Preface
The field of Second Language Teacher Education (SLTE) is mainly
concerned with the professional preparation of L2 teachers. Although the
world of SLTE encompasses a wide range of instructional settings, the fact is
that most publications focus exclusively on ESL/EFL contexts. Since the
numerous influencing factors and the large number of contexts in which
SLTE occurs, our understanding of what actually happens in SLTE calls for
further exploration. SLTE has been mainly affected by external pressures
such as the rapid expansion and/or status of English as the dominant language
of worldwide communication as well as the impact of communicative
language teaching on ELT. Since the external pressures resulting from the
worldwide demand for more trained and competent language teachers, the
overall mission of SLTE is to educate qualified and competent teachers so as
to improve the quality of second language pedagogy. While SLTE is an
essential contributing factor to quality in second language education, more
effective SLTE approaches to professional preparation and development are
needed. Up to now many attempts and efforts have been made to improve the
quality of language instruction, however many issues and concerns still
remain unresolved.
The literature being written today is increasingly addressing and discussing
an ever-widening range of substantive issues and concerns in the area of L2
teacher education and development. As views about language teaching and
learning have changed during the past three decades, the process of L2
teacher education has also changed as a result of the new trends and
influences. In this respect, the research focus in changing SLTE pedagogy
has moved from teacher training towards teacher education, that is, we are
witnessing a shift in orientation from searching for better ways to train
teachers in the practical classroom teaching skills and techniques to trying to
describe and understand the process of how teachers actually learn to teach
through reflection and critical self-evaluation. Through exploration, teachers
can actually learn and discover a lot about their own teaching by changing the
way they teach, making small readjustments or changes, or trying new
strategies or procedures, in order to investigate what might happen in
changing classroom circumstances. Since the recent transition from
traditional transmissive pedagogy to a more experiential and constructivist
pedagogy which in turn has led to the widespread implementation of the
reflective approach to teacher education in SLTE pedagogy, the fact is that
there is much that we still do not know about how L2 teaching is actually
learned in training rooms and how professional preparation programmes can
contribute to this process. Likewise, the role of teacher educators who teach
teaching is largely unexplored in research literature. In order to improve
teaching in the multilingual and multicultural classroom of the 21st century,
6 Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo

both pre- and in-service L2 teachers as well as L2 teacher educators must be

prepared to meet the new challenges of education under the current
circumstances, expanding their roles and responsibilities so as to face the new
complex realities of language instruction. Maintaining the interest, creativity
and enthusiasm of teachers for teaching would represent one of the main
challenges faced by both teachers themselves and teacher educators
(Richards, 2011). Educating 21st century learners actually constitutes a real
challenge for 20th century teachers when faced with the tremendous diversity
in their classrooms.
Overview of the volume
This volume explores a number of key dimensions of EFL teacher education.
More precisely, the collection provides a detailed account of current
perspectives and theoretical approaches to the constructivist experiential
SLTE pedagogy. As corresponds to the broad scope of this field and its
interdisciplinary nature, the selected contributions of this volume focus on a
wide variety of issues related to second language pedagogy and SLTE. The
book contains a total of 16 chapters organized into four thematic sections,
each of them covering diverse aspects and perspectives on SLTE pedagogy.
Section I examines overall theoretical perspectives and approaches to L2
teacher education such as the importance of second language acquisition
(SLA) research, competency-based teacher education approach, action
research in L2 teacher education, language teacher education models,
teaching practicum, pronunciation teaching and multicultural awareness.
Given the importance of SLA research for language pedagogy (Ellis, 2012,
2013), the introductory chapter mainly addresses how SLA research can be
integrated into teacher education. With special reference to the European
Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL), Chapter 2
proposes, through a detailed example, the integration of the European
portfolio in a competency-based teacher education approach. Chapter 3
precisely describes and evaluates the development of competencies in EFL
teacher training through an action-research study conducted in the Spanish
university context. This is then compared and contrasted with language
teacher competency development in the United Kingdom. Chapter 4
provides an in-depth exploration of the different language teacher education
models by examining the assumptions upon which they are based and
discussing how these models are evolving and need to evolve so as to deal
with the specific challenges of education in the 21st century. Since the
practicum experience is viewed as an essential component in the professional
preparation of prospective teachers and in line with the CEFR’s action-
oriented approach, Chapter 5 discusses the value and role of practicum
experience abroad in L2 teacher education, emphasizing the need for the
combination of action and reflection in L2 teacher education. With the
emphasis on intelligible pronunciation as an essential component for
 Preface 7

effective communication, Chapter 6 argues for a transition from a

‘traditional EFL’ to a ‘post-EFL paradigm’, where an ELF (English as a
Lingua Franca) pronunciation perspective should be integrated into teacher
education programmes aimed at ensuring mutual intelligibility and
comprehensibility in successful communication. Bearing in mind that
language and culture are equally important, Chapter 7 highlights the
importance of promoting multicultural awareness in ELT teacher education,
by reporting empirical research on developing student teachers’ multicultural
awareness carried out in the context of a pre-service teacher training
programme in Greece.
Section II covers the area of the impact of the emotional and cognitive
dimensions of teaching on teachers’ professional identity construction. Since
the recently increasing interest in teacher emotions in the classroom over the
last decade, Chapter 8 is mainly concerned with the emotional dimension of
teaching, examining how teachers’ emotional experiences and the emotional
labor associated with those experiences influence their emerging and
changing professional identities. In order to better understand this process of
professional identity development, Chapter 9 closely examines, through a
case study of 12 NNES teacher candidates engaged in bilingual/bicultural
education programmes in USA, the variation of responses to assignments as a
way of exploring identity construction by analysing how prospective teachers
see themselves when teaching in bilingual classrooms. In the next two
chapters the emphasis is on the role and impact of beliefs and attitudes in
learning to teach which seem to affect and shape student teachers’
professional identities and classroom instructional practices. Given that the
professional development of teachers in general and their classroom
instructional practices in particular are greatly influenced by teachers’
cognitions or beliefs, Chapter 10 examines this unobservable cognitive
dimension of teaching as a central research theme by focusing specifically on
EFL student teachers’ beliefs about the controversial issue of corrective
feedback. Since the debate comparing native English-speaking teachers
(NESTs) and non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs) has been
widely discussed in ELT literature, Chapter 11 examines the nativeness
factor from the standpoint of student teachers, a perspective largely ignored
so far.
Section III examines the importance of lesson planning as well as the
potential of classroom materials and resources for EFL teacher education.
Chapter 12 mainly focuses on the lesson planning process in the EFL
classroom, discussing the reasons for planning lessons and its implementation
process with special reference to teaching activities and materials related to
internet-based resources. Since materials exist in order to support teachers in
teaching, Chapter 13 argues that training in the effective use of the textbook
should be included in EFL teacher education by discussing the most
8 Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo

outstanding reasons both for and against the use of textbooks in L2 classes. In
.

this respect, trainee teachers need to develop critical-evaluation skills

regarding the suitability of textbooks as an integral part of their professional
preparation. In today’s ever increasingly more globalized and digital world
where advances in technology have provided us with new opportunities and
learning settings, Chapter 14 examines the humanistic use of technology,
and more particularly the Italian EFL student teachers’ engagement with and
enjoyment of traditional and multimedia course materials.
The chapters in the last section of the book cover other branches or variants
of English language teaching (ELT) such as Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL) and teaching English for specific purposes (ESP). Since
CLIL pedagogy is (supposedly) unlike teaching ordinary EFL (English as a
Foreign Language) or ESOL (English to speakers of other languages),
Chapter 15 provides a short overview about the current situation of CLIL
pedagogy in Europe as well as a closer look at CLIL teacher education with a
special focus on Germany, suggesting possible solutions to the different
existing problems and challenges. Since teacher education programmes in
Europe have so far neglected the important area of ESP teacher education,
the final Chapter is mainly concerned with the challenges related to pre-
service ESP teacher education in Portugal, with special reference to legal and
medical English.
In short, the volume aims to represent the views of EFL teacher educators
and researchers from around the world, within the particular settings and
circumstances of their daily work, bringing rich and illuminating
perspectives. It is my hope that readers of this book will be enriched by the
scope and depth of these contributions.
The book’s audience
This publication is mainly addressed to those pre-service and in-service
teachers who teach in EFL classrooms anywhere in the world, under any
circumstances, and who wish to know more about L2 pedagogy. The book is
also intended for those practising and prospective L2 teacher educators
around the world involved both in pre-service and in-service education of
L2/FL teachers. Those educational researchers interested in how L2 teaching
is actually learned in formal preparation programmes will also find it helpful.
Acknowledgements
Since an edited volume requires the commitment and cooperation of a
number of professionals, I would like to thank all the contributors who took
time from their busy schedules to make the current publication possible.
Thanks also to my student teachers who inspire me every day since their
insights and challenging questions help me grow as an L2 teacher educator.
Professor Jack C. Richards’ kindness in writing the foreword is
acknowledged with gratitude.
- The Editor
 Section I

Theoretical perspectives and

approaches to L2 teacher education
Incorporating second language acquisition research
into teacher education *

Juana Mª Liceras (University of Ottawa, Canada)

Research on language acquisition has undergone substantial changes in the 21st

century. Some of these changes are related to the new fronts that have been opened
when it comes to eliciting data intended to investigate how language is acquired and
how language is represented in the monolingual or the bilingual mind. These new
research areas and data elicitation techniques may be perceived by the applied linguist
as being as far away from the type of activities that take place in the classroom as was
perceived, thirty years ago, the research carried out within the so-called “universal
grammar” framework. However, in the same way as morphosyntactic theories with a
universal flavor have been a source of inspiration for carrying out experimental
research inside the classroom, the work on contact linguistics or language processing
that is being carried out nowadays may provide us with insights as to how we can
train teachers, manipulate classroom input or prepare language teaching materials. In
this chapter we draw pedagogical inferences from experimental research carried out
on the relevance of the formal feature gender when accepting code-switched concord
structures and from the processing preferences displayed by Spanish dominant and
English dominant English-Spanish bilinguals when confronting the ambiguity of
relative clauses with complex antecedents.

1 Introduction
Among the linguistic issues that should play an important role in teacher
education, we would like to focus on two: (i) how formal features realized in
the target language are represented in the mind of the native speaker and (ii)
how native speakers deal with ambiguity. While the first issue occupies a
central place (directly or indirectly) in teacher training, even when grammar
and formal instruction are not the focus of a given program, the second issue,
to the best of our knowledge, is seldom if ever addressed. We have chosen to
discuss these two somehow different linguistic issues because recent research
provides us with information about the nature of the intuitions and

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
*The experimental data that we discuss here are related to the joint research program on language

development and language contact housed at the Language Acquisition Research Laboratory of
the University of Ottawa (Canada), at the Language Acquisition Laboratory of the University of
Valladolid (Spain), as well as to our collaboration with the Universitat Pompeu Fabra of
Barcelona. This research has been funded by the Faculty of Arts of the University of Ottawa, the
Canada-Europe Award Program (CEA) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education
(FFI2012-35058).
ȱ
ȱ
12 Juana Mª Licerasȱ

representations that second language learners need to internalize for

achieving native-like competence in the target language.
As we state in Liceras (2010), formal features were already relevant for
interlanguage descriptions carried out by the researchers who pioneered the
adoption of the Extended Standard Theory (Chomsky, 1977) and the
Government and Binding model (Chomsky, 1981) for the analysis of native
and non-native systems (Flynn, 1983; Liceras, 1983; Mazurkevich, 1984;
White, 1985, among others). However, it is within Chomsky’s Minimalist
Program (Chomsky, 1995, 2000; Hornstein, Nunes and Grohmann 2005,
among others) that formal syntactic features become the center of learnability
theory, the reason being that they are conceptualized as the elementary
building units of linguistic structure. That is to say, the realization of formal
features such as gender or case in a given language determines the structure
of that language. Furthermore, formal features constitute one of the most
recalcitrant problems that adult language learners have to confront when
acquiring a non-native grammar.
In this chapter we show that Spanish dominant English-Spanish bilinguals
not only classify Spanish Nouns according to the formal feature gender, but
also English Nouns. We base this assertion on the code-switching preferences
these bilinguals display when confronted with Determiner Phrases (DPs)
such as those in (1) and (2).
(1) la[fem.] house[casa-fem.] / el[masc.] book[libro-masc.]
(2) el[masc.] house[casa-fem.] / la[fem.] book[libro-masc.]
What experimental research using acceptability judgments has shown
(Liceras et al., 2008; Valenzuela et al., 2012; Liceras et al., 2012, 2013) is
that Spanish dominant English-Spanish bilinguals significantly prefer the
matching options in (1) where the Spanish Determiner agrees with the
Spanish translation equivalent of the English Noun or the English DP
respectively, over the non-matching options in (1b) and (2b) where no such
agreement holds. We would like to argue that making language teachers
aware of this representation of gender may provide them with tools to
manipulate classroom input and/or to prepare language teaching materials.
While deciding on how to deal with agreement patterns poses important
challenges for teacher education, the actual object of description or analysis
is rather straightforward. However, dealing with processing preferences
poses greater challenges not only in terms of whether or not we should
incorporate this issue into teacher education but also in terms of the elusive
nature of the preferences. In fact, and even though preferences can be defined
structurally in a clear-cut way, they can be blurred by pragmatic factors and
even sociological and cultural factors. For instance, it has been shown that in
the case of native speakers of languages such as Spanish, the ambiguity in
(3a) tends to be resolved by the so-called low attachment processing strategy.
 Incorporating second language acquisition research 13ȱ

(3a) Ayer nos encontramos con la hermana[NP1] del arquitecto[NP2] [que __

vive en Singapur]
(3b) ¿Quién vive en Singapur la hermana del arquitecto o el arquitecto?
Namely, when answering the question in (3b) there is a clear preference for
choosing NP1, la hermana, the head of the relative clause antecedent, rather
than NP2, el arquitecto. However, native speakers of languages such as
English when answering the same question in a similar sentence such as (4a),
display a significant preference for choosing NP2, the architect, when asked
to answer (4b).
(4a) Yesterday we ran into the sister[NP1] of the architect[NP2] [who __ lives in
Singapore]
(4b) Who lives in Singapore, the architect or the architect’s sister?
Because there is a substantial body of research geared towards determining
how languages differ in terms of displaying a preference for either high
(NP1) or low (NP2) attachment, we are now in a position to discuss how the
findings of this research could be incorporated in teacher education. In fact,
we would like to propose that these constructions can be used to determine
degrees of native-like competence at two different levels. First, we will
propose that due to the elusive nature of the processing preferences which
surround these constructions, teachers should be confronted with the need to
make choices themselves. Second, we will show by the use of gender
markers how to eliminate the ambiguity of sentences such as (3a) or (4a).
This type of structures constitutes an excellent tool to determine to what
extent native and non-native speakers are sensitive to the formal feature
gender. Thus, in spite of the preference for low attachment that Spanish
speakers or English speakers may have for the high (NP1) or the low
attachment strategy (NP2) respectively, such a preference may be switched
by using object pronouns as in (5) and (6).
(5) a. Es la hermana[NP1] del arquitecto [NP2] [que no se si te acuerdas [que la
conocimos en Singapur]]
(5) b. Es la hermana[NP1] del arquitecto [NP2] [que no se si te acuerdas [que lo
conocimos en Singapur]]
(5) c. ¿A quién conocimos en Singapur?
(6) a. It is the sister of the architect [that I do not know whether you
remember [that we met her in Singapore]].
(6) b. It is the sister of the architect [that I do not know whether you
remember that [we met him in Singapore]].
(6) c. Whom did we meet in Singapore?
In these relative clauses the presence of the object pronoun is allowed or even
needed as a repair strategy due to the distance between the potential
antecedent and the subject of the last embedded clause. Thus, in (5) or (6),
answering the questions in (5c) or (6c) has a straightforward answer: it is
14 Juana Mª Licerasȱ

either the architect or his sister depending on the gender feature borne by the
respective pronoun.
We will first discuss how SLA research on code-switching preferences can
be incorporated into teacher education and we will then proceed with how
processing preferences of ambiguous sentences can be manipulated to enter
the field of teacher education.

2 Research findings and discussion

The realization of gender in Spanish
Gender and gender agreement in Spanish determiner phrases and
adjectival phrases
While some languages have rather complex systems for the classification of
Nouns (Arabic or Swahili) 1 , languages such as Spanish classify all Nouns as
masculine or feminine. Besides classifying Nouns alongside this masculine-
feminine dichotomy, Spanish requires agreement between the Noun and the
Determiner in so-called concord structures in (7) and agreement between the
Noun and the Adjective as in (8) or between the Noun and the participle as in
(9).
(7a) Estoy arreglando la[fem.] casa[fem.] de campo de mis padres
I am fixing the house of country of my parents
‘I am fixing my parent’s country house’
(7b) Tengo que terminar de pintar el[masc.] tejado[masc.]
(I) have to finish painting the roof
(8a) Quiero un[masc.] tejado[masc.] rojo[masc.] para la casa
(I) want a roof red for the house
(8b) y una[fem.] puerta[fem.] roja[fem.] para el garaje
and (I want) a door red for the garage
(9) El tejado[masc.] no está pintado[masc.] pero la puerta[fem.] ya está
terminada[fem.]
The roof is not painted but the door already is finished
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
1
As Lardiere (2008) points out, when an adult second language learner (or the linguist for that
matter) confronts the Arabic gender (or Noun classifying system), the task may look like an
unsurmountable one, as per the suscint summary provided in (i). In cardinality DPs, (a) with
numerals from 3 through 10, use the feminine [gender] for a masculine noun, and vice versa, and
use the plural form of the noun; (b) with numerals from 11 through 19, use the singular
accusative for the noun, and for the teen subpart of the numeral use masculine for a masculine
noun and feminine for a feminine [noun], and for the unit part of the numeral use feminine for a
masculine [noun] and vice versa. [(Modern Standard) Arabic] [Lardiere, 2008: 212]
This is also the case when it comes to grasp the Noun classification system of Swahili which is
depicted as an eighteen class system by traditional grammarians and as a gender system
comprising nine categories by Carstens (2008). See Landa Buil’s tables 4 and 5 (pp. 76 and 77)
for a description of the various Noun classes.
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or styled by one's self; so culled, pretended. self -subdued, a.
Subdued by one's own power or means. * self-substantial, a.
Composed or consisting of inic's own substance. " Thou, contracted
to thine own bright eyes, Feed'at thy life's llame wiLh bel/substuntial
fuel." Shakesp. : Sonnet 1. self- subversive, a. Overtui-ning or
subverting one's self or itself. self-sufficiency, * self-sufficience, s. 1.
The quality or state of being self-sufficient ; inherent fitness for all
ends and jiurposes, independent of others; capability of woik'jig out
one's own ends. " The pliilo-'ioi^hers. and even the Epicureans,
niaiutalncd tlie sr.lf-sa{fiaiiriicy \-i t .e gudliead, and eeldom or never
micrillced at all. '~Bi ntlry. 2. An overweening opinion of one's own
powers, caitabdilies, or worth ; excessive contideiice in one's own
powers or capaliilities. " Tliat aelf-sufpriency now mentioned may
have been of service to tliem in this particular." — Uuldsini/h: Polite
Learning, ch. viii, self-sufficient, a. 1. Capjilile of efft-ctiiigall one's
own ends or of fullilling one's own desires without the aid of others.
"Neglect of friends can never he proved rational till we I rove the
p.ur8un using it oiiMiipotont and s flf-sufflcienf , and sulIi as can
never need any martul assistance." — South : Seinnons, 2. Having
an overweening confidence in one's own powei's, capabilities, or
worth ; hauylity, overhearing. "This is not to be done in a raah and
s^lf-sufflrient manner; but witli an humble de|ieudauce on divine
grace, wliile wo walk among 8nartfi."—[i'(((/(, * self-sufficing, a.
Sufficient for one's self or for itself; without external aid;
selfsuihcient. self-supported, o. Supported by itself without any
extraniious aid. " Few self-supported fluwers endure the wind."
Cowper: Task, iii, G57. self-supporting, a. Supporling one's self or
itself vTithuut aid or contribution from others. "The guarantoi-B be
called upon for no further payment, and tlie wnole niovement
become se/f-su sporting."—Daily Telegraph, SepL 17, 1685. self-
sustained, u. Sustained or supported by one's self. seir-taught, «.
Taught by one's self. * self-tempted, a. Tempted by one's self.
(Milton P. L,, iii. 130.) * self-thinking, a. Tlnnking for one's self;
forninig one's own opinion iirespective of others. * self-thought, s. A
private thought. "Till all thy sdf thouglits curdle into hate." Byron: A
sketch. self-tormentor, s. One who torments or harasses himself.
self-toi*ture, «. Torture or pain inflicted on one's self. * self-
torturing, «. Torturing or tormenling one's self. iiyron: Childe iiarold, i
* self-trust, s. Trust or reliance on one's self; self-ieliance ; trust or ■
conlidence in one's self. "Where is truth if there be no self-irust/"
Shakesp. : Rape qf Lucrece, 188. bSil, boy ; pout, ji^^l ; cat, 90!!,
chorus, ^hin, ben^h ; go, gem ; thin, this ; sin, as ; expect,
Xenophon, e^ist. ph = f, -cian, -tian = shan. -tion, -sion = shun; -
fion, -sion = zhun. -cious, -tious, -sious = shiis. -bl6» -die, &c. = bel,
d9L
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4190 selfhood— semaphorist • self-view, s. 1. A view of

one's self or of one's own character or actions. 2. Regard or care for
one's own interests. • Belf-Violence, s. Violence to one's self {MUton:
Savison Agonistes, 1,584.) Self-'Will^ s. One's own will ; obstinacy.
"Tbeu obstinate 8e'/-u7ff2coii(iriiis blin an." Cowper : Progress of
Error, 54S, Self-willedt a. Governed by one's own will ; obstinate ;
not accommodatiug or compliant. " For I waa waywivrd, bold, and
wild, A lelf-wUCd imp. a graudaiue'a child." Scott: J/armion, tii.
(Introd.) *8elf-willediiess,«. Self-will, obstinacy. " Her iH^tyahip'B
sel/-vUlednat."—Jltits Edgeworth: Belinda, cb. xl. self-worsliip, ». The
idolizing of one's self. self-worshipper, 5. One who worships or
idolizes hiiusieir. • self-wrong, ». Wrong done by a person to Uitiiself.
" But, last myaeir be ffuilty of aplf-tffrong," Shakcip. : Cojnedj/ of
Errors, 111. 2. tsSir-hood, s. [Eng. self; -hood.)
Individuality,'independence of thought andactioQ^ (Modelled ou
manhood.) sSlf '-ish, a. [Eng. self; -ish.} Caring only or chiefly for
self; attentive only to one's own interests ; void of regard for otliers ;
proceeding from or characterized by a love of self; actuated by or
proceeding from a regard to private ends or advantage. (A word of
Puritan origin.) "Wben they [the FresbyteiiaitB] aaw thiit he was not
Keijish (it ts a word oE their owu new miut)." — Backet : Li/e qf
lyUUams, p. l-^. sSlf'-ish-l^, adv. [Eng. seljlsh; -ly.) In a selfish
manner ; with a regard only for one's own interests, ends, or
advantage. '■ He cau your merit te^JUMy apyrore." I'ope: Prol. to
Sat., 298. self -lAh-n^SS, «. [Eng. eeljlsh; -ness.] The quality or
snate of being selfish ; exclusive regard to one's owu interests, ends,
or advantage ; the quality or state of being self-interested. " WhiU
Dought saTS nazrow atflJUhneu ■vicceeda, Aud low desijfu."
Thunuon : Liberty, Ir. * SelT-i^xn, s. [Eng. self; -i«m.] Devotedneu
to self; tielfishness. * sSlf-ist, «. [Eng, seHf; -irf.] One who Is wholly
devoted to self; a selfish person. * S^lf '-l6ss, a. [Eng. SRlf; -less.\
Having no regard for self; unsclhsh. ** Ab high as woman iu her
telfieea mood." Tennyson: JUerlin £ Vimen, 293. * self-leS8-l3^, adv.
[Eng. seljiess; -ly.] In an uuseltitih manner. *sSir-leSS-ness, s. [Eng.
seljiess; -ness.] Freedom from selfishness, *' They may not be able
to boast the CbrlBtian selfletmessvt Mr. L."-~tVor(d, Nuv. 15, 1832. *
self -ness, ». [Eng. sd/; -ness.] Self-love, selfishness. " Sliall I. a sou
and subject, seem to dare. For any BuJ/ness, to set reahiia ou fire?"
Lord lirooke : d/ustapha, * sSlf '-time, s. [Eng. self, and time.] The
exact nioiiieut, the point of time. " At which sel/time the house
seemed all on fire." Marlowe: /''aua/us, v, 4. ee-li'-num, s. [Mod.
Lat., from Lat. seWwn; Gr. o-eAii/oi' (selvion) = a kind of parsley.]
Bat. : Milk-parsley ; a genns of AngeliddES. Umlwllifers from Eiirupe,
Madeira, the Caucasus, &c. The old ^jelinum palitstre is now
FeiK^daiium palustre. sel'-i-on, s. [Low Lat. selio, genit. selionis; Fr.
sUlon = a, ridge, a furrow.] A ridge of land rising between two fiin-
ows, of a breadth sometimes greater aud sometimes less. sell (t), 8.
[Sell, v.] An imposition, a cheat ; a. trick successfully played at
another's expense, (Slang.) * sell (2), * cell, * selle, ». (Fr. seUe,
from LaL 8eUa= a seat.] 1. A seat, a throne. 2. A saddle. " On his
broad shield, bitt not, but glaunclng; fell Ou his horse necke before
the quilted sell." Spenser: P. Q.. IT. v. 4. sell. *selle, *sille, v.t. & i.
[A.S. sdUm^ sillan, syllan = to give, to hand over ; cogn. with Icel.
selja = to hand over to another; Dan. salge; Sw. scilja; O. H. Ger.
saljan; M. H. Ger. sellen; Goth, saljan = to ofler a sacrifice; Lithuan.
suigti = to profler, to offer.] A. Transitive: L LUeraily: 1. To transfer,
as property of any kind, or the exclusive right of possession, to
another for an equivalent ; to give or dispose of for a consideration,
especially for money ; to vend. It is the correlative to bmi ; one buys
what another sells. (Genesis xxxvii. 27.) 2. To make a matter of
bargain and .sale of; to accept a price, reward, or bribe for ; to
betray for a reward ; to be unfaithful to. " ThoQ alone couldat hate
ma. Thy huBband, alight me. sell me, and foi-e»;o me." Millon :
Sanuun Agoniltet, MO. n. Fig. : To impose upon, to cheat, to trick ;
to play a trick on. (Slang.) (Generally used in the pa. par.) B.
Intransitive: 1. To have commerce or dealing ; to deal. " I will buy
with you. sell with you, but I will not eat wi bli you. ' — Shakcsp. :
Mei chatU of Veniix, i. L 2. To be sold ; to fetch a price : as, Good
wares will always seXl. TT 1. To sell one's life dearly: To cause great
loss to those by whom one is killed ; to avenge one's self dearly on
an enemy before losing one's life. 2. To sell one up : To sell one's
goods to satisfy his creditors. 3. To sell out : (1) To dispose of all
one's belongings, goods, shares, &c.. (2) To sell one's commission in
the army, and retire from the service. " So he sold out, left his
regiment, m&rrled, and settled dov/n,"— Field, Dec. 26, US». sell, a.
& 5. [See def.] Self. Srffe = ourselves, themselves. " We'll ean^
quietly about oar Job oar twa sbJIs, nnd naebody the wiser for 't."—
Scott : Antiquary, ch. xxiv. sel'-la, 8. [Lat. = a seat, a saddle.] Anat. :
Anything saddle-shaped. sella-turcica, 8. (The Turkish saddle.)
[PiTUlTABY-FOSSA.] sel'-lse-form, a. [Lat. sella (q.v.), and j'orvia =
form, shape.] Bot. : Saddle-shaped. sell'-a-ite, s. [After Signor Sella,
the Italian mineralogist and statesman ; sutf. -ite(Min.).'] Min. : A
tetragonal mineral occnrnng with anhydrite at Geibroula, near
Moutier^f^avoy. Hardness, 5'0 ; sp. gr. 2*972 ; lustre, vitreous ;
fracture, conchoidal ; colourless; transparent. Compos. : uncert»in,
but believed to be a fluoride of magnesium. sel'-lan-deri^, sel'-len-
der^i, ». [Fr. solandies.] A dry scab iu a horse's hough or pastern. *
selle (1), ». [Ceix.1 *seUe(2), ». [Sell (2), n) * selle (3), s. [Sill.] sel'-
len-der^, «. [ScLLANDEita.] sell'-er, «. [Eng. sell, v. ; -er.] One who
sells ; a vender, " Plenty of buyers, but few seUers." — Lockt :
Lowering of Interest. sell'-ing, jJT. par. & a. [Sell, v.] A. As pr. par. :
(See the verb). 'R. As adjective: 1. Disposing of by sale ; offering for
sale ; vending. 2. For sale ; offered for sale ; purchasable at : as,
The selling price of any commodity. sel'-ters, «. [Seltzer.] seltz'-er, s.
[A corrupt, of Setters.] Seltzerwater (q.v.). seltzer-water, s. Chem. :
A carbonated mineral water imported from Lower Selters, in the
duchy of Nassau. It contains common salt and the carbonates of
soda, magnesia, and lime, and is recommended as a mild stimulant
and diuretic. An artilicial seltzer for domestic use Is prepared by
adding minute quantities of common salt and carbonate of soda to
distilled water, and highly impregnating with carbonic acid gas. sel'-
vage (age as ig), «. [SELVEDaE.J I. Ord. Lang. : The same as
Selvedge (q.v.). IL Technically : 1. ijjcJcsmith. : The edge-plate of a
lock through which the bolt slioota. 2. Naut. : [SelvageeJ. sSl'Va-
gee', ». [Selvage.] Naxit. ; A rope or ring made by a number of spun
yarns laid parallel and secured by lasliings. Sometimes used in place
of rop^ being less likely to slip, aud more elastic. * selve, a. [Self.)
sel'-vedge, * sel'-vefee (ve as vi), ». [Lit. = self-edge, from O. Out.
selfegge, from self = self, aud egge = eAge; cf. Low Ger. se^kant,
selfende; Ger. selbende = a self-eud, a selvedge.] 1. Ord. Lang. :
The edge or list of cloth, woven so as to pievent ravelling ; a woven
border or border of close work on a fabric. " Thou ihnlt make loui«
of blue upoo the edf* of the one curtaiu from the selvedge In tht
Doupliug."— £xodus xicvi. 4. 2, Naxtt. : Selvagee (q.v.). sSl'-vedged,
sel'-vaged (ve, va as vt), a, [Eng. selvedg(e); -ed.] Having a
selvedge; formed with a selvedge. *selv'-en, a. [Self.] selvesf, s.pl.
[Self.] sel'-xpyn-ite, *. [After Dr. A. 0. Selwyn ; suff. -ite (Min.).\ Min.
; A massive, emerald-green mineral, found near Heathcote, Victoria,
in the Upper Silurian formation. Hardness, 3*5 ; sp. gr. 2*53 ; sub-
tiansUicent. Compos. : a hydrated silicate of alumina and magnesia,
with some hydrous chi'omic oxide. Recent researches tend to
support the viow that it is a mixture. *Se'-l5^, u-, [Seely.] •se'-ly-
ness, «, [Mid, Eng. sely; -ness.] Happiness, simplicity. 8@m'-a-
phore, «. [Gr. trrjfxa (sima) = a sign, and Eng. suff. -phore.] A kind
of telegraph or apparatus for conveying information by visible signs,
such as oscillating arms or flags by daylight, and by the disposition
of lanterns by night. The various combinations may serve to indicate
the numbers corresponding to certain expressions in a tabulated
code, or may be employed to represent the letters of the alphabet.
In . the form represent- semaphore. ed in the illustration, introduced
into England in 1795, the signal arms were each made to assume
one of six different positions when required. By various coniliinations
of these positions, the alphabet, numerals up to ten, arbitrary signs
and symbols could be represented. A simple form of the apparatus is
used on railways to regulate tlie tralfic. semaphore-plant, ». Bat. :
Desniodium gyrans. 80 called from its movements. sem-a-phor'-ic,
sem-a-phor'-ic-al, a. [Eng. semaphor(e); -ic, -ieal.] Pertaining or
relating to a semajihore or semaphores ; telegraphic. " Under the
Emperor !f icholas I., a magnificent ana exi^ensiv-e semaplioric
system was introduced into B.\iasiii."—Knii/hl : Diet. JUeeh., B. v.
Semaphore. sem-a-phSr'-ic-§.l-ly,adw. [Eng. semaphoricol ; '-ly. J By
mea'ns of a semaphore. * sem'-a-phor-ist, * se-mapb -or-Ist, 5.
[Eng. hmaphor(e), •'ist.] One who has charge of a semaphore. Si-te,
fat, faiGt c.midst, what, f^U, Cather; we, wet, here, camel, her,
thSre; pine, pit, sire, sir, marine; go, p&t, or. wore, wolt worls, whd,
son; mnte, cub, ciire, ^nlte, cur, rule, full ; try, Sj/rlan. £e, ce = e ;
ey = a ; qu = Ilw.
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sematology Hsemi419-1 SD-mak-tol'-o-g^t 8. [Gr. crij.ua

(sema), genit. cr^fAuT09 {sematos) = a sign ; suff. -ology.] The
doctiine of signs, particularly of verlial signs, in the operations of
thinking and reasoning ; the science of language as expressed by
signs. * 8em'-bla-ble» a. &s. [Fr.) A. As adj, : Like, resembling,
similar. " Wbattliat he saith, I hold itfertn and itable, X Kay the same,
or ellu tliliiif tembUible." Chaucer: G. T., 9,3V4. B. AssxihsL:
Tliatwhicliislikeorresembles; likeness, I'epiesentation. " Hia
tvmblable, yea himaelf." Sliakesp. : Timon. Iv. S. •sem'-bla-bl^, adv.
[Eng. semhlahiU), -ly,] In a similar manner ; similarly. " HetiUt'-obli/
furutah'd liko the king: hiuiMlt." Shtiket/j. : 1 Uenrjf IV., v. 8. sem'-
blange, * sem-blaunce, s. [Fr. semhlanM', fnim «»iW«r=:tu seem, to
appear, from Lat. sinxilOy simiUo = to simulate (q..v.).J 1. Likeness,
resemblance, appearance, similitude, show. " Hif h wordfl that bore
Ssmbtance ot wotth." Milton : P, t., L 629. 2. Exterior figure or
appearance ; exterior. ** 'Uldst Borrow nbowiog juyoui lemhlanea
for hli sake." Spenser : F. Q., IV. Tii. 44. * 3. A form of figure
representing something ; a likeness, an image. " The touely hour
presents affaia The tembtunce of thy gentle shade." Byron : If
Sartutimes in tha IIaunt$ of Afan. *Beiii'-blant, *sein-blaunt, a. &s.
[Fr. sembkint,' pr. par. of sembUr = to seem, to appear.] A> As
adjective : 1. Like, resembling. 2. Appearing ; seeming rather than
real ; apparent. S. As substantive : 1. Show, appearance, figure,
resemblance, outward appeai-ance. "Wept and made fi^mb^unC o(
alt aorowe andheay^ liesa."^ Fab i/an : Chronycle, ch. Izrxi. 2. The
face. "Hel bo widen her atntdraunt Into erthe." — Wyeiifft: Luix XX
It. 5. •sem'-bla-tiLve, seeming. ' " And all is umblatiw a wonian'a
part." ShaJcesp. : Twelfth ifight, L A. *8ein-blaii2it, a. & s.
[Scublamt.] sSm'-ble, v.i. [Fr. serribler = to seem, team Lat. similo,
simulo = to simulate (q..v.); 3p. aemblar ; Ital. semblare.] * I. Ord.
Lang. : To imitate ; to make a likeness or representation. "Wheu
tamblinff art may carre the fair effect. And fuU achittremeut of thy
great desigus." Prior. {Todd.) 2. Lav) : Used impersonally, generally
in the abbreviated form, sem, ot semb ~ it seems, and commonly
prefixed to a point of law (not ncce-s-sary to be decided in the
case), which has not been directly settled, but on which 'Uie court
indicates its opinion. • sem'-ble, a. [Semble, v.] Like, similar. " Bare
the igmble stile." IFudson : Judith, L 80. aem'-e, a. [Fr. = sown.]
Her. : A term employed to describe a field or charge powdered or
strewn over with figures, as stars, billets, crosses, &c. (Called also
Powdered.) a. [O. Fr.] Resembling, SEJIE. se- me -car' -pus, s. [Gr.
ayjfietov (semeion) = a mark, and KapiT6. semi-barbarian, a. & s. A,
As adj.: Half- savage, half - civilized ; partially civilized. B. As subst. :
One who Is in a state of semibarbarism. semi-barbaric, a. Semi-
barhoroas ; partially civilized. semi-barbarism, s. The quality or state
of being only partially civilized. semi - barbarous, u. Half-civUizeda
semt-barbanan. • semi-brief, s. A semibreve (q.v.). semi-bull, ». [Lat.
bulla dimidia, bUutca, diifectiva.] Eccles. : A hull published by a Pope
before his enthronement. His name does not ap)>ear on the seal,
the reverse of which is left blank. Formerly sucli bulls needed
ratification after the Pope's coronation, but tliey were declared valid
by Nicholas IV. (1288-92). semi-calcined, a. Half-calcined, paiv tially
calcined. semi-castrate, v.t. To deprive of one testicle. semi-
castration, s. Half-castration ; deprivation of one testicle. semi-
chorus, s. Music: A chorus, or part of a choroa, pepformed by half or
a part of the full choroSi * semi-circled, a. Semicircular. "In a lemi-
circled farthingale."— ^laftos^. : Jftrnf tVioai, iii. ;t. semi-
circumference, s. Half the circumference. semi-column, k. a half
column. semi-columnar, a. Bot. : Columnar on one side only. semi-
conscious, a. Half or parUaUy conscious. semi-crustaceous, a. Half
or partially crustaceous in texture. semi-cry stalline, a. Half or
imperfectly crj'stalline. semi-cylinder, A. Half a cylinder. semi-
cylindric, semicylindrical, a. Half cylindrical. Semi-cylindriccU leaf:
Bot. : A leaf convex on one side and flat on tlie other. seml-deistical,
a. Half deistical; bordering on deism. semi-detached, a. Partly
separated ; applied to one of two buildings which are detadied from
other buildings and joined together by a singl® pai'ty wall : as, a
senii-detaclied villa. semi-diameter, s. Half a diameter ; a radius.
semi-demisemiquaver, s. Music: A note f of half the duration of a
demi-semiqnaver ; p the sixty-fourUi part of a semibreve. semi-
diapason, s. Music : An imperfect octave ; an octavo diminished by a
lesser semitone. SOUI-CVLINDaiCAI. LliAF. 1. Leaf. 2. SectiQD. ttSa,
bS^ ■ poat. J
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4192 semlsemi-diapente, s. Music: An iiiiperfeot or

diminished fifth. * semi-dlaplianelty, s. Half or partial transparency.
"The transparency or semi-jiiapKdneity of the auperflclal corpuscles
nf bigger boclies, may have an interest in the iiroduction of their
tMiKKOs."— Boyle : On Colours. * seml-dlaplianoua, u. Half or
imperfectly transparent. " Another plate, fliiely variegated with a
spmidiitphanoiis grey or sky, yellow and browu." — Woodr vard : On
Fossilg. 8emi-diat8S3aron» a. Mvsic: An imperfect or diminished
fourth. scmi-ditone, seml-ditonOp s. Miisic : A uiinor third*
Bemi'diurnal, a. Astronomy : 1. Pertaining to or completed in half a
day or twelve hours ; chntiiiuing for lialf a day. 2. (0/ an arc) :
Tiaversed in h:ilf the time a heavenly body is above the horizon.
semi-dome, s. Half a dome, especially as funned by a vertical
section. seml-donblo, s. &,a. A. As suhatantive : Roman Ritual : 1. A
feast in which the antiphons in the Divine office are hnlf-tloubled,
i.e., in which half the antipliim is recited before the psalm or canticle,
and the whole after the Gloria, instfiad of the whole antiphon being
repeated before and after tlie psalm or canticle, as on a double. ■ 2.
The name wns fonnerly applied to a fenst on which the ferial ofSce
and the office of the feast were combined. [Double, a., O. 11. 1.] B.
As adjective : Hort. & Bot. : Having the external flowers converted
into petals, while the inner ones remain perfect. * semi-fable, 5. A
mixture of truth and fable ; halftrutli, half fable. semi-lidel, a.
Sceptical, but not infideL (Southey : Doctor, ch. xv.) * semi-flexed, a.
Half bent * semi-floret, s. Bot. : Among floiists, a half flourish, which
is tubulous at the beginning like a floret, and affcerwarils expanded
in the form of a tongue ; a seini-floscule. {Bailey.) seml-floscular, a.
[Seui-flosculous.] seml-floscule, s. [Seki-flobet.] seml-flosculous,
seml-floscular, a. Bot. : Having the corolla split, nnd turned to one
side. Example, the ligule of Composites. sexni-fluid, a. & s. A- As adj.
: Imperfectly fluid. B. As siibst. ; A substance imperfectly fluid. semi-
formed, a. Half-formed, imperfectly-fornieii. * semi-god, s. A
demigod. sem.l-grand, a. Applied to a pianoforte having tlie shape
and movement of a grand, but possessing only two strings to a note.
sem.l-horal, a. Half-hourly. semi -indurated, u.. Imperfectly indurated
or hardened. semi-Judaizers, s. pi. Church Hist. : A sect of Socinians,
founded by Framds Diivides, a Hnngaj-ian, who denied that piayer or
any other religious worship shouM be oflered to Jesus Christ.
Davides was thrown into prison, where he died in 1579. (Mosheim
(ed. Keid), p. 712.) serai-ligneous, a. 1. Ord. Lang. : Half or partially
ligneous or wooden. 2. Bot. (0/ a stem) : Half ligneous ; woody at
Ihe b;ise, herbaceous at the top. Used of undershi-ubs (q.v.). semi-
liquid, a. Semi-fluid. semi-liquidity, a. The quality or state of being
semi-liquid. semi-membranosus, ». [Semi-membranous.] semi-
membranous, a. Anat.: Half membranous. Used of the semi-
TTiemhranosus muscle, which arises from the tuberosity of the
ischium, and joins the tibia by a tendon. semi -menstrual, a. Half-
monthly; specilically applied to an inequality of the tide, which goes
through its changes every half- month. * semi-metal, s. (See
extract.) " fiinni-metals are inutallic foasils, hcAvy, opaque, of a
lirJ^lit glitteriu^ surfiicu, unt inallcaUle under the hammer; as
quicksilver, .'Uitiiuouy, cobalt, the arseiiiuks, bismuth, ziuk, with ita
ore cal:iiiiiue ; to these may jje added tbe Beini-metallick
recremeuta, tutty and pimipholyx."— ITJ?/, semi-metallic, a. Of or
pertaining to a semi-ini^tul ; partially metallic in character, * semi-
minim, s. Music : Haifa minim ; a crotchet. semi-mute, a. & s. A. -4s
a>lj. : Apiilied to a person who, owing to a loss of tlie sense of
hearing, has lost also to a great extent tlie faculty of speech, or who,
owing to congenitid deafness, has never perfectly acquired that
faculty. B, As subst. : A semi-mute person. semi-Norman, a. Arch. :
Of or relating to a style of Gothic architectuie prevalent, according to
Bloxham, about A.D. 1140-1200. " The west doorway is also of
gemi-N^orman character ; the nrcli is pointed, the face is eiiriclied
with tlie z'lgzns niid neiLil-hexa"(iiial uiouldiiigs, and tho uliafta of tlie
j vuiha are bimTled aud have cai^itjils ol stiffly - sculptured foliage."
— Bloxham : Oothic Architecture, p. 151. r;emi-nude, ». Partially
nude ; halfnaked. semi-nymph, s. Entom. : A nyini>h or larva of ati
insect whii^h undergoes only a slight change in gassing to maturity ;
a larva of the sub-class [eininietabola (q.v.). * semi-opacous, a. Semi
opaque. " Semi-of^acous bodies are such a>, looked upon in an
otdiimry liglit. and not held Ijetwixt it and the eye. are not wont to
be dlsci'imiuated ix'oiu the rent of opacous bodiea"— Boi/ie.semi-
opal, s. Ml)i. : A variety of opal (q.v.) holding an inteiiiicdiate
position, both in chemical composition and physical characters,
between true opivl and clialcedony. semi-opaque, u. Half opaque,
half trail sitarent. semi-orbicular, u. Having the shape of a half orb or
sphere. * semi-ordinate, s. Conic SectioJis: A term used by some of
the old writers to designate half of a chord of a curve perpendicular
to an axis. It is now called Jin ordinate. semi-osseous, a. Of a bony
nature, but only half su hard as bone. semi-palmate, semi-palmated,
a. Ornith. & Zool. : Having the feet webbed only half-way down the
toes. semi-parabola, s. Math. : A curve of such a nature that the
powers of its ordinates are to each other as the next lower powers
of its abscissas. semi-pelagian, s. &a. [Semipelaoian.] semi-pellucid,
a. Partially pellucid; imperfectly transparent. " A light gre^ s nii-
pellucid flint, of much the same complexiuu with the vommou Indian
a^'at." — Woodward. * semi-pellucidity, s. The quality or state of
being senii-pellncid; semi-transparency. '' semi - perspicuous, «.
Half-transparent; semi-)iellucid. " A kind of amethystine flint, not
composed of crj'stnls or giains ; but une entire massy stone,
temipers/ricuous, aud of « pale blue, almost of the colour of some
cows' horns."— ffreir. * semi-proof, s. flalf-jironf; evidence from the
testimony of a single witness. * semi-quadrate, * semi-quartile, ».
Astrol. .- An aspect of the planets when distant from each other
forty-five degrees, 01 one sign and a half. semi-Quietists, s. pi.
Church Hist. : The name given to those who piofessed a modified
form of Quietism in tha seventeenth and eighteenth century. " In
more modem times, F^uelon and Madams Guyon have tiiught
Quietism. They are, however, usn.illy called semi-Quietists." —
McClinlock & strong: Ent-yc. Bib. Lit., via B47. * semi-quintile. s.
Astrol. : An aspect of the planets when at the distance of thiity-six
degrees from one another, semi-recondite, o. Half hidden or
concealed; specif, in entomol()gy, of the head of an insect when
half-hidden in the thorax. semi-reticulate, i*. [Half-netted.] semi-
savage, a. & 5. A. As adj. : Half savage; imperfbctly tamc(i or
civilized. B. As subst. : One who is imperfectly tamed or civilized.
semi-Separatists, s. pi. Church Hist. : A name given in the
seventeenth century to certain persons who would listen to tlie sei-
mnns of clergymen of the Establishment, but would not be present
during the prayers. (Pagitt: Heresiographjf (ed. Vo62), p. 94.) semi-
septate, a. But. : Half septate ; having a partition which does not
advance far enough to cut tho fruit into which it penetrates into two
cells. * semi-sextile, s. Astrol. : A semi-sixth ; an aspect of the
planets when they are distant frnm each other one-twelith part of a
circle. (Bailey.) * semi-smile, ». A half laugh; a forced laugh or grin.
semi-sospiro, 5. Music : A quaver rest. semi - spheric, semi -
spherical, tt. Having the hgure of a lialf sphere. semi-spheroidal, a.
Formed like a half-spheroid. semi-spinal, u. Half-spinal; applied to
the semispinaLis muscle, which extends from transverse processes
to spines nf the vertebrae. !t is divided into the semi^iTior lis colli
and the s. dorsi. semi-spinalis, s. [Semi-spinal.] semi-steel, *s.
Puddled steel. (ATner.) semi-tangent, s. In spherical projection, the
tangent of half an arc. semi-tendinose, a. Anat. ; Half tendinous.
(Used of tbe semtteTidinosus mnscle arising fruin the tuberosity of
the ischium and descending the bade of the thigh.) About its middle
it is traversed by a thin, oblique, tendinous intersection. semi-
tendinosus, s. [Semi-tendinose.] t semi-terete, o. [Half-terete.] semi-
transept, «. Arch. : The half of a transept or cross aisle. semi-
transparency, s. The quality or gtate of being semi-transparent.
semi-transparenH:, u. Half or imperfectly transparent. semi-
Universalists, s. pi. Church Hist. ; A name given to those inembei'S
of the-Reformed Churches in Germany who held that God wishes to
make all men happy, but only on condition of their l..'.lieving ; and
tliafc this faith originates frnm the sovereign and irresistible
operation cf God, or from the free, unconditional, and sovereign
election of God, (Mosheim (ed. Reid), p. 816.) semi-verticiUate, ».
Partially verti* cillate. semi-vitreous, a. Partially vitreous. semi-
vitrifaction, s. 1. The quality or state of being imperfectly vitrified. 2.
A substance imperfectly vitrified. semi-Vitrified, a. Half or imperfectly
vitrified ; partially converted into glass. late, fat, fare, amidst, what,
fall, father; we, wet, here, camel, her, thSre; pine, pit, sire, sir,
marine; go, pot, cr, wore, wol^ work, who, son; mute, cub, ciire,
ignite, cur, rule, full; try, Syrian, se, oe = e; ey=a; qu = kw.
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Semlarian— semiped 41"3 Sftmi-vocal, a. Poitauiing to a

semiVowel ; half vocal ; iuiperiectly souudiiig. semi-vowel, s. A half-
vowel ; a. sound partaking of the nature both of a vowel and a
consonant ; an articulation which is accompanied by an imperfect
sound, which may be continued at pleasure, as the sounds of I, m, r,
also the sign representing such Bound. •' Semi-mwels, or aouiida
which stand nearly oa the *iTisiim-Une between vowel ami
conaouftiit. — JfAitnt3/ : Lift i Growth qf Language, ch. iv. BSm i-ar'-
i-an, a. & s. [Prcf. «mi-, and Eng. Arian (q.v.).] A. As adj. : Of,
belonging to, or charactcrJatic of the Semiarians. [B.] B. As
subslantive : Church Hist. (PL): (See extract). " Auulber party known
as Smniarians, a same tlity jw«ivw.l about 358. when they held a
fainoui Synod at Aucyni, cnnfeased thnt the Sou was like in
subitauc* to the Father ihomoioa feat' outian). Basil of Aucyi-a,
Buatathiaa of Sehaste^ MaeedODius. and Aiuentiua of Ullait, weifl
the most uot«d among them." — Addi$ A Aritold : Calh. Diet., p. 50,
tSxn-I-ar'-i-an-isin, «. [Eng. Semiarian; Church Hist. : The tenets or
practice of the Semiarians. " Tb« second Sirmlan Synod, hi SS7,
cODdemiMd tho •■mlarinn aa ^11 as the orthodox formula, irhila
Mimiarianiam aeeurad a fresh victory in the third Muncil held at the
sams place."— ^dt^to J Amoiit: CmU. Dice. p. 5D. afim-X-ben'-zld-
am, *. [Pref. semi-; Eng. him{ene); Gr, elSo's (eidos) = reseuiblance,
and Sng. anifnwniwm).] Ch«m. : A name given by 2inin to a
comjround proackwards and lortrarda in a svmitirci«>"~ilt»i/t :
GuUioor'a Travis. S, A surveying-instrument for taking angleg. 2. Any
body in the form of a semicircle. ■6Rl''i-9ir'-cu-lar, a. [Pref. semi-,
and Eng. fflircw/ar (q.v.).] Having the form of a serainrcle ; half
round. "That Beinicircitlar variety t»8 generally call tha adnbow."—
£ravnd ; Vulgar Brrourt, bk. vii,, ch. iv. semicircular-canals, s. pi.
Anat. : Three bony tubes above and beneath tbo vestibule of the
ear, into which they open by Ave apertures, the contiguous enda of
two «f the canals being joined. (Quain.) L'-i-CO-lon, a. [Pref, semi-,
and Eng. •ofoft (q.v.).] Gram. Jt Punct. : A mark or point ( ; ) used
In punctuation to denote a pause to be obSBived in reading or
speaking, of less duration thun the colon and more than that of tho
comma. It is used to distinguish' the conjunct members of a
sentence. S@m-3t-c5n'-fl&-ent, a. [Pref. semi-, and Bng. confluent.]
Anat. : Half-confluent. Usedspec. of akind of auiall-pox (q.v.). •
semnf-cope, * sem-y-cope, «, [Prtf. semi-, and Eitg. cope (q.v.).] An
ancient jleiical garment ; a half-cloak or cope. "Of double worsted
waa Wvi tmnicopa.'' Chaucer: C. T.. 2flX (ProL) Bem-I-cn'-bic-al, ».
[Pref, eemi-, and Eng. ^ibical (q.v.).] Conic Sections : Applied to a
parabola which may be referred to coordinate axes luch that the
squares of the ordinates of its points shall be to each other as the
cubes of the absciBtfts of the same points. "sSm-i-cu'-W-um, • sem-
i-cu'-pi-tim, «. [Low Lat., from Lat. semi- = half, and c^i-pa = a tun,
a cask.] A bath which only covers tho lower extremities and hips ; a
half-bath ; a Up-bath. * sem'-i-form, s, [Pref. semi-, and Eng. form
(q.v.).] A liulf form; an impLriect form. Sem'-i-lor, s, [Pref. smii-, and
Fr. or = gold.] An alloy loi' cheap jewellery, &;c., consisting of copper
five purts and zinc one part. Sem-i-lu'-nar, a. [Pref. semi-, and Eng.
lunar (q.v.) ;* Fr. aemUaiw.iTe.\ Keseuibliug a half-uioon in form.
semiluuar-bone, s. Atxat. : A bone of the carpus articulating with the
radius, the scaphoid, the ciuieiform, the Os magnum, and tlie
unciform bones. ■emllunar-cartilages, s. pL Anat. : Two eresceut-
bliajicd interarticular fibro-cartilages, the internal and the external,
placed between tlie head of the tibia and the condyles of the femur.
semilunar-cavity, «. Anat. : A cavity in the lower extremity of the
radiu. * B, As subst. : Seminal state. seminal-leaf, t. [Seed-leap.] *
sem-in-al'-i-ty, s. [Eng. seminal; -ity.] The state of being seminal ;
the power of being produced. "Thera was a itrmndliiy and contracted
Adam in the rib." — BroMiu: Vulgar £rrours, bk.yi., ch. i. • »em'-in-
al-l^, adv. [Eng. seminal ; -ly.] Originally.' " Radically, Meminallg, and
eminently In themu»lr%t."—6audtn : Ttars of th* Church, p. 470.
sem-i-napli-tliyr-a-mine, s. [Pref. semi-, and Eng. naphthylamine.}
Chem. : (CioH6)H4N2. Naphthylene diamine. A base produced by tlie
action of iulphydra,te of aninionium on dinitronaphthalene. It
crystallizes fiom alcohol in long ■ liiiiing needles, slightly soluble in
water, easily in alcohol and ether, melts at 1(30°, and diiiBulves in
sulphuric acid to a dark violet solution. It forms crystalline salts with
miueral and organic acids. * sem'-in-ar-ist, * sem-in-ar'-I-an, «.
[iLiig. sem.inar(jj) ; -ist, 'arian.] A member of a seminary ; specif., an
English Ronian Catholic priestetlucated in aforeign seminary. "The
compnlsioii oii $eminarixfs to eerve for three yeari will paralyse the
ptiestiiiiod."—Dnifj/ Telegraph, June 23, 18SG. • sem'-in-ar-izQ, v.t.
[Lat. seminar(^ium) ■= a seed-plot, and Eng. sutf. -ize.] To sow or
plant. {Ogilvie.) sem'-in-ar-y, s. [Lat. seminarium = a aeedpnrden,
from semen, genit. seminis=: seed ; Fr. seminaire ; Sp. & Ital.
seminario.] * 1. A seed-plot or seed-garden ; a plot of ground in
wliich seeds are sown to be afterwanlB transplanted ; a nursery. * 2.
Tlie place or oi iginal stock whence any thing is bruugiit. " The
aeniiiiary or proinptimry that furiiiaheth forth matter tur tho
furmation and uicremeut of oniiiuil luid vcyijiablt! buiJiua,"—
Wuuiiward : On Fonaiis. * 3. ttenimal state. " The liand of God, who
first creuttid tho earth, haUl wihtly ooutrived ilium in their proper
giiininarina, and where they best maintain thu intention of their
specicii. "—lirovmc * 4. A seed-bed, a source, an origin. "Nothing
subniiuiatrates apter matter to be converted into jjestiluiit
aeminaries, aooiior than eteuma tff nnaty folks and beggars,
"—/^arwe^ ; On the Plague, 5, A place of education ; a school,
academy, college, or other institution for education. "To eetabliah
semiuarlet to prepare men for the world, but to teach them bo
despise it" — £tia«.' Bt lag 12A. * 6, A seminarist ' "To mistake an
honest zealous pursuivant for % aemituirg."—Sen Jonton :
Bartholomew Fair, iL 1, sem'-3£n-ar-5^, u.. rr,iat. seminarius.^ * 1.
Pertaining or belonging to seed ; seminal, " Seminary ressele, both
preparatory and ejftcul^ tory."— 5m»;A .• On Old Age (IWief, p. Iir,
2. Trained or educated in a foreign semia> ary : as, a seminary
priest. ■ sem'-in-aitc, v.t. [Lat. seminatus, pa. par, of semino =■ to
sow ; semen, genit. sentinia = seed.] [Disseminate.] To sow, to
spread, to propagate, to disseminate. * sem-in-a'-tion, s. [Lat.
seminatio, from seminatus, pa. par. of semiuo.] * 1, Ord. Lang. : Tlie
act of sowing, spreading, or disseminating. " For the fourth and laat
way, of secret taminatton, wherein we had been biUicrto wholly
doi^cient oiid asleep."— /feZiyuio Wottojuanai, p. 484, t2. Bot.: (1)
Seeding (Loudon); (2) The natural dispersal of seeds (Martyn).
^som'-ined, *sem'-m-ed, a. [Lat. semen, genit. seminis — seed.]
Thickly covered or iti-ewn, as with seeds ; seme. " Her garments
blue, and &eminad with atars." Ben Joiison : Masques at Court. *
sem-in-if -er-ous, a. [Lat. seiyien, genit. seiuinis = seed, and /ero =.
to bear.] Bearing or producing seed. * sem-in-if'-ic, * sem-in-if'-ic-al,
a. [Lat. semen, genit. semints^ seed, and facie — to make.]
Forming or producing seed or stmien. '■ lu the fourteenth year
males fire aominifioal and pul»escent."~BroioriC .■ Vulgar Errours,
bk. tL, ch. viii. * Bem-in-i-fi-ca'-tlon, s. [Eng. seminific; -ation.]
Propagation from the seed or seminal parts. (Hale.) t se-min'-n-lum,
*. [Mod. Lat,dimin, from Lilt, bemen (q \'.).J Bot. : A spore. se-mi-o-
log'-ic-al, &c. [SEMEioLOGrcAL,*;c.] se-mi-o-no'-tiis, s. [Pref. semio-,
and Gr. p(I)ro9 (iioLos) ~ the back.] Paloiont.: A genu.s of Sauridse,
with distichous fulcra, TJiere are two species, from the Lias. se-mi-
oph'-dr-iis, s. [Pref. semio-, and Gr. f^opo'i (pharos) = bearing.]
Palceont. : A genns of Cariingiila^, from tlie Eocene of Monte Bnlca.
The dorsal, commencing ini mediately above the liead , is
enormously developed ; the ventrala are long and slender, and
thoracic, placed below and in advance of the pectorals, which are
very small, se~mi-6p'-ter-a, s. fPref. semio-, and Gr, jTTepoc
(pteron) =i wing.l Ornlth. . Otaiidard-vvmg, a genus of Paradiseinae,
with one specii;^, iJemDjjterawallacii, discovered by Mr. A. K.
Wallace in 1^08, in Batchian, one of the Moluccas, to ulucli group it
appears to be cuntmed. Bill long, comprecjseil, oiilmen much curved,
tip eniArguiaie ; nostriLs ba^al, oval, hidden by frontal plumes;
wings j'ounded, fourth and litth priinai'ics equal anil longi^st ; tail
inoderaLe, sli-liLIy vouadod ; tarsi luny, i-aLher slender, cuvi,r,'d by a
fsingie scale ; toes slender, rather aliort; claws long, much curved,
acute. Sem'-i-ped, s. [Lat. se77^^- = half, and pes, genit. pedie = a
foot.] Pros. : A half-foot. ||£l, boy ; poiit, jo^l ; eat, ^11, ekorus,
fhin, bea^h ; ge, ivm. ; tliin, this ; sin, as ; expect, Xenophon, e^ist.
pb — C •CUuu -tian ^ sIiqa. -tioB, -s&aa ^ ehi^; -tion, -^n = zbiin.
-oioiis, -^Uous, -sious = shus. -ble, -die, &e. = bel, d^L 13— Vol. IV.
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4194 semipedal— sen oSm-i-pe'-dal, a. [Semiped.] Pro*. :

Coutaiuing a half-foot. &em-i~-pe-la'-^-an. a. & s. [Pref. semi-, and
Eug. PelagianXq.v,).] A. As adj. : Of, belonging to, or characteristic of
tlie party described under B. "The Semipelagicin teuets which are
often called the heresy of the Massilieusea."— ^(i^;Ua & Artutld:
C'aOi. Diet., p. 759. B. As substantive : Church Hist. (PL) : The name
given to certain persons who, chiefly in the fiftli and sixth centuries,
endeavoured to tind a middle course between the doctnne of
Augustine of Hippo and that of Pehigius on the subject of grace and
the freedom of the hunjan will. The name is principally coiitined to
the followers of Cassian. [Massiltans.J " The Semipelagiant did not
go as fax ae Pelngiua." — AddiB & Arnold: Cath. Diet., p. 759. Sem-i-
pg-la'-gi-an-i^xn, ». [Eng. Semipelagian; -ism.] Church Hist. : The
doctrine that' man can by his natural powers have and exercise faith
in Christ, and a purpose of lining a holy life, though none can
persevere in this course unless constantly supported by diviue
assistance and grace. *' In 62B the Synod of Orange in South Gaul
gave the deatb-hlow to SemipeUigianism." — Addit & Arnold : Cath.
Dia., p. 760. •Sm-I-pSn'-ni-form, a. fFref. semi-, and Eng. penniform
(q.v.).J Anat. (Of muscles) : Half penniform, half approaching the
form of the plume of a feather. • sem-i-phj^l-lid'-i-a, $. pi. [Pref.
semi- ; Mod. Lat. pkyllidia (q.v.).] Zool. : A division of Latreille's
Gasteropoda, consisting of those liaving branchiae on the right side
of the body, under the border of the mantle, in a lonjjitndinal aches.
Genera, Pleurobrauchus and Umbrella (q.v.). •Bem-i-phjl-lid'-i-an, a.
& s. [SemiPHYLLIDIA.J A. ^s adj. : Of or belonging to the
Semlphyllidia (q.v.). B, As subst. : Any individual of the
Semiphyllidia(q.v.). f sem-i-plan-ti-gra'-da, s. pi. [Pref. semi-^ and
Mod. Lat. pluntigradd (q.v.).] Zool. : A section of the Carnivora in
which a portion of the sole is applied to tlie ground. Intennediate
between the Plantigrada and the Digitigrada. sem-i-plan'-ti- grade, a.
[SemtplantiGRADA.] Placing part of the sole of the foot to the
ground ; of or belonging to tiie Plantigrada (q.v.). Bem-i-plo-ti'-na, s.
pi. [Mod. Lat. semip^i(tis); Lat. neut. pi. adj. suff. -ina.] Ichihy. : A
group of Cypriuidai. Anal short ; dorsal elongate, with an osseous
ray ; lateral line running along middle of tail ; barbels iometimes
present. There are two genera : Cypi'inioii, from Persia and Syria,
and Seuriplotus, from Aasam. eSai-i-plo'^tus. «. [Pref. Kmi-, and Gr.
tAwtbs (j^otos).] [Plotus.J [Shuim-otima.] s^m'-i-qua-Ter, •. [Pref.
aemi-, and Bog. gttaver (q.v.).] Mvsic : A half quaver ; a nots of half
th« duration of a quaver ; tho sixteenth of tho semi breve. • sSBi'-i-
eriod. seiiously disputed witli anr fomiiy the boHriship of the hurnau
T-juoet-'—Whitneff : Idfe & Grow'h of Laiiffuaqe, ch. xiii. B. As adj. :
Semitic (q.v.). sem-i-ter'-tian, t*, & s [Pref. semi-, and Eng. tertian.]
A. As adj. : Possessing the characters of a quotidian and a tertian
ague. (Used of a quotidian fever which has remissions on the days
when, if it were an ordinary tertian, it would intermit. B. As
svAstantive : Patlwl. : A semitertian fever. " The natural product of
suob a cold moist year are tertians, semi tertians, and aurne quart-
ius.' — Arbuthnot: On Air. Se-mit'-ic, a. [Eug. Semit(e); -ic.]
Pertaining or relating to Sliem or his descendants ; pertaining to tlie
Hebrew race, or any of those kindled to it, as the ancient
Plitenicians, the Arabians, and the Assyrians. Semitic-languages, s.
pi. The most important group of languages, after the IndoEuropean.
It is marked by the triliterality of the roots and their inflection by
internal cliauge, by variation of vowel. " The name ' Semitic-
languages ' is used to designate a group of Asiatic and African
hviiguiiges, Bouie living and some dead, namely, Hebrew and
Phoeniciau, Aramaic, Assyrian, Arabic, Etliiopic (Geez and Amharic).
The name which was introduced by Eiclihorii {Einleit. in das A. T.
(ed. 2nd), L 45f is derived from the fact that most uatinns which
speak ui- spoke these languages are descended, according to
Genesis, fium Shem, son of Noah."— Ciicyc. BrU. (ed. 9th), xxi, 641.
sem'-it-ism, s. [Eng. Smiit{e); -ism.] A Semitic idiom or word ; the
adoption of what is peculiarly Semitic. sem'-i-tdne, *. [Pref. stmi-^
and Eng. toTie (q.v.).] Music : A half tone, or an approximate half of
a tone ; there are three kinds, greater, lesser, and natural. An
interval of sonnd, as between mi and fa on the diatonic scale, which
is only half the distance of the interval between do and re, or sol and
la. " A aeries of sounds relating to oue leading note is called a mode,
or a tone, and thei'Q are twelve temitones in the scale, each of
which may be made in its tui'n the leader of a mode." — Jaiies :
Imitatioe Ai ts. sem-i-ton'-ic, a. [Erg. semito3t(«); -ic] Of or
pertaining to a semitone; consisting of a semitone or of semitones. *
sein-i-un'-9i-al, a. [Semuncia.] Half an inch in size. "Uncial or
scmiuncianetters." — North : Life of Lord Guilford, i. 20. sem'-mit, s.
[Perhaps the same as Samits (q.v.), or a contract, of chetnisettR. \
An urdcrshirt, generally woollen, (.'icotch.) t sem-no-pi-the'-gi-dse, s.
pi. [Mod. Lat. semfiopitiiecfiis) ; Lat. fern. pL adj. satf. -idca^]
(Semnopithecin^.] sein-nd-pith-e-9i'-naB, s. pi. [Mod. Lat.
semno'pithec(us) ; L-at. fern. pi. adj. auir. -ince.] 1. Zool. : A sub-
family of Siniiadae (q.v.). Pelvic limbs longer than pettoi-al ; tnH
verylong ; no cheek pouches or vermiform appendix ; sternum
narrow ; ischiatic callosities ; thii'd lower molar al ways with live
tubercles. Two genera, Colobus and Senmopiihecua. It was formerly
made a family (Semuopithecidft;) of Primatei (q.v.). 2. Palceont. :
From the Miocene onward. sem-no-pi-tlie'-ciiB, '. [Gr. a-eixvo?
(semnos) = ftiicred, and tti'^kos (piiMkoe) ~ an ape.] 1. Zool. :
Sflcred monkeys, Saci'ed apes ; th« type-genus of the
Semnupitheoinse, distinguished from Colobua by the presence of a
small functional thumb and their xbsenco from Africa. The species
aia numerous, spread over almost the wliole of the Orientttl region,
wiierever the forests are extensive. They extend along the Himalayas
to beyond Siaila; on the west of India tlioy are nut found north of
14^ N. lat., on the east tliey extend into Aiakan, and to Borneo iind
Java, but apparently not into Siam or Cambodia. One species
(SevinopitheciLs roxellaiui) was discovered by Pere David at Moupin,
in Eaat Thibet, where the winters are severe, and tha whole
vegetation is paifearctic. Tlie monkeys of this genus vary mm^ in
size, the largest are bigger than a pointier; the body in all long and
slightly made, and the tail pendulous. The most important sjiecies
are doacribed in this Dictionary undtir their popular aames. 3.
PaloiOfLt. : From the Upper Miifccne of Gre'.'ce and the Kivalik Hills,
and the Pliocea© of the South of Franco and Italy. sem'-6-la, seaa-
o-lel'-la, s. [SiiMOLraA.] sem-o-li'-na, s, [Ital. setnolino, semolella,]
Foods : A farinaceous food consisting of th« fine hard parts of
wheat, rounded by attrition in the mill-stones. The liest is obttuned
from wheat grown in the southern parts of Europe. se-moule', i. [Fr.]
Semolina (q.v.). ^sem-per-vir'-eiit, a. [Lat. sem/per = always, and
virens, pr. par, of vireo = to be green.] Always green ; evergreen.
[Sempervivum.] Tho * sem'- per -Vive, house-leek. "The greater
aempftj-rieo will nut out hranches two or three years ; but they wrap
the root iu an oil-oluth once ill half a year. "— floeoTt. sem-per-vi'-
vum, s. (Lat. semper = always, ami vlvus = living, alive. Named
from their tenacity of life.] Bot. : House-leek. ; a genus of
Crassuleffl. Succulent hex'bs or undershrubs. Radicle leaves densely
rosulate, stoloniferous fi'om their axils, the cauline ones alternate;
calyx six- to twenty-cleft; petals distinct or nearly so ; stamens twice
as many as the petals, or as many and opposite to them ; follicles
nianyseeded ; hypogynous scales laciniated, toothed, or wanting.
Known species about forty, from Europe, North Africa, especially
Madeira and the Canary islands. The Common House-leek (S. tectoj-
iim) is an European species, frequently planted in the United States
iu beds of leaf plants, &c. In Eurppe it is planted on walla, house
roofs, &c. The leaves ai'e very succulent and form close rosettes.
The flower stem grows 6 to 12 inches higii, and bears pale red,
starlike flowers. The fiebeimcn of Madeira rub their nets with the
fresh leaves of S. glutinomm^ then steep them in an alkaline liquo ;
this renders them as durable as if they were ^.i^uued. sem-pi-ter'-
nal, * sem-pi-ter'-n.^H, a. [Fr. sem23UerRel, from Lat.
sempit&rni.iti, from sevfiper = always ; 8p. & Port, sevipitemo ; Ital.
sempiternale, sempiterno.] 1. Of never-ending duration ; everlasting,
endless ; having begmning, but no end. "All truth la from the
sempiternal sourof " C'wwfjer : Tai/c It. 499. 2. Eternal, everlasting ;
without bu^inuing or end. " If that ono man was spmpitomal, why
Did he, since mdeijendeut, ever die? Bluckmoro : Creatian, ^ak. vl. *
sem'-pi-terne, a. [Lat. sempiteTpiiit.l Sempiternal ; everlasting. " And
his beinge is seinpiteme." Qowcr : C. A., vil. * sem-pi-ter'-ni-ty, s.
[Fr. eemxittemiti, from Lat. sempiternitatem, accus. of
i^injnteirnitas, from sc»iptfe)7i(fs = sempiternal (q.v,).] Future
duration without end ; eternity. "Upon a supposition of afuture
sempitei^ity, thla would produce tlie snine difficulty, without paoh
Im^ terpoaitioi) of the Divine wisdom and provl^euee-" — Ea-ie:
Orig. of Mankind, p. 227. * sem-pi-ter'-iiize, v.u [SEWPiTEaiffl.] To
perpetuate. "The sempitcmizing o\ HiG huui&A raoe.* — ffr^Vtuertt
MaAelaia, bk. lii., ch. viii. * sem'-ple, a. [Simple.] oSia'-pre, adv.
[Ital., from lAi. savf^erez always.] Kitsic : Ever, always, throughout.
UeeA la conjunction with some other mark of 1lib§ er •xpression, to
signify that such mai*k to to remain in force until a novr directiuu
a]>peaffs. atSmp'-ftter (p silent), s, [Si^AKteTKO.] sfixup' -stress (p
silent), «. [Sii:Auim»9B&. ] ftemp'-strSs-sj^ (p silent), e.
[Seakhikb^b'.j SJ^m'-sey-ite, s. [Etym. doubtful, b»t probably after
one Semaey ; suff. -ite {iliTk.).'} Min. : A mineral occurring in sinaU,
gmy tabular crystals at Felsobanya, Huei^ofy. Sp. gr. 5-95. Compos.:
sulphur, 19'1« ; antimony, -26-85 ; lead, 54-05 = 1«0, vbieh
corresponds to tJxe formula 7Pb + BSb^;^ * se-mim'-9l-a, s. [Lat.
semi = half, rv4. imata = an ounce.] A small Roman coin ©f UiO
weight of four drachms, being ^ke twyutij'fourth part of the Roman
pound, * scm-y-cope, a. [Semicope,] * sen, * sens, adv. [.Since.I
fEtte, fat, f^re, amidst. wh3^ £&XU &±hei' ; we, wet» here, oamel,
her, t;&.^o ox; wore, wol£, work, whd. b^; vivt^ ouJn, eiirow
9nit€^ our, r&le, full; try. : pme, pit, sire, sir, martne; gO^ pjSt, 6
jrrlaii. S9,
The text on this page is estimated to be only 18.43%
accurate

senacia — senega 4195 8d-na'-9i-a, s. [Named after Jean

Senac, a French physician (I(i93-1770).] Bot. : A genus of
Celastraceae. Shrul)s with smooth branches ; feathery veined, entire
leaves ; terminal corymbs of white flowers, with hypogynous
stamens. Akin to Celastrus. SeTiocia (formerly Celastrits)undulata
furnishes a hard wood. sen'-age (age as ig), s. [First element
doubtful; suff. -age.] Law : Money paid for synodals. a^n-ar-mon'-
tite, s. [After the mineralogist, H. de Seuarmont, who first described
it ; sulf. 'ite (Min. ). ] Min. : An isometric mineral, occurring in
octahedrons with octahedral cleavage, also granular, massive.
Hardness, 2 to 2-5 ; sp. gr. 5'22 to 5'3 ; lustre, resinous to sub-
adamantine ; colourless or grayish ; streak, white. Compos. :
oxygen, 16-44; antimony, 83-56 = 100, equal to the formula, SbOa.
Results principally from the decomposition of stibnite, the finest and
largest crystals being found in Algeria. sen-ar-y, a. [Lat. setiarius,
from seni = six eacli, sex = six.] Of six ; belonging to six ; containing
six. '* The senary or the number six has a double reference, the one
to this particular day'a work, the other to the whole creation."—
ifora/ D^ence of Phil. Cabbala, ch. 1. sen'-ate, * sen-at, s. [Fr. sinat,
from Lat. senatum, accus. of senatus^a, council of elders, from
senea!, genit. sejiis ^ an old man ; Sp. 56710^0,- Ital. senato.] 1.
An assembly or council of elders ; an assembly or council of citizens
invested with a share in the government. (1) In ancient Borne, a
body or council of elders, appointed or elected from amongst citizens
of free birth, and entrusted with the supreme legislative power. To it
belonged exclusively the administration of foreign affairs, and of the
exchequer. It also exercised a general superintendence over the
religion, of the state. It could not meet unless summoned by a
magistrate. The number of the members varied at different titiies.
(2) The Upper House of the Congress of the United States, whose
members represent the states, while those of the Lower HLiuse are
the direct representatives of the people. Each state has two
senators, chosen by the state legislature for six years, tliough there
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