THE LATE STONE AGE PERIOD

The Late Stone Age was characterised by the use of bone, wood and stone tools. Tools
of the Late Stone Age were digging sticks, scrappers, clubs, flakes, stone tipped arrows,
hand axes and stone hammers.

Economic activities of the Late Stone Age

They hunted small animals like hares and teamed up for bigger ones like kudus and
impalas. They used snares to catch rabbits and they used traps catch big game like
buffaloes. They also used poisoned arrows to kill animals. They extracted poison from
reptiles such as snakes and from insects such as spiders and from scorpions.
They gathered wild fruits, roots, vegetables, and insects.
They caught fish using hooks made from bones.
They domesticated dogs

Social system of the Late Stone Age

They lived in caves.
They were nomadic, that is they moved from one place to another in search of animals,
fruits and the like.
They worked communally.
mThere was division of labour, for instance, women and children gathered while men
hunted.
They married a single wife.
They lived and travelled in small groups.
They had small families.

Political organisation of the Late Stone Age

There was no ruling class and subject people.
There were no states.
There was no a centralised political system.
They settled their disputes communally.
They were ruled by a family head.
THE CHANGES FROM LATE STONE AGE TO EARLY IRON AGE

Economic Changes during the Early Iron Age

People began to make iron tools like hoes, arrow heads, spear heads, axes, knives, iron
swords, fishing hooks and the like. These were more efficient than wood and stone tools
of the Stone Age.
Iron tools enabled people to cut trees and clear more land for agriculture.
They began to grow crops like sorghum and millet using iron tools.
Production of food resulted in surplus.
There was food security.
Hunting was improved by the use of iron tools which were more efficient than stone
tools.
Fishing was improved by the use of iron fishing hooks. They began to catch fish on a
large scale.
They began to domesticate animals like cattle, goats and sheep along river valleys.
They began to mine minerals like gold, copper, iron and tin, lead and silver.
They began to trade in gold, iron and ivory as well as with surplus products.
They began to raid each other for grain and cattle.
They began to pay tribute to the chiefs in form of grain, cattle, ivory and iron tools.
Basketry was introduced. They wove baskets like the winnowing basket.
Pottery was introduced. They made clay pots to carry and store water and milk.

Animals kept by the Early Iron Age People

Cattle -Goats
Sheep -Pigs
Cats -Chicken
Donkeys -Dogs

Tools used during the Early Iron Age

Iron axes -Iron hoes
Iron spear heads -Iron arrow heads
Iron mattocks -Iron swords
Iron knives -Iron fishing hooks

Crops grown by the Early Iron Age people

Sorghum -Finger millet
Bulrush millet -Pearl millet
Cowpeas -Beans
Gourds -Rapoko
Melons -Pumpkins
Crafts practised by the Early Iron Agers
Weaving -Basketry
Pottery -Blacksmithing
Leather work -Stone carving
Wood carving -Drum making
Making jewellery

Minerals mined by the Early Iron Agers

Gold -Copper
Iron -Lead
Tin -Silver

Social Changes during the Early Iron Age

Availability of food resulted in a rise in population.

They began to build permanent shelters of pole and dagga.
Polygamy was practiced. This was due to production of surplus.
They began to pay lobola to their in-laws in form of cattle and iron tools.
Cattle were a symbol of status.
There was clear division of labour, women cultivated crops while men hunted and
herded.
There was specialisation in areas such as mining, blacksmithing, weaving, basketry,
trade, fishing and hunting.
They began to live in large groups of about 200 people.
Classes emerged as some became rich whilst others remained poor.
Exploitation of men by men became more apparent, for example, those with many cattle
employed those without as herd boys.
There was development of cattle loaning system [kuronzera].
They began to bury the dead in graves.
There was emergence of religious ceremonies such as rain making ceremony.

Political Changes during the Early Iron Age

They lived in clans.

There was emergence of chiefs and headmen.
Chiefs and headmen made laws.
Chiefs and headmen distributed land to the people.
Subjects paid tribute to the chiefs to show loyalty.
Chiefs controlled trade.
Stronger chiefs began to raid weaker ones.
Chiefs and headmen judged cases.
Chiefs led at religious ceremonies

Benefits of these changes to the communities of Southern Africa

The iron agers had more food and balanced diet [meat, milk and grain].
They were able to clear more land for crop cultivation.
They began to settle at one place.
They began to build more permanent shelters.
They were able to kill larger animals due to efficient iron tools.
Trade developed as a source of foreign goods.
They had better weapons.

Negative Effects of these changes to communities of Southern Africa

There as competition for hunting grounds, pastures and land for cultivation.
Classes began to emerge-lower classes were exploited.
Women were exploited as they were given more arduous tasks like crop cultivation.
They began to raid each other for cattle and grain.
The manufacture of iron tools promoted warfare and increased killing rate of animals.
Poor classes in weaker societies began to pay tribute in form of labour, cattle and grain
to stronger and wealthy political units.

Contribution of iron technology to the rise of classes within the societies in Southern
Africa
Iron technology engendered [resulted in] surplus production and emergence of haves
and have nots.
Iron technology led to the emergence of miners, blacksmiths and traders as separate
classes.
Surplus production begot [resulted in] polygamy, a source of labour.
Craft workers such as potters, weavers, basket makers and the like, could concentrate
on their work.

Other factors which led to emergence of classes

Lineage and clan leaders developed into ruling classes.
Defeat in wars resulted in vassalage.
Trade before iron technology also contributed.
Charisma of people made them candidates for leadership

Contribution of Iron Age Changes to development of chiefdoms in this period

Cattle loaning led to extension of political influence.
Surplus grain led to rise in status and need to control areas with valuable resources
such as gold and ivory.
The growth of larger communities necessitated the rise of chiefdoms to maintain law
and order in the community.
Polygamy promoted marriage alliances.
Desire to control trade routes led to rise of chiefdoms.
Other factors which led to the development of chiefdoms
Rise of ambitious leaders
Military prowess leading to conquest of other people
The desire to collect tribute
The desire for protection from invaders

THE CHANGES FROM EARLY IRON AGE TO LATE IRON AGE

Political Changes during the Late Iron Age

There was formation of states like Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and Rozvi
There was emergence of kingship.
The king was the head of the state.
Kingship was hereditary.
The king was the chief judge.
The king was the religious leader.
The king controlled trade.
All subjects began to pay tribute to the king to show loyalty.
The king kept an army for raiding and for defence.
The king levied fines to his subjects who misbehaved.
Wars were arising out of disputes over succession.
The king appointed chiefs.

Contribution of trade to state formation

Communities fought to control resources or trade like gold mines and forests with
elephants, leading to formation of large states.
Communities fought to control trade routes and expanded states.
Rulers demanded tribute in form of valuable commodities.
Wealth and power developed from trade.

Other factors which led to formation of states

The rise of ambitious leaders
Succession disputes
State formation resulted from the need to control fertile soils and pastures.
Loaning of cattle to other communities led to spread of political influence.
Polygamy was an important source of labour and power.
Strong armies helped in state formation.

Importance of the king’s role in the Shona states during the Late Iron Age
The king had overall authority.
The king appointed chiefs.
The provided security to his people.
The king gave royal fire to the chiefs.
The king commanded the army.
The king distributed land to the people.
The king controlled trade.
The king was the religious leader.
The king was the chief judge.

mimm

Other factors important in the Shona states during the Late Iron Age

Spirit mediums that chose and installed the kings

The army defended the state, protected the king and collected tribute
The army commander was also important
Council of advisers was also important
The ordinary people were also important for their allegiance

Social Changes during the Late Iron Age

They began to build more permanent settlements.

During this period there began to appear stone buildings.
They began to prefer to settle near water sites and hills.
They preferred good farming lands and defensive sites.
There was an increase in the size of settled villages.
They believed in God [Mwari].
They believed in spirit mediums and ancestral spirits.

Economic Changes during the Late Iron Age

They reared animals like cattle, goats and sheep on a large scale.
They cultivated crops like sorghum, millet and Rapoko on a large scale.
They began to store grain for a long time in granaries.
There was a clear association of wealth, cattle and social status.
External trade became more pronounced.
There was an increase in minerals mined.
Hunting and gathering continued but became less important as people mainly
concentrated on crop cultivation and animal rearing.
Subjects began to pay tribute to the king in form of cattle, grain and the like.
They raided weaker states for grin and cattle.

Importance of cattle to the Late Iron Age communities of Southern Africa

Cattle ownership was a status symbol.
Cattle were a source of food such as milk and meat.
Cattle were slaughtered on special occasions such as ritual ceremonies.
Cattle skins were used for making drums, shields and leather clothes.
Cattle were used for paying lobola.
They were loaned so as to establish political influence.
They were used for paying tribute.
For paying fines
For trade
For transport
Draught power
For inheritance
Embodiment of spirits
For paying avenging sprits [Ngozi]
For manure

Importance of trade to the Late Iron Age communities of Southern Africa

People of Southern Africa traded locally and externally. Items traded were cattle, grain,
iron tools, ornaments, pottery and the like.
They imported glass beads, cloth, sea shells, guns and the like.
Glass beads were a sign of status.
Powerful rulers conquered new areas to control resources for trade in gold, ivory and
trade routes.
Rulers demanded tribute in form of trade commodities, grew rich and powerful.
Trade brought influence of foreigners like Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese.
The king distributed trade items to reward subjects and lesser chiefs.
Trade unified people.

Minerals mined during the Late Iron Age

Gold -Copper
Iron -Lead
Zinc -Silver
Tin -Coal
Salt -Diamonds
Chrome -Nickel
Lithium -Platinum
Asbestos
-Emeralds
Uses of gold during the Late Iron Age
Trade -status symbol
Payment of tribute -making jewellery like bangles and ear rings
Problems faced by miners during the Late Iron Age Period
Flooding of mines in the rain season -loss of lives
Poor mining tools -they used slow methods of mining
Collapse of mines