SPSS Stats Practically Short and Simple First

Edition Sidney Tyrell - Downloadable PDF 2025

https://ebookfinal.com/download/spss-stats-practically-short-and-simple-
first-edition-sidney-tyrell/

Visit ebookfinal.com today to download the complete set of

ebooks or textbooks
Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

SPSS 13 0 brief guide Inc. Spss

https://ebookfinal.com/download/spss-13-0-brief-guide-inc-spss/

SPSS 16 0 Brief Guide 1st Edition Inc. Spss

https://ebookfinal.com/download/spss-16-0-brief-guide-1st-edition-inc-
spss/

SPSS 14 0 Brief Guide 1st Edition Inc. Spss

https://ebookfinal.com/download/spss-14-0-brief-guide-1st-edition-inc-
spss/

SPSS 15 0 Base User s Guide 1st Edition Inc. Spss

https://ebookfinal.com/download/spss-15-0-base-user-s-guide-1st-
edition-inc-spss/
Personal identity complex or simple First Paperback
Edition Gasser

https://ebookfinal.com/download/personal-identity-complex-or-simple-
first-paperback-edition-gasser/

Joon Persian Cooking Made Simple First Edition Najmieh

Batmanglij

https://ebookfinal.com/download/joon-persian-cooking-made-simple-
first-edition-najmieh-batmanglij/

Stats Means Business 1st Edition John Buglear

https://ebookfinal.com/download/stats-means-business-1st-edition-john-
buglear/

Keynes Keynesians and Monetarists Sidney Weintraub

https://ebookfinal.com/download/keynes-keynesians-and-monetarists-
sidney-weintraub/

Mind the Doors Long Short Stories First Edition Zinik

https://ebookfinal.com/download/mind-the-doors-long-short-stories-
first-edition-zinik/
SPSS Stats Practically Short and Simple First Edition
Sidney Tyrell Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Sidney Tyrell
ISBN(s): 9788776814748, 8776814742
Edition: first
File Details: PDF, 5.66 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Sidney Tyrrell

SPSS: Stats Practically Short

and Simple

Download free books at BookBoon.com

2
SPSS: Stats Practically Short and Simple
© 2009 Sidney Tyrrell & Ventus Publishing ApS
ISBN 978-87-7681-474-8

Download free books at BookBoon.com

3
 Stats Practically Short and Simple Contents

Contents
1. An Overview 8
Getting In 8
Frequencies 9
Exporting your Output to Word 13
Drawing charts 14
Exercise 14
Moving Around 15

2. Entering Data 16
Introduction 16
Entering Data directly 16
Defining Variables 17
Adjusting the width 17
Variable names 18
Entering data via a spreadsheet 19
Adding Variable Labels 19
Adding Value Labels 20
Important note 21
Finally 21

3. Editing and Handling Data 22

Correcting entries 22
Please click the advert

Download free books at BookBoon.com

4
 Stats Practically Short and Simple Contents

Deleting entries 22
Copying cells, columns and rows 22
Inserting a variable (a column) 22
Inserting a case (a row) 23
Moving columns 23
Sorting data 23
Saving data and output 23
Exporting Output 23
Saving Data as an Excel file 24
Copying tables and charts into Word 24
Printing from SPSS 24
Recoding into groups 25
Revision exercise 26
Doing Calculations on Variables 27
Selecting a subset 28
Selecting a Random Sample 29
Merging Files 31
Adding Variables 31
Adding cases 32

4. Descriptive Statistics 33
The Functions 34
Finding Frequencies for Multiple Response Variables 37
Tables are tricky! 44

what‘s missing in this equation?

Please click the advert

You could be one of our future talents

MAERSK INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE PROGRAMME

Are you about to graduate as an engineer or geoscientist? Or have you already graduated?
If so, there may be an exciting future for you with A.P. Moller - Maersk.

www.maersk.com/mitas

Download free books at BookBoon.com

5
Stats Practically Short and Simple Contents

5. Charts 46
Introduction 46
A Simple Bar Chart 47
A clustered bar chart 50
Percentage Clustered Bar Chart using Legacy Dialogs 51
With correct labels! 51
A stacked % bar chart 53
Drawing a panel bar chart 53
Drawing a bar chart of more than one variable 54
Drawing a pie chart 56
Histogram 58
Boxplots 60

6. Regression and Correlation 63

Introduction 63
Scatter Diagrams 64
Correlation 64
Correlation and Causation 65
Regression 65
Multiple Regression 68

7. Statistical Tests 70
The One-Sample T test 72
The Chi-Squared Test for contingency tables 72
t-test for related samples 75

www.job.oticon.dk

Download free books at BookBoon.com

6
 Stats Practically Short and Simple Contents

t-test for the differences in the Means of independent samples 77

Analysis of Variance 78
Non-Parametric Tests 79
Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks test for paired samples 81

8. And finally 83

Always aiming for higher ground.

© 2009 Accenture. All rights reserved.

Just another day at the office for a Tiger.
Join the Accenture High Performance Business Forum
Please click the advert

On Thursday, April 23rd, Accenture invites top students

to the High Performance Business Forum where you
can learn how leading Danish companies are using
the current economic downturn to gain competitive
advantages. You will meet two of Accenture’s global
senior executives as they present new original research
and illustrate how technology can help forward
thinking companies cope with the downturn.

Visit student.accentureforum.dk to see the program

and register

Visit student.accentureforum.dk

Download free books at BookBoon.com

7
Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

1. An Overview
Getting In

Having opened SPSS you will get a dialogue box which you can cancel the first time you enter SPSS.
Enlarge the window.

SPSS is like a spreadsheet but it does not update calculations, tables or charts if you change the data.

At the top of the screen are a series of menus which can be used to instruct SPSS to do something.

SPSS uses 2 windows: The Data Editor, which is what you are looking at and which has 2 tabs at the
bottom, and the Viewer.

The Viewer is not visible yet, but opens automatically as soon as you open a file or run a command that
produces output, such as statistics, tables and charts.

The menus are the same in each window but the icons are different. To switch between the two windows
use the tabs at the bottom of the screen.

The Data Editor window:

Open Save Print Review Undo Redo Go to Go to Variables Find Insert Insert Split Weight Select Show Use Show All
File recent case variable Case Variable Cases Cases labels Sets
dialogue boxes

The Output window:

Open Save print Preview Export Recall Undo Redo Go to Go to Variables Select LastShow Use Show All
File Print recent case variable Case Output Variable Cases Cases labels Sets
Print dialogue boxes Go to data

SPSS comes with a large number of sample data files, which this book will use. If you do not have access
to these, use any data set you have access to.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

8
Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

To open the data file 1991 U.S. General Social Survey.sav

use File > Open > Data

x Double click on the appropriate directories to open each

x Double click on the file 1991 U.S. General Social Survey.sav

At first you will probably be faced by a mass of seemingly meaningless numbers.

If you look along the toolbar you will find the Value labels icon . Click on this and the output should
look more friendly.

x Click on the Variables icon to get an overview of each variable.

Exercise:

x How many Regions of the United States are represented?

Frequencies

x Let's start simply. All that data looks a bit overwhelming so we need to get a handle on it and pick
out the main messages.
x First of all how many men and women are there in this group?

For a simple count, and for percentages use

Analyze > Descriptive Statistics > Frequencies .

SPSS uses Dialogue boxes for the selection of variables and options.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

9
Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

The source list contains the list of variables, with icons as before indicating data types.

x Your dialogue box may have only listed the variable names, e.g. sex, rather than the variable
labels such as ‘Respondent’s sex’. It is more helpful in analysis to see these labels.
x If they are not shown use Edit > Options
x Select the General tab and at the top under Variable Lists click on the circle Display Labels.

Use the arrow button to move a variable to

the target list – the Variable(s) box on the
right.

Place Respondent’s sex in the Variable(s)

box

then click on OK

The resulting output introduces us to the Viewer window, and shows that 636 respondents, or 42%, were
men. Maximise the Viewer window.

x There is a lot of clutter here.

x Tip: Always delete unnecessary Output, and annotate the rest as you go.
x Click on all the text at the top of the screen and press Delete on your keyboard.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

10
Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

The left hand pane contains the outline view.

To go directly to an item click on it; very
useful when you have masses of output.
If you don't need it all for the moment you
can hide it by clicking on the minus signs that
appear in the left hand frame.

To hide one item, click on the minus sign.

This is useful if you only want to print a small
selection, as only what is shown is printed.

To change the order in which the items are displayed, drag and drop in the left hand pane. Try it.

To delete an item, click on it and press delete.

x Tip: Never do any analysis without interpreting it.

x To annotate your output use Insert > New Text which provides a text box in which you can write
a comment.
x It appears on the left hand side of the screen with a red arrow at first
x Click on it and the box will open in the right hand pane for you to write in.

x Back to the output: itself; this can be edited.

x Double click on the table to bring up the Formatting Toolbar.
x If it does not appear use View>Toolbar

Download free books at BookBoon.com

11
 Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

x Click on any text to change its format and use the Formatting Toolbar to do so.
x Double click to rewrite the text itself.
x When you have finished close the Editing window by clicking on the X

it’s an interesting world

Get under the skin of it.

Please click the advert

Graduate opportunities
Cheltenham | £24,945 + benefits
One of the UK’s intelligence services, GCHQ’s role is two-fold:
to gather and analyse intelligence which helps shape Britain’s
response to global events, and, to provide technical advice for the
protection of Government communication and information systems.
In doing so, our specialists – in IT, internet, engineering, languages,
information assurance, mathematics and intelligence – get well
beneath the surface of global affairs. If you thought the world was
an interesting place, you really ought to explore our world of work.

TOP
www.careersinbritishintelligence.co.uk
GOVERNMENT
EMPLOYER Applicants must be British citizens. GCHQ values diversity and welcomes applicants from
all sections of the community. We want our workforce to reflect the diversity of our work.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

12
Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

The Formatting Toolbar also gives Pivoting Control (!).

Pivoting control is a useful device, which enables you to change the look of your tables.

Click on the icon to bring up the Pivoting Tray, if it is not already shown.

Clicking on each of the icons at the edges tells you what they
represent.

Here the columns are Statistics, and the Rows are Respondent’s
Sex.

Drag the Statistics icon on to the Row bar so that the 2 are side
by side, to see how the table changes; drag it back before
proceeding.

x You can copy Output into Word by clicking on it and using Edit > Copy
x In Word use Edit > Paste.

Exporting your Output to Word

x Output can be exported as a Word RTF file or Text file

x Use File > Export and select the appropriate entry under Type.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

13
Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

Drawing charts

This requires a chapter to itself but the easy way for simple charts is to use
Analyze > Descriptive Statistics > Frequencies

Then click the chart button and select an appropriate chart.

Try it for Region of the United States and draw a bar chart.
The dialogue boxes are shown on the next page.

In the same way try drawing a histogram for Age of Respondent.

Exercise

Do not spend too long doing this – the aim is to show you it is much easier drawing charts using
Frequencies!

Try drawing the same 2 charts using the Graphs menu and either the Chart Builder or Legacy Dialogs.

After all that … To return to the data window click on the icon in the toolbar or click on the tab at
the foot of the screen, or use the Window menu.

The SPSS Tutorial is an extremely useful feature of SPSS

x Click on Help > Tutorial

x Click on the Introduction book and take it from there.

Now take a look at the other very useful help: The Statistics Coach.

Click on Help > Statistics Coach.

As an example, follow the default settings, and click Next each time.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

14
 Stats Practically Short and Simple An Overview

x Summarize, describe or present data Next

x Data in categories Next
x Tables and Numbers Next
x Counts or percentages by category Finish OK

Moving Around

You will be glad to know that the usual short cut keys work here.

Home takes you to the first cell of the row you are in
End takes you to the last cell of the row you are in
Ctrl Home takes you to the first cell of your data
Ctrl End takes you to the last cell of your data.

Brain power By 2020, wind could provide one-tenth of our planet’s

electricity needs. Already today, SKF’s innovative know-
how is crucial to running a large proportion of the
world’s wind turbines.
Up to 25 % of the generating costs relate to mainte-
nance. These can be reduced dramatically thanks to our
systems for on-line condition monitoring and automatic
lubrication. We help make it more economical to create
Please click the advert

cleaner, cheaper energy out of thin air.

By sharing our experience, expertise, and creativity,
industries can boost performance beyond expectations.
Therefore we need the best employees who can
meet this challenge!

The Power of Knowledge Engineering

Plug into The Power of Knowledge Engineering.

Visit us at www.skf.com/knowledge

Download free books at BookBoon.com

15
Stats Practically Short and Simple Entering Data

2. Entering Data
Introduction

This is a chapter for anyone faced with the long and tedious task of entering data. Spend a little time
planning this. Wherever possible use numbers rather than text for answers as you can add labels later.

With questionnaires one usually has a separate column for each question, but if you have a question such
as:

“Rate each of the following on a score of 1 to 10 according to importance for the community:

Adequate housing
Good schools
Cultural facilities
Sports facilities.”

You will need a separate column for each category.

Data can be entered directly or imported from an existing SPSS file, spreadsheet or text file, and we shall
cover each of these.

Opening an existing SPSS file.

Use File > Open > Data

Entering Data directly

Entering numbers and text.

The Data Editor Window looks suspiciously like a spreadsheet, and numbers and text can be entered
directly.

Be warned, though it looks like a spreadsheet it does not behave like one. Your charts and output will not
automatically update if you should change the original data, and you cannot enter formulae directly into a
cell, though you can do calculations using a different facility.

x Open a new data sheet. Try Ctrl n; this is the shortcut key to open a new file.
x Or use File > New > Data

x Try entering some numbers in the first column.

x Type what you want in each cell; press the return key or a cursor key.
x If you make a mistake retype the entry.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

16
Stats Practically Short and Simple Entering Data

x Now try to put some text into the same column.

x Can you? You can type it in but when you press Enter it disappears.
x This is because SPSS has identified the column as a numeric one and won’t allow any text.

x Put some names of countries in the next column to the right including Australia.
x What happens? Most probably it is cut short.
x Try entering numbers in this column – you can but you will not be able to do any calculations
with them as SPSS thinks they are text.
x Your new variables have been given the names VAR00001 and VAR00002 which we will now
change.

Defining Variables

At the foot of the screen are two tabs. Click on Variable View to get the following screen.

Overtype VAR00001 and VAR00002 with the names of your new variables: numbers and countries
will do.

Click in the cell under Type to get a grey square.

Click on that to bring up a Variable Type box which you can use to define your variable, control the
number of decimal places shown, column width etc.

Adjusting the width

You can adjust the width of your countries column to 18.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

17
 Stats Practically Short and Simple Entering Data

Annoyingly when you return to Data View you will still not find Australia displayed, though when you
type it in again it will appear.

Variable names

x They must start with a letter but can now be 64bytes long.
x They can contain numerals e.g. abc12
x But cannot contain spaces or % sign.
x Keep them short.

It is important to keep variable names short so that you can see as much as possible of your data on the
screen. It is quite an art to write short names that still give you an idea of what the column is all about.
Resist the temptation to write Q1, Q2 etc.

You can enter longer descriptive variable labels to explain what the columns are, and these labels will
appear on all output.

Tip: It is better to enter most data as numerical codes and then provide labels explaining what the
codes represent. Adding Variable and Value Labels will be explained after you have loaded the
spreadsheet.

Trust and responsibility

NNE and Pharmaplan have joined forces to create – You have to be proactive and open-minded as a
NNE Pharmaplan, the world’s leading engineering newcomer and make it clear to your colleagues what
and consultancy company focused entirely on the you are able to cope. The pharmaceutical field is new
pharma and biotech industries. to me. But busy as they are, most of my colleagues
find the time to teach me, and they also trust me.
Inés Aréizaga Esteva (Spain), 25 years old Even though it was a bit hard at first, I can feel over
Education: Chemical Engineer time that I am beginning to be taken seriously and
Please click the advert

that my contribution is appreciated.

NNE Pharmaplan is the world’s leading engineering and consultancy company

focused entirely on the pharma and biotech industries. We employ more than
1500 people worldwide and offer global reach and local knowledge along with
our all-encompassing list of services. nnepharmaplan.com

Download free books at BookBoon.com

18
Stats Practically Short and Simple Entering Data

Entering data via a spreadsheet

Excel spreadsheets can be opened in SPSS with the variable names.

One can also simply copy and paste the data cells from Excel into SPSS but you will have to label the
columns.

x To open a spreadsheet use File > Open > Data

x Ask the dialogue box to display All files and not just the SPSS ones.

Find the spreadsheet to open.

SPSS will recognise the format and

automatically give this dialogue box.

Tick Read variable names.

Click OK.

Adding Variable Labels

To keep your sheet manageable it is advisable to have short column names.

Variable labels can explain more fully the nature of the variable – you have 256 characters for the
description.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

19
Stats Practically Short and Simple Entering Data

x In Variable View of the Data Editor.

x Click on the cell under the Label column and type in a suitable label.

To give an example I might have the variable exgrp, short for exercise group.

The Variable Label for this would then be exercise group.

Adding Value Labels

Value Labels explain numerical codes.

To insert a Value Label

x Click in the cell under the Values column and a small grey square appears.
x Click on this to bring up the Define Variable box.

Enter a value in the Value box, here it is 1

Type an appropriate label in the Value Label

box, e.g. smokes regularly
Click on Add

Enter the value 2, and a label, e.g. non-

smoker

Add

When all the values have been entered use

Add for the final value, then click on OK

A very useful tip for lots of identical value labels for different variables:

x E.g. if you are entering. 0 = No and 1 =

Yes,
x Enter them for one variable.
x Then right click on the cell
x Select Copy
x Go to a new variable and use Paste
under the Value column.
x This is a huge time saver!

To return to the data click on the Data View tab at the bottom of the screen.

Download free books at BookBoon.com

20
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 408 Chapter 6 Viscous Flow in Ducts Fig. 6.28b Typical
performance maps for flat-wall and conical diffusers at similar
operating conditions: conical wall. (From Ref. 14, by permission of
Creare, Inc.) 6.12 Fluid Meters Local Velocity Measurements M, =0.2
B, = 0.09 Conical Rerf= 120,000 ' 1 1 1 \ ' \/ y v y \ / \ 29= 18° 16°
14° 12° 10° 8° Diffuser length-throat diameter ratio — C b ) Almost
all practical fluid engineering problems are associated with the need
for an accurate flow measurement. There is a need to measure local
properties (velocity, pressure, temperature, density, viscosity,
turbulent intensity), integrated properties (mass flow and volume
flow), and global properties (visualization of the entire flow field).
We shall concentrate in this section on velocity and volume flow
measurements. We have discussed pressure measurement in Sec.
2.10. Measurement of other thermodynamic properties, such as
density, temperature, and viscosity, is beyond the scope of this text
and is treated in specialized books such as Refs. 22 and 23. Global
visualization techniques were discussed in Sec. 1.11 for low-speed
flows, and the special optical techniques used in high-speed flows
are treated in Ref. 34 of Chap. 1. Flow measurement schemes
suitable for open-channel and other free-surface flows are treated in
Chap. 10. Velocity averaged over a small region, or point, can be
measured by several different physical principles, listed in order of
increasing complexity and sophistication:
 6.12 Fluid Meters 409 Fig. 6.29 Eight common velocity
meters: (a) three-cup anemometer; (b) Savonius rotor; (c) turbine
mounted in a duct; (d) freepropeller meter; (e) hot-wire
anemometer; (/) hot-film anemometer; (g) pitot-static tube; ( h )
laserdoppler anemometer. (g) Display Focusing optics Flow (h)
Receiving Photo optics detector 1. Trajectory of floats or neutrally
buoyant particles. 2. Rotating mechanical devices: a. Cup
anemometer. b. Savonius rotor. c. Propeller meter. d. Turbine meter.
3. Pitot-static tube (Fig. 6.30). 4. Electromagnetic current meter. 5.
Hot wires and hot films. 6. Laser-doppler anemometer (LDA). Some
of these meters are sketched in Fig. 6.29.
 410 Chapter 6 Viscous Flow in Ducts Fig. 6.30 Pitot-static
tube for combined measurement of static and stagnation pressure in
a moving stream. Floats or Buoyant Particles. A simple but effective
estimate of flow velocity can be found from visible particles
entrained in the flow. Examples include flakes on the surface of a
channel flow, small neutrally buoyant spheres mixed with a liquid, or
hydrogen bubbles. Sometimes gas flows can be estimated from the
motion of entrained dust particles. One must establish whether the
particle motion truly simulates the fluid motion. Floats are commonly
used to track the movement of ocean waters and can be designed to
move at the surface, along the bottom, or at any given depth [24].
Many official tidal current charts [25] were obtained by releasing and
timing a floating spar attached to a length of string. One can release
whole groups of spars to determine a flow pattern. Rotating Sensors.
The rotating devices of Fig. 6.29a to cl can be used in either gases
or liquids, and their rotation rate is approximately proportional to the
flow velocity. The cup anemometer (Fig. 6.29a) and Savonius rotor
(Fig. 6.29 b) always rotate the same way, regardless of flow
direction. They are popular in atmospheric and oceanographic
applications and can be fitted with a direction vane to align
themselves with the flow. The ducted-propeller (Fig. 6.29c) and free-
propeller (Fig. 6.29 d) meters must be aligned with the flow parallel
to their axis of rotation. They can sense reverse flow because they
will then rotate in the opposite direction. All these rotating sensors
can be attached to counters or sensed by electromagnetic or slip-
ring devices for either a continuous or a digital reading of flow
velocity. All have the disadvantage of being relatively large and thus
not representing a “point.” Pitot-Static Tube. A slender tube aligned
with the flow (Figs. 6.29 g and 6.30) can measure local velocity by
means of a pressure difference. It has sidewall holes to measure the
static pressure ps in the moving stream and a hole in the front to
measure the stagnation pressure p0 , where the stream is
decelerated to zero velocity. Instead of measuring p0 or ps
separately, it is customary to measure their difference with, say, a
transducer, as in Fig. 6.30. If ReD > 1000, where D is the probe
diameter, the flow around the probe is nearly frictionless and
Bernoulli’s relation, Eq. (3.54), applies with good accuracy. For
incompressible flow Ps + \pV2 + PgZs “ Po + 5P(0)° + pgz0
 6.12 Fluid Meters 411 Assuming that the elevation pressure
difference pg(zs ~ Zo) is negligible, this reduces to 2(Po ~ Ps) P
(6.97) This is the Pitot formula, named after the French engineer,
Henri de Pitot, who designed the device in 1732. The primary
disadvantage of the pitot tube is that it must be aligned with the
flow direction, which may be unknown. For yaw angles greater than
5°, there are substantial errors in both the p0 and p, measurements,
as shown in Fig. 6.30. The pitot-static tube is useful in liquids and
gases; for gases a compressibility correction is necessary if the
stream Mach number is high (Chap. 9). Because of the slow
response of the fluid-filled tubes leading to the pressure sensors, it is
not useful for unsteady flow measurements. It does resemble a point
and can be made small enough to measure, for example, blood flow
in arteries and veins. It is not suitable for low-velocity measurement
in gases because of the small pressure differences developed. For
example, if V = 1 ft/s in standard air, from Eq. (6.97) we compute
p0 — p equal to only 0.001 lbf/ft2 (0.048 Pa). This is beyond the
resolution of most pressure gages. Electromagnetic Meter. If a
magnetic field is applied across a conducting fluid, the fluid motion
will induce a voltage across two electrodes placed in or near the
flow. The electrodes can be streamlined or built into the wall, and
they cause little or no flow resistance. The output is very strong for
highly conducting fluids such as liquid metals. Seawater also gives
good output, and electromagnetic current meters are in common use
in oceanography. Even low-conductivity freshwater can be measured
by amplifying the output and insulating the electrodes. Commercial
instruments are available for most liquid flows but are relatively
costly. Electromagnetic flowmeters are treated in Ref. 26. Hot-Wire
Anemometer. A very fine wire ( d = 0.01 mm or less) heated
between two small probes, as in Fig. 6.29e, is ideally suited to
measure rapidly fluctuating flows such as the turbulent boundary
layer. The idea dates back to work by L. V. King in 1914 on heat loss
from long thin cylinders. If electric power is supplied to heat the
cylinder, the loss varies with flow velocity across the cylinder
according to Kings law q = I2R = a + b{pV)n (6.98) where n ~ \ at
very low Reynolds numbers and equals \ at high Reynolds numbers.
The hot wire normally operates in the high-Reynolds-number range
but should be calibrated in each situation to find the best-fit a, b,
and n. The wire can be operated either at constant current /, so that
resistance R is a measure of V, or at constant resistance R (constant
temperature), with I a measure of velocity. In either case, the output
is a nonlinear function of V, and the equipment should contain a
linearizer to produce convenient velocity data. Many varieties of
commercial hot-wire equipment are available, as are do-it-yourself
designs [27]. Excellent detailed discussions of the hot wire are given
in Ref. 28. Because of its frailty, the hot wire is not suited to liquid
flows, whose high density and entrained sediment will knock the
wire right off. A more stable yet quite sensitive alternative for liquid
flow measurement is the hot-film anemometer (Fig. 6.29/). A thin
metallic film, usually platinum, is plated onto a relatively thick
support, which
 412 Chapter 6 Viscous Flow in Ducts can be a wedge, a
cone, or a cylinder. The operation is similar to the hot wire. The cone
gives best response but is liable to error when the flow is yawed to
its axis. Hot wires can easily be arranged in groups to measure two-
and three-dimensional velocity components. Laser-Doppler
Anemometer. In the LDA a laser beam provides highly focused,
coherent monochromatic light that is passed through the flow. When
this light is scattered from a moving particle in the flow, a stationary
observer can detect a change, or doppler shift, in the frequency of
the scattered light. The shift A f is proportional to the velocity of the
particle. There is essentially zero disturbance of the flow by the laser.
Figure 6.29/; shows the popular dual-beam mode of the LDA. A
focusing device splits the laser into two beams, which cross the flow
at an angle 0. Their intersection, which is the measuring volume or
resolution of the measurement, resembles an ellipsoid about 0.5 mm
wide and 0.1 mm in diameter. Particles passing through this
measuring volume scatter the beams; they then pass through
receiving optics to a photodetector, which converts the light to an
electric signal. A signal processor then converts electric frequency to
a voltage that can be either displayed or stored. If A. is the
wavelength of the laser light, the measured velocity is given by A A/
2 sin (6/2) (6.99) Multiple components of velocity can be detected
by using more than one photodetector and other operating modes.
Either liquids or gases can be measured as long as scattering
particles are present. In liquids, normal impurities serve as
scatterers, but gases may have to be seeded. The particles may be
as small as the wavelength of the light. Although the measuring
volume is not as small as with a hot wire, the LDA is capable of
measuring turbulent fluctuations. The advantages of the LDA are as
follows: 1. No disturbance of the flow. 2. High spatial resolution of
the flow field. 3. Velocity data that are independent of the fluid
thermodynamic properties. 4. An output voltage that is linear with
velocity. 5. No need for calibration. The disadvantages are that both
the apparatus and the fluid must be transparent to light and that the
cost is high (a basic system shown in Fig. 6.29 h begins at about
$50,000). Once installed, an LDA can map the entire flow field in
minutest detail. To truly appreciate the power of the LDA, one
should examine, for instance, the amazingly detailed three-
dimensional flow profiles measured by Eckardt [29] in a high-speed
centrifugal compressor impeller. Extensive discussions of laser
velocimetry are given in Refs. 38 and 39. Particle Image Velocimetry.
This popular new idea, called PIV for short, measures not just a
single point but instead maps the entire field of flow. An illustration
was shown in Fig. 1 Alb. The flow is seeded with neutrally buoyant
particles. A planar laser light sheet across the flow is pulsed twice
and photographed twice. If Ar is the particle displacement vector
over a short time At, an estimate of its velocity is V ~ Ar/A t.
 6.12 Fluid Meters 413 Volume Flow Measurements A
dedicated computer applies this formula to a whole cloud of particles
and thus maps the flow field. One can also use the data to calculate
velocity gradient and vorticity fields. Since the particles all look alike,
other cameras may be needed to identify them. Three-dimensional
velocities can be measured by two cameras in a stereoscopic
arrangement. The PIV method is not limited to stop-action. New
high-speed cameras (up to 10,000 frames per second) can record
movies of unsteady flow fields. For further details, see the
monograph by M. Raffel [51]. EXAMPLE 6.20 The pitot-static tube of
Fig. 6.30 uses mercury as a manometer fluid. When it is placed in a
water flow, the manometer height reading is h = 8.4 in. Neglecting
yaw and other errors, what is the flow velocity V in ft/s? Solution
From the two-fluid manometer relation (2.33), with zA = z2, the
pressure difference is related to h by Po ~ Ps = (Tm - Jw)h Taking
the specific weights of mercury and water from Table 2.1, we have
Po - ps = (846 - 62.4 lbf/ft3) ^ft = 549 lbf/ft* 1 2 The density of
water is 62.4/32.2 = 1.94 slugs/ft3. Introducing these values into
the pitotstatic formula (6.97), we obtain V = 2(549 lbf/ft2) . 1.94
slugs/ft3. = 23.8 ft/s Ans. Since this is a low-speed flow, no
compressibility correction is needed. It is often desirable to measure
the integrated mass, or volume flow, passing through a duct.
Accurate measurement of flow is vital in billing customers for a given
amount of liquid or gas passing through a duct. The different
devices available to make these measurements are discussed in
great detail in the ASME text on fluid meters [30]. These devices
split into two classes: mechanical instruments and head loss
instruments. The mechanical instruments measure actual mass or
volume of fluid by trapping it and counting it. The various types of
measurement are 1 . Mass measurement a. Weighing tanks b. Tilting
traps 2. Volume measurement a. Volume tanks b. Reciprocating
pistons
 414 Chapter 6 Viscous Flow in Ducts c. Rotating slotted
rings d. Nutating disc e. Sliding vanes f. Gear or lobed impellers g.
Reciprocating bellows h. Sealed-drum compartments The last three
of these are suitable for gas flow measurement. The head loss
devices obstruct the flow and cause a pressure drop, which is a
measure of flux: 1. Bernoulli-type devices a. Thin-plate orifice b.
Flow nozzle c. Venturi tube 2. Friction loss devices a. Capillary tube
b. Porous plug The friction loss meters cause a large nonrecoverable
head loss and obstruct the flow too much to be generally useful. Six
other widely used meters operate on different physical principles: 1 .
Turbine meter 2. Vortex meter 3. Ultrasonic flowmeter 4. Rotameter
5. Coriolis mass flowmeter 6. Laminar flow element Nutating Disc
Meter. For measuring liquid volumes, as opposed to volume rates,
the most common devices are the nutating disc and the turbine
meter. Figure 6.31 shows Fig. 6.31 Cutaway sketch of a nutating disc
fluid meter. A: metered-volume chamber; B: nutating disc; C:
rotating spindle; D: drive magnet; E: magnetic counter sensor.
(Courtesy of Badger Meter, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)
 6.12 Fluid Meters 415 Magnetic Fig. 6.32 The turbine meter
widely used in the oil, gas, and water supply industries: (a) basic
design; (b) typical calibration curve for a range of crude oils. ( Daniel
Industries, Houston, TX.) a cutaway sketch of a nutating disc meter,
widely used in both water and gasoline delivery systems. The
mechanism is clever and perhaps beyond the writer’s capability to
explain. The metering chamber is a slice of a sphere and contains a
rotating disc set at an angle to the incoming flow. The fluid causes
the disc to nutate (spin eccentrically), and one revolution
corresponds to a certain fluid volume passing through. Total volume
is obtained by counting the number of revolutions. Turbine Meter.
The turbine meter, sometimes called a propeller meter, is a freely
rotating propeller that can be installed in a pipeline. A typical design
is shown in Fig. 6.32a. There are flow straighteners upstream of the
rotor, and the rotation
 416 Chapter 6 Viscous Flow in Ducts Fig. 6.33 A
Commercial handheld wind velocity turbine meter. (Courtesy of
Nielsen- Kellerman Company.) is measured by electric or magnetic
pickup of pulses caused by passage of a point on the rotor. The rotor
rotation is approximately proportional to the volume flow in the pipe.
Like the nutating disc, a major advantage of the turbine meter is
that each pulse corresponds to a finite incremental volume of fluid,
and the pulses are digital and can be summed easily. Liquid flow
turbine meters have as few as two blades and produce a constant
number of pulses per unit fluid volume over a 5 : 1 flow rate range
with ± 0.25 percent accuracy. Gas meters need many blades to
produce sufficient torque and are accurate to ± 1 percent. Since
turbine meters are very individualistic, flow calibration is an absolute
necessity. A typical liquid meter calibration curve is shown in Fig.
632b. Researchers attempting to establish universal calibration
curves have met with little practical success as a result of
manufacturing variabilities. Turbine meters can also be used in
unconfined flow situations, such as winds or ocean currents. They
can be compact, even microsize with two or three component
directions. Figure 6.33 illustrates a handheld wind velocity meter
that uses a sevenbladed turbine with a calibrated digital output. The
accuracy of this device is quoted at ± 2 percent. Vortex Flowmeters.
Recall from Fig. 5.2 that a bluff body placed in a uniform crossflow
sheds alternating vortices at a nearly uniform Strouhal number St =
fLIU, where U is the approach velocity and L is a characteristic body
width. Since L and St are constant, this means that the shedding
frequency is proportional to velocity: /= (const)(C7) (6.100) The
vortex meter introduces a shedding element across a pipe flow and
picks up the shedding frequency downstream with a pressure,
ultrasonic, or heat transfer type of sensor. A typical design is shown
in Fig. 6.34.
 6.12 Fluid Meters 417 Fig. 6.34 A vortex flowmeter. (
Courtesy of Invensys p/c.) The advantages of a vortex meter are as
follows: 1. Absence of moving parts. 2. Accuracy to ± 1 percent over
a wide flow rate range (up to 100: 1). 3. Ability to handle very hot or
very cold fluids. 4. Requirement of only a short pipe length. 5.
Calibration insensitive to fluid density or viscosity. For further details
see Ref. 40. Ultrasonic Flowmeters. The sound-wave analog of the
laser velocimeter of Fig. 6.29 h is the ultrasonic flowmeter. Two
examples are shown in Fig. 6.35. The pulse-type flowmeter is shown
in Fig. 6.35a. Upstream piezoelectric transducer A is excited with a
short sonic pulse that propagates across the flow to downstream
transducer B. The arrival at B triggers another pulse to be created at
A, resulting in a regular pulse frequency fA. The same process is
duplicated in the reverse direction from B to A, creating frequency
fB. The difference /^ — fB is proportional to the flow rate. Figure
6.35/? shows a doppler-type arrangement, where sound waves from
transmitter T are scattered by particles or contaminants in the flow
to receiver R. Comparison of the two signals reveals a doppler
frequency shift that is proportional to the flow rate. Ultrasonic
meters are nonintrusive and can be directly attached to pipe flows in
the field
 418 Chapter 6 Viscous Flow in Ducts Fig. 6.35 Ultrasonic
flowmeters: (a) pulse type; ( b ) doppler-shift type (from Ref. 41);
(c) a portable noninvasive installation ( Courtesy of Thermo
Polysonics, Houston, TX.) (Fig. 6.35c). Their quoted uncertainty of ±
1 to 2 percent can rise to ± 5 percent or more due to irregularities in
velocity profile, fluid temperature, or Reynolds number. For further
details see Ref. 41. Rotameter. The variable-area transparent
rotameter of Fig. 6.36 has a float that, under the action of flow, rises
in the vertical tapered tube and takes a certain equilibrium position
for any given flow rate. A student exercise for the forces on the float
would yield the approximate relation Q = CdA. ( 2Wnet V
V^floatPlluid/ (6.101) where VTnet is the float’s net weight in the
fluid, Aa = Atube — Afloat is the annular area between the float and
the tube, and Cd is a dimensionless discharge coefficient of order
unity, for the annular constricted flow. For slightly tapered tubes, Aa
varies nearly linearly with the float position, and the tube may be
calibrated and marked with a flow rate scale, as in Fig. 6.36. The
rotameter thus provides a readily visible measure of the flow rate.
Capacity may be changed by using different-sized floats. Obviously
the tube must be vertical, and the device does not give accurate
readings for fluids containing high concentrations of bubbles or
particles. Coriolis Mass Flowmeter. Most commercial meters measure
volume flow, with mass flow then computed by multiplying by the
nominal fluid density. An attractive modern alternative is a mass
flowmeter, which operates on the principle of the Coriolis
 6.12 Fluid Meters 419 Fig. 6.36 A commercial rotameter.
The float rises in the tapered tube to an equilibrium position, which
is a measure of the fluid flow rate. (Courtesy of Blue White
Industries, Huntington Beach, CA.) acceleration associated with
noninertial coordinates [recall Fig. 3.11 and the Coriolis term 2(1 X V
in Eq. (3.48)]. The output of the meter is directly proportional to
mass flow. Figure 6.37 is a schematic of a Coriolis device, to be
inserted into a piping system. The flow enters a double-loop, double-
tube arrangement, which is electromagnetically vibrated at a high
natural frequency (amplitude < 1 mm and frequency > 100 Hz). The
up flow induces inward loop motion, while the down flow creates
outward loop motion, both due to the Coriolis effect. Sensors at both
ends register a phase difference that is proportional to mass flow.
Quoted accuracy is approximately ± 0.2 percent of full scale.
Laminar Flow Element. In many, perhaps most, commercial
flowmeters, the flow through the meter is turbulent and the variation
of flow rate with pressure drop is nonlinear. In laminar duct flow,
however, Q is linearly proportional to A p, as in Eq. (6.12): Q =
[ttR4/(8plL)] A p. Thus a laminar flow sensing element is attractive,
since its calibration will be linear. To ensure laminar flow for what
otherwise would be a turbulent condition, all or part of the fluid is
directed into small passages, each of which has a low (laminar)
Reynolds number. A honeycomb is a popular design. Figure 6.38
uses axial flow through a narrow annulus to effect laminar flow. The
theory again predicts Q^Ap, as in Eq. (6.73). However, the flow is
very sensitive to passage size; for example, halving the annulus
clearance increases A p more than eight times. Careful calibration is
thus necessary. In Fig. 6.38 the laminar flow concept has been
synthesized into a complete mass flow system, with temperature
control, differential pressure measurement, and a microprocessor all
self-contained. The accuracy of this device is rated at ± 0.2 percent.
Bernoulli Obstruction Theory. Consider the generalized flow
obstruction shown in Fig. 6.39. The flow in the basic duct of
diameter D is forced through an obstruction Fig. 6.37 A Coriolis mass
flowmeter. (Courtesy of ABB Instrumentation, Inc.)
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com