Handbook of Automotive Human Factors 1st Edition

Motoyuki Akamatsu (Editor) pdf download

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-automotive-human-
factors-1st-edition-motoyuki-akamatsu-editor/

Download more ebook instantly today - get yours now at textbookfull.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit textbookfull.com
to discover even more!

Handbook of Human Factors in Air Transportation Systems

1st Edition Steven James Landry

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-human-factors-in-
air-transportation-systems-1st-edition-steven-james-landry/

Handbook of Human Factors for Automated, Connected, and

Intelligent Vehicles 1st Edition Donald L. Fisher
(Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-human-factors-for-
automated-connected-and-intelligent-vehicles-1st-edition-donald-
l-fisher-editor/

Aviation and Human Factors: How to Incorporate Human

Factors into the Field 1st Edition Jose Sanchez-Alarcos
(Author)

https://textbookfull.com/product/aviation-and-human-factors-how-
to-incorporate-human-factors-into-the-field-1st-edition-jose-
sanchez-alarcos-author/

Human factors and ergonomics of prehospital emergency

care 1st Edition Joseph R. Keebler

https://textbookfull.com/product/human-factors-and-ergonomics-of-
prehospital-emergency-care-1st-edition-joseph-r-keebler/
Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance 1st Edition
Demetris Yiannakides (Author)

https://textbookfull.com/product/human-factors-in-aircraft-
maintenance-1st-edition-demetris-yiannakides-author/

Human Factors of Outer Space Production T. Stephen

Cheston (Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/human-factors-of-outer-space-
production-t-stephen-cheston-editor/

Safety, Reliability, Human Factors, and Human Error in

Nuclear Power Plants 1st Edition B.S. Dhillon

https://textbookfull.com/product/safety-reliability-human-
factors-and-human-error-in-nuclear-power-plants-1st-edition-b-s-
dhillon/

Aviation Psychology and Human Factors, Second Edition

Monica Martinussen

https://textbookfull.com/product/aviation-psychology-and-human-
factors-second-edition-monica-martinussen/

Advances in Human Factors of Transportation:

Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference
on Human Factors in Transportation, July 24-28, 2019,
Washington D.C., USA Neville Stanton
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-human-factors-of-
transportation-proceedings-of-the-ahfe-2019-international-
conference-on-human-factors-in-transportation-
Handbook of Automotive
Human Factors

Edited by:
Motoyuki Akamatsu
Automotive Human Factors Research Center, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan

For:
Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc.

p,
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

Version Date: 20190311

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-367-20357-3 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the
validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the
copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let
us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted,
or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, includ-
ing photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written
permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com
(http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers,
MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety
of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment
has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Akamatsu, Motoyuki, 1955- editor.
Title: Handbook of automotive human factors / editor Motoyuki Akamatsu
(Automotive Human Factors Research Center, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan, for
Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc.).
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2019. | “A
science publishers book.’’ | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019010287 | ISBN 9780367203573 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Automobile driving--Human factors. | Automobile
driving--Physiological aspects. | Automobiles--Design and construction. |
Human engineering.
Classification: LCC TL250 .H285 2019 | DDC 629.2/31--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019010287

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
 Foreword

Motoyuki Akamatsu goes by Moto, an apt name given his interest in motor vehicles.
Over the decades I have known Moto, I have continued to be impressed with his vast
knowledge of the history of motor vehicle development, his grasp of fundamental
human factors issues, his insights into how Japanese culture influences research and
implementation, and with the rigor of his research. About 10 years ago Moto and I
collaborated (with others) on a strategic review of human factors activities at Nissan
and Renault. After one of those meetings, our hosts took us to a car museum near
Paris, and the background knowledge Moto provided was impressive. Several years
ago, we collaborated on a paper on the history of automotive factors (Akamatsu et al.,
2013). Collectively, these interactions set up high expectations, and of course, Moto’s
book delivers as expected.
Moto’s book contains 6 chapters that complement the existing literature. The
first chapter is an overview of automotive human factors, emphasizing contemporary
issues. The second chapter concerns the automotive development process, primarily
from the view of a researcher. It emphasizes commonly used tools and methods
(surveys, simulators, on-road testing). This material is extremely valuable,
particularly to researchers beginning in this field. Those interested in the development
process should also look at the literature on user experience methods (journey maps,
personas, use cases, etc.) given the widespread use in the auto industry. The third
chapter concerns occupant comfort and interior quality, a topic that receives scant
attention in automotive human factors conferences or journals, but is of great internal
interest to automotive manufacturers and suppliers, as comfort and interior quality
often determine what customers buy. Those interested in this topic should look at
the literature on Quality Function Deployment (QFD)/House of Quality, literature
so substantial that it would have been difficult to cram into this chapter. Chapter 4
concerns driver state, which now is a critical topic given increasing interest in the
automation of driving. A well-studied issue is transfer of control, a topic for which this
chapter provides valuable background. Chapter 5 concerns 4 topics: driver workload,
driver interfaces, distraction measurement, and driver assistance systems, and is the
longest chapter in the book. Chapter 6, concerning driver models, includes some
important models that are not commonly covered in automotive human factors texts.
In a foreword, one is encouraged to proclaim that a tome is the greatest volume
since the Bible/Quran/etc. Moto’s book is quite useful, but not at that biblical level.
Probably the best overall reference on automotive human factors is Bhise’s (2016)
book (Ergonomics in the Automotive Design Process), which incorporates much
of what Bhise learned during his long career at Ford. Moto’s book was written to
iv Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

complement Bhise’s book, which it does quite well. Moto’s book also complements
Peacock and Karwowski (1993), a now dated and less comprehensive alternative to
Bhise’s book.
So, what are the alternatives to Moto’s book? Quite frankly, there is nothing that
blends applications and research as this book does except for Gkikas (2013), which is
a useful edited collection of chapters, but not as well integrated as Moto’s book, as it
is not of a single mind.
There are also several books that focus on contemporary issues. They include
Cacciabue’s (2007) edited book on modeling driver performance and 3 books
concerned with driver distraction—Regan et al. (2009)—the widely cited classic,
Rupp’s 2010 book on distraction measurement, and Regan et al. (2013), one of the
more recent collections. Somewhat related is the Walker et al. (2015) edited volume
that also deals with advanced vehicle technology. Finally, 2 other references worthy of
note are Fisher et al. (2011), an encyclopedic book on driving simulation and Smiley
(2015), one of many books on the forensic aspects of traffic safety from Lawyers and
Judges Publishing.
So, what should one have on their bookshelf and read? I would start with Bhise
and then read Moto Akamatsu’s book. After that, it would depend on what one is
interested in—new technology in general, distraction, driving simulation, or some
other topic. In addition, I would also strongly encourage everyone to read SAE
Recommended Practice J2944 (Operational Definitions of Driving Performance
Measures and Statistics).

References
Akamatsu, M., P. Green and K. Bengler. (2013). Automotive technology and human factors research:
Past, present, and future. International Journal of Vehicular Technology.
Bhise, V.D. (2016). Ergonomics in the Automotive Design Process. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Cacciabue, P.C. (2007). Modelling Driver Behaviour in Automotive Environments: Critical Issues in
Driver Interactions with Intelligent Transport Systems. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag New
York.
Gkikas, N. (2016). Automotive Ergonomics: Driver-Vehicle Interaction. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Peacock, B. and W. Karwowski (eds.). (1993). Automotive Ergonomics. London, England: Taylor &
Francis.
Regan, M.A., J.D. Lee and K. Young. (2008). Driver Distraction: Theory, Effects, and Mitigation.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Regan, M.A., J.D. Lee and T.W. Victor. (2013). Driver Distraction and Inattention. Ashgate.
Rupp, G. (2010). Performance Metrics for Assessing Driver Distraction. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers.
Smiley, A. (2015). Human Factors in Traffic Safety (3rd ed.). Tucson, AZ: Lawyers and Judges.
Society of Automotive Engineers. (2015). Operational Definitions of Driving Performance Measures
and Statistics (SAE Recommended Practice J2944), Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive
Engineers.
Walker, G.H. and N.A. Stanton. (2017). Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and Technology.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Walker, G.H., N.A. Stanton and P.M. Salmon. (2015). Human Factors in Automotive Engineering and
Technology. Ashgate.
Paul Green
University of Michigan
 Preface

This book comes about as a result of the translation of a part of the Automotive Human
Factors of Automotive Engineering Handbook published by the Society of Automotive
Engineers of Japan (JSAE) in March 2016 in Japanese. It is financially supported by
the Automotive Human Factors Research Center (AHFRC) of the National Institute
of Advanced Science and Technology (AIST) of Japan. The selecting, compiling and
editing works have been accomplished by the editor who is a prime senior researcher
of AHFRC. The original articles were written by 37 Japanese authors who are experts
on automotive human factors in research institutes, universities and industries.
Human-centered design is a key issue in automotive technology nowadays.
Improvement in technology enables us to design driver assistance systems and in-
vehicle infotainment systems, cabin interiors and drive ability with greater flexibility
to meet human needs, functionalities and activities (human-centered design). In order
to achieve it, a wide range of knowledge about humans is required in the design and
development process. Knowledge about humans includes human sensory and motor
functions, cognitive functions, physiology and homeostatic functions, mental state,
behavioral characteristics and so on. However, it is not easy for automotive engineers
to learn and master all related disciplines and understand how to apply them by only
reading relevant textbooks. Therefore, there is a need to have a complete book that
compiles appropriate topics.
The Handbook of Automotive Human Factors aims to provide basic knowledge
about measurement and modeling of human functions and research and practices
related to automotive human factors. This book offers valuable lessons for researchers,
designers and developers for further research and development of human-centered
design of future automotive technologies. Some of the contents of the book are well
established and some are state-of-the-art. This book covers the following human
factors issues: driver state, sensory comfort (Kansei), interactions with systems and
driver behavior. It does not cover seating/packaging, displays/controls, visibility and
cabin climate because there have already been several books regarding these topics.
Chapter 1 reviews the history of automotive ergonomics and human factors and
indicates future issues. Chapter 2 describes the role of ergonomics and human factors in
the automobile design process and gives methodologies to understand the driver using
questionnaires, measurements using driving simulators and equipped vehicles and
sociological approaches. Chapter 3 presents experiences of sound design for vehicles,
ride quality and illumination for cabin comfort. Chapter 4 discusses driver state such
vi Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

as fatigue, workload, arousal level and enjoyment of driving, and their measurement
methods. Chapter 5 describes HMI design and evaluation of in-vehicle systems and
ADAS/automated driving systems. Chapter 6 explains characteristics and modeling
of drivers’ behavior that will be key issues in the future for designing human-centered
ADAS and other systems to support/assist drivers and extend drivers’ ability.
Motoyuki Akamatsu, Editor
January 2019
 Contents

Foreword iii
Preface v

1. Overview of Automotive Ergonomics and Human Factors 1

1.1 Ergonomics and Human Factors for Making Products and Systems 1
Compatible with Humans
1.2 Beginning of Human-compatible Automobile Design 1
1.3 Vehicle Cabin Design 3
1.4 Instruments and Displays 4
1.4.1 Instrument Arrangement 4
1.4.2 Meters and Displays 5
1.4.3 Controls 6
1.5 Riding Comfort and Fatigue 7
1.5.1 Fatigue 7
1.5.2 Vibration 8
1.5.3 Arousal Level 9
1.6 Vehicle Interior Environment 9
1.7 Driving Tasks and Non-driving Tasks 10
1.7.1 In-vehicle Systems 10
1.7.2 Non-driving Activities like Using Mobile Phones 11
1.7.3 Visual Distraction 11
1.7.4 Mental Workload and Cognitive Distraction 12
1.8 Driver Model and Driving Behavior Measurement 13
1.8.1 Driver Model 13
1.8.2 Driving Behavior Measurement 13
1.8.2.1 Site-based Measurement 13
1.8.2.2 Driving Simulators 14
1.8.2.3 Equipped Vehicles and Naturalistic Driving Study 15
1.9 Driving-assistance Systems/Automated Driving Systems 15
1.9.1 ACC/Lane-keeping Systems 15
1.9.2 Automated Driving Systems 16
1.10 Elderly Drivers 17
1.11 Positive Aspects of Automobile Driving 18
1.11.1 Enjoyment and Growth 18
1.11.2 Stress Relief 20
viii Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

1.12 Future of Automobile Ergonomics: Viewpoint of Service 21

Engineering for Providing Value to Users
References 22

2. Ergonomic and Human Factors in Automobile Design and 32

Development Process
2.1 Ergonomists’ Roles and Responsibilities in Automobile Design 32
and Development
2.1.1 Ergonomics for Automobiles 32
2.1.2 Development Process 33
2.1.3 Identifying Out User Requirements 33
2.1.4 Ergonomics in Design Stage 34
2.1.5 Ergonomics in Assessment Stage 35
2.1.6 Feedback from Users 35
2.1.7 Designing User’s Manual 36
2.2 Surveys for Understanding Users in Design Stage 37
2.2.1 Viewpoints for Considering Target Users 37
2.2.2 Observation-based Approach 38
2.2.2.1 Knowing User Requirements 38
2.2.2.2 Behavior Observation 38
2.2.2.3 Ethnographical Methods 38
2.2.2.4 Task Analysis 40
2.2.3 Questionnaire and Interview Approach 41
2.2.3.1 Objectives of Questionnaires and Interviews 41
2.2.3.2 Selecting Survey Methods 41
2.2.3.3 Designing Paper Questionnaires and Interviews 42
2.2.3.4 Depth Interview Method 43
2.2.3.5 Group Interview 44
2.3 Driving Behavior Measurement 44
2.3.1 Driving Behavior Measurement Using Driving Simulators 44
2.3.1.1 Objectives of Using Driving Simulators 44
2.3.1.2 Basic Configuration of Driving Simulators 45
2.3.1.3 Classification of Driving Simulators 46
2.3.1.4 Driving Simulator Sickness 48
2.3.1.5 Other Tips for Use in Driving Simulators 49
2.3.2 Driving Behavior Measurement Using Instrumented Vehicles 50
2.3.2.1 Instrumented Vehicle 50
2.3.2.2 Measurement Environment 52
2.3.2.2.1 Measurement on a Test Track 52
2.3.2.2.2 Measurement on Real Roads 52
2.3.2.3 FOT and NDS 53
2.3.3 Driving Behavior Analysis Using Drive Recorders 53
2.3.3.1 Drive Recorder Specifications 53
2.3.3.2 Recording Driving Behavior 54
2.3.3.2.1 Face Direction 54
2.3.3.2.2 Recording Traffic Conditions 56
 Contents ix

2.3.3.3 Data Recording Methods 56

2.3.3.3.1 Event Trigger Methods 56
2.3.3.3.2 Continuous Recording Methods 56
2.3.3.4 Examples of Drive Recorder Data Analysis 56
2.3.3.4.1 Time Series Analysis Using Variation 56
Tree Analysis
2.3.3.4.2 Analyzing a Series of Background Factors 58
References 59

3. Comfort and Quality 62

3.1 Occupant Comfort During Vehicle Run 62
3.1.1 Vibration and Comfort 62
3.1.1.1 Basic Vibration Measurement and Evaluation Methods 63
3.1.1.2 Riding Comfort Evaluation by Phenomenon 64
3.1.1.3 Method for Estimating the Vibration of the Seat 64
when an Occupant is Sitting
3.1.2 Comfort of the Seat 65
3.1.2.1 Seat Structure and Vibration Absorption Properties 66
3.1.2.1.1 Transmission of Vibration through the Seat 66
3.1.2.1.2 Issues on the Measurement of the 66
Vibration of the Seat
3.1.2.1.3 Seat Structure and Specific Characteristics 66
of Vibration
3.1.2.1.4 Vibration Characteristics of the Parts of Seat 67
3.1.2.1.5 Changes in the Characteristics of Vibrations 68
on People
3.1.2.2 Body Movements Caused by Acceleration 68
3.1.2.3 Support Performance of the Seat 69
3.1.2.3.1 Lateral Movements 69
3.1.2.3.2 Movements of the Head 70
3.1.2.3.3 Support by the Seat during Driving 70
3.1.3 Vibration and Driving Performance 70
3.2 Acoustic Comfort 75
3.2.1 Design of the Engine Sound 75
3.2.1.1 Acoustic Characteristics that Influence Sound Design 75
3.2.1.2 Order Composition of Sounds 75
3.2.1.2.1 Orders and Generation Mechanism 75
(1) Engine sound 75
(2) Suction sound 76
(3) Exhaust sound 77
3.2.1.2.2 Relationship of the Order Composition 77
and the Impression of the Sound
3.2.1.3 Control of the Sound 77
3.2.1.3.1 Method that Uses Components 78
of the Vehicle
3.2.1.3.2 Method that Uses Devices for Creating 78
Sounds
x Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

3.2.1.4 Sound Evaluation Methods 79

3.2.2 Sound of the Door Closing 79
3.2.2.1 Need for Research on Door Sounds 79
3.2.2.2 Mechanism of Door Closing Sounds 80
3.2.2.3 Conditions for Good Door Closing Sound 81
3.2.2.3.1 Arranging the Distribution of Frequency 81
3.2.2.3.2 Adding Reverberation Effects: It is 81
Effective to give Two Sounds with the
Same Frequency Components
3.2.2.4 How to Realize It 82
3.2.2.4.1 Method of Producing Sounds of Low 82
Frequency
3.2.2.4.2 How to Produce the Two Successive Sounds 82
3.2.2.5 Other Considerations 83
3.3 Cabin Air Quality 83
3.3.1 Smells in the Interior of the Vehicle 83
3.3.1.1 Sensory Evaluation 83
3.3.1.2 Instrumental Analysis 84
3.3.1.3 Odor Sensors 85
3.3.1.4 Odor Control 85
3.3.2 Effects of Fragrance 86
3.3.2.1 Perception Mechanism of Smells 86
3.3.2.2 Emotional and Physiological Effects of Fragrances 87
3.3.2.3 Future of Vehicles and Smells 88
3.4 Visual Environment of Vehicle Interior 88
3.4.1 Function and Design of Vehicle Interior Lighting 88
3.4.1.1 Types of Lighting 88
3.4.1.2 Requirements for Functional Lighting Design 89
and a Study Example
3.4.1.3 Map and Reading Lamps 90
3.4.1.4 Vanity Lamps 90
3.4.2 Comfort Provided by Vehicle Interior Lighting 91
3.4.2.1 Effect of Shape and Brightness of Light Source 91
on People’s Impression of Vehicle Comfort and
Spaciousness
3.4.2.2 Poor Visibility of Vehicle Interior from Outside 93
3.5 Interior Materials 94
3.5.1 Evaluation Criteria for Interior Material 94
3.5.2 Gripping Functions 94
3.5.2.1 Functions of Vehicle Operation System 94
3.5.2.2 Grips that Support Drivers/Passengers with 95
Physical Stability
3.5.2.3 Gripping Functions of Non-grip Parts 95
3.5.3 Effect of Sweat 95
3.5.4 Difference in Skin Structure Among Body Parts 96
3.5.5 Stickiness 96
 Contents xi

3.5.6 Thermal Sensation 97

3.5.7 Breathable Seat Materials and Structures 98
3.5.8 Texture and Durability 98
References 98

4. Driver State 102

4.1 Driving Fatigue, Workload, and Stress 102
4.1.1 Stress and Strain 102
4.1.2 Driver Fatigue 103
4.1.3 Mental Workload and Tasks 104
4.1.4 Mental Workload Described in ISO 10075 105
4.1.5 Task Demand, Mental Resource and Fatigue 107
4.1.6 Difference Between the Concept of Mental Workload 107
and the Concept of Stress/Strain
4.1.7 Driver’s Stress 108
4.2 Enjoyment Generated by Automobiles 109
4.2.1 Utility of Automobile Use 109
4.2.2 Automobiles as a Tool for Stimulating Emotions 110
4.2.3 Flow Theory of Csikszentmihalyi 110
4.2.4 Flow and Increase of Skills 112
4.2.5 Flow and the Zone 113
4.2.6 Effects of Feelings of Enjoyment 114
4.2.7 Subjective Well-being and Automobiles 114
4.3 Arousal Level 115
4.3.1 Arousal Level and Sleepiness 115
4.3.2 Sleepiness Measurement Methods 117
4.3.2.1 Sleep Propensity 117
4.3.2.2 Vigilance 118
4.3.2.3 Subjective Sleepiness 120
4.3.3 Arousal Level Measurement 121
4.3.3.1 Driving Behavior 121
4.3.3.2 EEG 121
4.3.3.3 Rating Based on Facial Expressions 121
4.3.3.4 Pupil Diameter 122
4.3.3.5 Eye Movement 122
4.3.3.5.1 Saccade 122
4.3.3.5.2 Slow Eye Movement 123
4.3.3.5.3 Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) 123
4.3.3.6 Eyelid Activity 123
4.3.3.6.1 PERCLOS 123
4.3.3.6.2 Integrated Indices of Eye-related Measures 124
4.3.3.7 Heart Rate 126
4.3.3.8 Summary 126
4.3.4 Arousal-enhancing Technology 126
4.3.4.1 Sleepiness and Arousal Level 126
4.3.4.2 Counter Measures against Sleepiness, Napping 128
xii Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

4.3.4.3 Counter Measure against Sleepiness, Other 129

than Napping
4.3.4.4 Summary 130
4.4 Techniques for Measuring/Analyzing Physical Conditions 130
4.4.1 Significance of Introducing Biosignal Measurement 130
4.4.1.1 Purpose of Biosignal Measurement 130
4.4.1.2 Activities of an Organism and Biological Systems 131
4.4.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biological 131
Measurement
4.4.1.4 Potential of Biosignal Measurement 132
4.4.2 Indices of Central Nervous System Activity 132
4.4.2.1 Electroencephalogram (EEG) 133
4.4.2.2 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 135
4.4.2.3 Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) 135
4.4.2.4 Critical Flicker Fusion Frequency (CFF) 139
4.4.3 Indices Relating to the Visual System 139
4.4.3.1 Eye Movement 140
4.4.3.2 Visual Field 142
4.4.3.3 Eye Blink 143
4.4.3.4 Pupil 143
4.4.4 Indices of Autonomic Nervous System Activity 144
4.4.4.1 Heart Rate 144
4.4.4.2 Heart Rate Variability (HRV) Indices 145
4.4.4.3 Blood Pressure and Pulse Waves 146
4.4.4.4 Respiration 146
4.4.4.5 Electrodermal Activity 147
4.4.4.6 Skin Temperature 148
4.4.5 Facial Expression 148
4.4.5.1 Anatomy of Mimetic Muscles 148
4.4.5.2 Relationship Between Facial Expression and Emotion 149
4.4.5.3 Techniques for Estimating Emotions Based on 151
Facial Images
4.4.5.4 Relationship Between Facial Expression and 152
Driver States
4.4.5.5 Application of Facial Expressions to Automobile 152
and Future Challenges
4.4.6 Biochemical Reactions 152
References 155

5. Driver and System Interaction 162

5.1 Mental Workload while Using In-vehicle System 162
5.1.1 Workload Measurement Using Questionnaires 162
5.1.1.1 Cooper-Harper Rating Scale 162
5.1.1.2 NASA-TLX 162
5.1.1.3 SWAT 164
5.1.1.4 Workload Profile Method (WP) 166
5.1.1.5 Rating Scale Mental Effort (RSME) 167
 Contents xiii

5.1.2 Mental Workload Assessment Using the Subsidiary 168

Task Method
5.1.2.1 Two Types of Subsidiary Tasks 169
5.1.2.2 Psychological Concepts Related to the Subsidiary 169
Task Method
5.1.2.3 Example of Application of Subsidiary Task Method 171
5.1.3 Workload Measurement Based on Driving Performance 172
5.1.3.1 Overview 172
5.1.3.2 Steering Entropy (SE) Method 173
5.1.3.3 Real-time Steering Entropy (RSE) Method 175
5.1.3.4 Summary 178
5.2 HMI of In-car Information Systems 178
5.2.1 Interaction with a System 178
5.2.1.1 Design of Interaction 179
5.2.1.2 Tactile Feedback 179
5.2.1.3 Audio Interface 179
5.2.1.4 Integrated Controller 180
5.2.1.5 Internet Connection of In-car Devices 180
5.2.2 Route Navigation and Map Display 181
5.2.2.1 Volume of Graphic Information 181
5.2.2.2 Mental Map 181
5.2.2.3 Expression of Maps 183
5.2.2.4 Displaying Roads 184
5.2.2.5 Displaying Background 184
5.2.2.6 Presenting Text 185
5.2.2.7 Presenting Landmarks 186
5.2.2.8 Displaying Remaining Distance/Estimated 186
Required Time
5.2.2.9 Displaying Routes 187
5.2.2.9.1 Turn by Turn Display 187
5.2.2.9.2 Route Display 187
5.2.2.9.3 Traffic Lane Display 188
5.2.2.9.4 Crossing Macrograph 188
5.2.2.9.5 Highway Map 188
5.2.2.9.6 Manoeuver List 188
5.2.2.9.7 Guide Information to Support Safe Driving 190
5.2.2.10 Display of Traffic Information 190
5.2.3 Design of Menus 191
5.2.3.1 Menu-based Interaction 192
5.2.3.1.1 Fundamental Principles 192
5.2.3.1.2 Presentation and Selection of Menu Items 193
5.2.3.1.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Menu-based 193
Interaction
5.2.3.2 Design Guidelines 193
5.2.3.3 Evaluation Methods for Menu Designs 194
5.3 Assessment of Driver Distraction 194
5.3.1 Definition of Distraction 194
5.3.1.1 Characteristics of Attention and Related Definitions 195
xiv Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

5.3.1.2 Distraction 196

5.3.1.2.1 Suggested Definitions 196
5.3.1.2.2 Relation to Inattention 196
5.3.1.2.3 Relation to Arousal Level and Workload 196
5.3.1.3 Conclusion 197
5.3.2 Assumptions for Distraction Assessment 197
5.3.2.1 Information Processing and Distraction 197
5.3.2.2 Ideas and Types of Assessment Methods 198
5.3.2.2.1 Requirements for Assessment Methods 198
5.3.2.2.2 Types of Assessment Methods 199
(1) Primary task measurement and 199
secondary (subsidiary) task
measurement
(2) Assumptions and notes for the 199
secondary task measurement
(3) Secondary task measurement and 199
dual task measurement
(4) Primary task and subsidiary/ 200
additional task
5.3.2.2.3 Conclusion 200
5.3.3 Visual-Manual Distraction Assessment 201
5.3.3.1 Direct Assessment 201
5.3.3.1.1 Visual Behavior 201
5.3.3.1.2 Driving Performance 203
5.3.3.2 Occlusion Method 205
5.3.4 Cognitive Distraction Assessment 206
5.3.4.1 Lane Change Test (LCT Method) 206
5.3.4.2 Detection Response Task (DRT Method) 208
5.3.4.3 Physiological Index 209
5.3.5 Reference Tasks in Distraction Assessment 210
5.3.5.1 Item Recognition Task 210
5.3.5.2 N-back Task 211
5.3.5.3 Calibration Task 212
5.3.5.4 Conclusion 213
5.3.6 Use of Cellular Phone while Driving 213
5.4 Interaction with Advanced Driver Assistance Systems 215
5.4.1 Presentation and Management of Information 215
5.4.1.1 Design of Warning Signal 215
5.4.1.1.1 Warning 215
5.4.1.1.2 Warning Compliance 215
5.4.1.1.3 Expected Driver’s Response 216
5.4.1.1.4 Warning Level and Warning Design 217
(1) Criticality and urgency 217
(2) Warning level 217
5.4.1.1.5 Basic Requirements for Warning Designs 218
(1) Visual presentation of warnings 218
(2) Impression given by the design of 219
warning signals
 Contents xv

5.4.1.2 Influence of the Warning Signal on the Driver 221

Behavior
5.4.1.2.1 Assessment of Effectiveness of the 221
Warning System on the Avoidance
of Danger
5.4.1.2.2 Hazard Avoidance Scenarios of 222
Experiments
(1) Effectiveness of warning systems 222
(2) Assessment of the warning signal 222
5.4.1.2.3 Assessment of the Compliance with 223
Warning/alerting Systems
(1) Compliance 223
(2) Example of assessment of 223
effectiveness of seat belts reminders
5.4.1.3 Priority and Management of In-vehicle Information 225
5.4.1.3.1 Need for Information Management 225
5.4.1.3.2 Information Importance 226
5.4.1.3.3 Message Management 227
(1) Selection and integration of the 227
message to be presented (priority
management)
(2) Design consistency between 229
messages from different systems
(3) Display management 229
(4) Presentation style management 229
(5) Time management 229
5.4.1.4 Estimation of the Driving Demand or Workload 229
for Message Management
5.4.1.4.1 Workload Manager in Information 229
Management
5.4.1.4.2 Estimation of the Driving Demand 230
based on the Road Traffic Environment
5.4.1.4.3 Estimation based on Automotive Sensor 231
Signals of Driving Demand in Road
Traffic Environment
5.4.1.4.4 Estimation of the Driving Workload in 233
Real-time based on Sensor Signals
5.4.2 Systems and Drivers 234
5.4.2.1 Levels of Automation of Systems and Drivers 234
5.4.2.1.1 Automation of Systems 234
5.4.2.1.2 Levels of Automation 234
5.4.2.1.3 Examples of Level 1 to 3 234
5.4.2.1.4 Examples of Level 4 to 6 235
5.4.2.1.5 Examples of Level 6.5 235
5.4.2.1.6 Examples of Level 7 236
5.4.2.2 Over-trust and Overdependence 236
5.4.2.3 Monitoring of the System Status by the Driver 239
xvi Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

5.4.2.3.1 Supervisory Control 239

5.4.2.3.2 HMI in Driving Supporting Systems 239
Using V2X communication
(1) Verification of operating status 239
(2) Easy to understand 241
(3) Communication certainty 241
(4) Easy understanding of criticality 241
(5) Prevention of over-trust and distrust 241
5.4.2.3.3 More General HMI in Driving Support/ 242
automated Driving Systems
5.4.2.4 Changes in Driver’s Behavior Caused by 242
Introduction of the System
5.4.2.4.1 Driving Behavior Induced by the System 242
5.4.2.4.2 Definition of Road/traffic Factors 243
Influencing Driving Behavior
5.4.2.4.3 Example of Analysis of Behavioral 243
Changes Caused by the System
5.4.2.5 Compatibility of the System with Drivers’ Behavior 244
5.4.2.5.1 Distance without the System and Distance 244
with the ACC System
5.4.2.5.2 Relation Between Drivers’ Characteristics, 245
Driving Behavior and the Distance
Selected in the ACC
5.4.2.6 Human Factors in Automated Driving Systems 246
5.4.2.6.1 Intersection Between Automated 246
Driving Systems and Humans
5.4.2.6.2 Understanding of the System 247
(1) Understanding of system’s functions 247
(2) Understanding of the system status 247
(3) Understanding of the system operation 248
(4) Understanding of the behavior of the 248
system
5.4.2.6.3 State of the Driver 248
(1) State of the driver when using 248
automated driving systems
(2) Gap in the transition to the state 248
where the driver is able to
execute driving tasks
5.4.2.6.4 Value of Automated Driving Systems for 249
Humans
5.4.2.6.5 Interaction Between the Car and other 249
Traffic Participant
(1) Communication between traffic 249
participants
(2) Communication functions that 250
automated vehicles must have
References 250
 Contents xvii

6. Driver Behavior 257

6.1 Human Characteristics Related to Driver Behavior 257
6.1.1 Visual Cognitive Functions 257
6.1.1.1 Visual Attention and Its Psychological Measurements 257
6.1.1.1.1 Shift of Attention 257
6.1.1.1.2 Selection of Visual Information at a 258
Fixation Point
6.1.1.1.3 Useful Field of View 259
6.1.1.2 Physiological Measurement of Attention 262
6.1.1.2.1 Attentional Resource Allocation and 262
Event-related Potentials
6.1.1.2.2 Evaluation of Visual Attentional Resource 263
Allocation using Eye-fixation-related
Potentials
6.1.1.2.3 Evaluation of Attentional Resource 264
Allocation Using Probe Methods
6.1.1.3 Visual Attentional Models 265
6.1.1.3.1 Saliency Model of Itti and Koch 266
6.1.1.3.2 Models that take Account of Top-down 267
Factors
6.1.1.3.3 Application of Models to Moving Images 268
6.1.2 Information Processing and Cognitive Models for Humans 268
6.1.2.1 Driver Information Processing Models 268
6.1.2.1.1 Basic Three-stage Information 268
Processing Models for Humans
6.1.2.1.2 Information-processing Model taking 269
Account of Memory and Attention
6.1.2.1.3 Norman’s Seven-stage Action Model 270
6.1.2.1.4 Situation Awareness Model 271
6.1.2.1.5 Hierarchical Model of Driving Behavior 272
6.1.2.1.6 Rasmussen’s Skills-rules-knowledge 273
(SRK) Model
6.1.2.1.7 Relationship Among Different Human 274
Information-processing Models
6.1.2.1.8 Extended Contextual Control 274
Model (E-COM)
6.1.2.2 Task-capability Interface Model 275
6.2 Driving Performance 277
6.2.1 Driving Performance Measures 277
6.2.1.1 Longitudinal Driving Performance 277
6.2.1.1.1 Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk 278
6.2.1.1.2 Response Time 278
6.2.1.1.3 Headway Distance and Time 279
6.2.1.2 Lateral Driving Performance 280
6.2.1.2.1 Steering Operation 281
6.2.1.2.2 Steering Reversal 281
6.2.1.2.3 Steering Entropy 281
xviii Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

6.2.1.2.4 Lane Position of a Vehicle 282

6.2.1.2.5 Standard Deviation of Lane 282
Position (SDLP)
6.2.1.2.6 Time to Line Crossing (TLC) 282
6.2.1.3 Parking Maneuver 283
6.2.1.3.1 Cognitive Function Necessary for 283
Parking Maneuver
6.2.1.3.2 Prediction of One’s Capability for 283
Park Maneuver based on the
Psycho-motor Tests
6.2.1.4 Situation Awareness Evaluation Methods 284
6.2.1.4.1 Situation Awareness Global Assessment 285
Technique (SAGAT)
6.2.1.4.2 Real-time Probe Technique 285
6.2.1.4.3 Subjective Rating (SART: Situation 286
Awareness Rating Technique)
6.2.2 Driving Ability Evaluation for Elderly Drivers 287
6.2.2.1 Ability Evaluation of Driving Behavior 287
6.2.2.2 Evaluation of Perceptual-Motor Coordination 288
6.2.2.3 Evaluation of Cognitive Functions 289
6.2.2.3.1 Neuro-psychological Tests and Driving 289
Ability
6.2.2.3.2 Screening Test for Elderly Drivers 291
6.2.2.4 Models of Driving Ability for Elderly People 291
6.2.2.4.1 Multifactorial Model for Enabling 291
Driving Safety
6.2.2.4.2 Adaptive Driving Behavior of Elderly 292
People
6.3 Driver’s Behavior Models 293
6.3.1 Driving Behavior Models 293
6.3.1.1 Driver Steering Control Models 293
6.3.1.1.1 Basics of Modeling 294
6.3.1.1.2 Major Examples of Driver Steering 295
Control Models
(1) Preview-predictive model 295
(2) Describing function model 296
(3) Pursuit control model 297
(4) Other models 297
6.3.1.2 Model of Visual Recognition During Driving 297
6.3.1.2.1 Perception of Direction of Travel 297
6.3.1.2.2 Use of Tangent Points 298
6.3.1.2.3 Use of Information on Near and Far Areas 299
6.3.1.2.4 Effect of Gaze Direction 301
6.3.2 Information-processing Models Related to Driver’s Behavior 301
6.3.2.1 Information-processing Models for Drivers Using 301
Car Navigation System
 Contents xix

6.3.2.1.1 Information-processing Models for Drivers 302

using a Digital Map System with Self-
localization Function
6.3.2.1.2 Information-processing Models for Drivers 304
using a Turn-by-turn Navigation System
6.3.2.1.3 Information-processing Models for 305
Drivers using a Navigation System
Capable of Displaying an Enlarged
View of Intersection
6.3.2.2 ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational) 307
Model of Driving Behavior
6.3.2.2.1 Driving Behavior and Integrated 307
Driver Models with an ETA Framework
Viewpoint
6.3.2.2.2 Integrated Driver Model using the 308
ACT-R Cognitive Architecture
(1) Control 308
(2) Monitoring 310
(3) Decision-making 310
(4) Component integration and 311
multitasking
(5) Parameter values 311
6.3.2.2.4 Validation and Application ACT-R Model 312
of Driving Behavior
6.3.3 Statistical Behavior Models 312
6.3.3.1 Structural Equation Models for Driving Behavior 312
6.3.3.1.1 Structural Equation Models (SEM) 313
6.3.3.1.2 Structural Equation Model of Driving 315
Behavior for Making a Turn
6.3.3.1.3 Application of Structural Equation Model 316
to Theory of Planed Behavior
6.3.3.2 Bayesian Network Models for Driving Behavior 316
6.3.3.2.1 Bayesian Network Model 316
6.3.3.2.2 Dynamic Bayesian Network Model 317
6.3.3.3 Modeling Driving Behavior Using Hidden 320
Markov Models
6.3.3.3.1 Theoretical Background of Modeling 320
Driving Behavior Using HMM
6.3.3.3.2 Example of Constructing a Driving 321
Behavior Model Using Discrete HMM
6.3.3.3.3 Estimation of Road Shape and Driving 322
Behavior Using Continuous HMM
(1) Collection of driving signals and 322
creation of corpus
(2) Estimation of driving behavior in 323
relation to specific road shape
xx Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

6.3.3.3.4 Estimating Driving Behavior Using 323

HMM and other Applications
(1) Prediction of driving behavior 323
(2) Estimating characteristics of 324
individuals
(3) Future direction and issues 324
References 325
Index 333
 1
Overview of Automotive
Ergonomics and Human Factors

1.1 Ergonomics and Human Factors for Making Products and

Systems Compatible with Humans
Ergonomics and human factors is a study for designing products, systems and
environment that are compatible with human characteristics. It is an interdisciplinary
field integrating psychology, physiology, engineering and design. Ergonomics
originated with concern for occupational health in the latter part of the 19th century
(Jastrzebowski, 1857). ‘Human factors’ entailed focus on human abilities while using
a certain system, mainly in the United States and the United Kingdom around the time
of World War II. It was recognized that in order to improve the performance of an
overall system, it was necessary to take into consideration the human characteristics
which are part of the factors constituting the system. It is generally considered that
ergonomics/human factors developed in mid 20th century, though the ergonomic
design of automobiles was born at the end of the 19th century (Akamatsu et al., 2013).
As automobiles came into wide use after World War I, the issue of automobile
accidents drew widespread attention. At the end of the 1920s, a German psychologist,
Narziss Ach, proposed an ergonomic concept called psychotechnik (i.e., psychological
engineering), emphasizing the need for technology based on psychological studies
(Ach, 1929). Meanwhile, at the end of the 1930s, T.W. Forbes in the United States
pointed out that accidents are caused not by specific people, but by normal people, and
asserted that safety is related to the limits of human abilities, such as visual ability and
response time, and therefore human factors, such as psychological and physiological
characteristics, should be taken into consideration when designing automobiles
(Forbes, 1939). Around this time, it was decided that human characteristics should be
understood scientifically so that automobiles are designed according to them.

1.2 Beginning of Human-compatible Automobile Design

At the end of the 19th century, the gasoline-fuelled internal combustion engine
was invented, leading to the manufacture of automobiles as machines that move
2 Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

the vehicle body by using power. They were machines fully controlled by humans,
whether moving forward, stopping, or turning right or left. Improvements were made
to enable humans to operate them; gradually they developed into the current form of
automobiles.
The signature improvements were the circular steering wheel and foot pedals.
In the early days, a bar handle called a ‘tiller’ was used as the steering mechanism
in order to make the structure simple (Fig. 1.1, left), but it was found that the handle
would shake wildly when driving fast on an unpaved bumpy road and the driver
would face trouble in controlling it. Therefore, a bar handle with grips on both sides
was developed to allow the driver to hold the grips with both hands before the round
steering wheel using a gear was introduced.
In a horse-drawn carriage, the speed was decreased by making the horse to
slow down its walk. So, it was sufficient to have a parking brake by which the driver
pressed the shoe to a carriage wheel or axle with the help of a hand lever. However,
since the force applied by a hand lever was insufficient to stop a fast automobile
(Fig. 1.1, right), it was replaced with a foot pedal that could apply a greater force. The
foot pedal was initially positioned on the vehicle floor close to the seat, but it gradually
came to be positioned towards the front. In an ergonomics textbook, you will notice
that the maximum force is applied by a foot when it is applied towards the front
direction. Pioneering automobile developers empirically discovered the ergonomic
pedal position for hard braking.
The 1930s saw the emergence of many designs and functions aimed at safety
or driving ease. For visibility, originally hand-operated wipers were replaced by air-
driven or electric wipers, and such new equipment as a defroster (Fig. 1.2) and a mirror
that could avoid glare at night time driving were developed. Also, in the 1930s, the
direction-indicator switch was positioned at an easily reachable part of the instrument
panel or on a lever protruding from the steering column to make it easier for the driver
to operate the switch (Fig. 1.3).
The steering with the help of a round handle and the acceleration/deceleration
control by a foot pedal did not change for 100 years. Of course, keeping the manner
of operation consistent was a basic ergonomic design principle, so no need was felt
for making unnecessary changes. Furthermore, no tool better than a round handle that
can be operated with both hands was discovered for making both slight correctional
steering operation for maintaining straight running and large turns at intersections, and
for doing these smoothly. The manner of operation that has changed is the introduction
of the shift lever. The drive-by-wire technology increased the degree of freedom of
design. Whereas the gearshift on the centre control still remains due to maintenance
of consistency in the manner of operation, the paddle shift was positioned close to the
steering for the same reason as the direction indicator.
Although the introduction of drive-by-wire technology has increased the degree
of freedom, no dramatic change is expected in the future unless there is a notable
change in the concept of operation, such as changing the tyre direction or changing
the pressing force of the brake pad. If the concept of operation were to change, it
would be by progress in automated driving technology (see 5.4.2.6). If automobiles
gain intelligence, they may become machines that would be controlled by commands
or communications, rather than manipulations. Then there would be a need for
conducting additional research and development.
 Overview of Automotive Ergonomics and Human Factors 3

1.3 Vehicle Cabin Design

Until around 1920, the positional relationship between the steering wheel/pedal and
the seat had been fixed after being designed. Automobiles were not only driven by
men, but were also driven by active women. Such women must have had trouble
with the layout designed for men. Around the 1930s, the seat-sliding mechanism was
introduced (Fig. 1.4).
A group led by R.A. McFarland in the United States collected data on body
sizes and published the data in a series as documents of the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) from around 1950 (McFarland et al., 1955). He presented the
percentile of measurement, which is an important concept in ergonomic design.
Understanding that vehicle interior design based on average body measurement values
would only satisfy a limited number of people whose body measurements are close to
the average values, he indicated the 5th percentile as the minimum value and the 95th
percentile as the maximum value (Fig. 1.5).
After around 1930s, when rounded aerodynamic body shape was introduced, it
was considered that automobile collision accidents resulted from oversight and that it
was important to secure visibility in order to prevent accidents. Therefore, researchers
worked on improving both direct and indirect visibility through mirrors. A method
to evaluate the range of the driver’s visibility was developed based on the range of
areas illuminated by lamps positioned at locations that correspond to the driver’s eyes
(Hunt, 1937). The problem of visibility does not only involve the problem of the
size and position of the windows and pillars, but is strongly related to the size of the
human body. Since visibility depends on the positions of the eyes, the seat position
that decides the eye position and the driver’s body size become an issue.
A concept that was introduced for considering the eye position is eyellipse. When
considering the variations in human body size, variations in the seating location on
the seat, and differences in the seat position, the distribution of eye locations can
be approximated to a three-dimensional ellipse. Therefore, an ellipse based on the
percentile values of the three-dimensional distribution of eye locations was named
‘eyellipse’. These were published by the SAE as SAE standards by the end of the
1950s and served as the basis for the cabin design (SAE Recommended Practice J941,
1965).
In the design process, such human body size is difficult to deal with if there are
only numerical data. So, in the 1960s, 2-D manikins and 3-D manikins were developed
and standardized as SAE J826 (SAE Recommended practice J826, 1962). In the
1970s, computer technology made progress and the development of CAD manikins,
which are manikins on computer, started. Chrysler developed CYBERMAN followed
by SAMMIE which was developed in the United Kingdom, RAMSIS in Germany,
and Jack in the United States. CAD manikins came to be used in the actual design
process by being incorporated in CAD applications for designing automobiles, such
as CATIA.
While 2-D and 3-D manikins are measurement models, CAD manikins can
reproduce a body of three-dimensional shape, which require not only data of the human
body size, but also data of the three-dimensional shape. Therefore, the manikins need
technology for three-dimensional shape measurement and for modeling based on the
obtained data. Because it is possible to move the manikin on the computer screen,
4 Handbook of Automotive Human Factors

dynamic human movements, such as getting in or out of the vehicle, can be evaluated.
However, with regard to reproduction of human body movement, the main approach
currently used is to reproduce the data measured through motion capture, and no
modeling technology has been established yet for reproducing any intended motion.
When evaluating the ease of getting in or out of the vehicle, not only the interference
(contact) between the human body and the vehicle, but also the motion stress must be
evaluated, and studies are under way to evaluate these by using CAD manikins.
Due to an increase in the number of elderly drivers, consideration should also
be given, not only to the differences in the body sizes of the driver and passengers,
but also to the influence of their age. Research and development are conducted for
CAD manikins that take into account the change in posture, loss of muscle strength,
and decrease in the range of joint motion in line with aging. A person’s motion is not
decided by physical and spatial restrictions alone; it also depends on how the person
perceives that space. Therefore, there is a need for CAD manikins in vehicle interior
design, taking into account elderly people’s perceptual/cognitive characteristics.

1.4 Instruments and Displays

1.4.1 Instrument Arrangement
With regard to the visibility of instruments, there were few instruments until around
the 1900s and up to around early 1910 when they were attached to the bulkhead
separating the engine and the cabin, providing poor visibility (Fig. 1.6, left). In the late
1910s, an instrument panel began to be installed and an array of meters was arranged
on a luxury car (Fig. 1.6, right). In the 1930s, a meter cluster was installed near the
steering wheel, in order to improve the visibility for the driver. Incidentally, in terms
of visibility, the first instrument that was positioned at an easily visible location was
the thermometer attached to the radiator head and which emerged in the 1910s. This
was later replaced by the radiator mascot.
Instruments came to be positioned in front of the steering wheel, where it is
easy for the driver to see, but sufficient consideration had not been made with regard
to their interference with the steering wheel. The use of eyellipse made it possible
to design instruments at positions where their visibility was not obstructed by the
steering wheel. From the 1950s, the meter cluster was moved up to the position on
the upper part of the instrument panel. While the fascia was lowered to secure the
view, the visibility of the meters was ensured. In the 1970s, non-reflecting glass came
to be used for the surface of meters, thus reducing the glare and improving their
visibility. In the latter 1990s, the center meter, which is positioned in the middle of
the dashboard, appeared (Fig. 1.7). It was a position where the amount of the gaze
shifted from the road scene ahead to the meters is small. The visual recognition time
was experimentally measured, and the position was found to be notably effective,
particularly for elderly people (Atsumi et al., 1999).
As new instrument technology, the head-up display (HUD) was introduced. HUD
was originally developed for aircraft. Because it had a great advantage in reducing
the amount of gaze shift, studies began in the 1970s to apply HUD to automobiles
(Rutley, 1975). HUD was first mounted on mass-produced cars in 1988 on a GM
 Overview of Automotive Ergonomics and Human Factors 5

car and a Nissan car (Okabayashi et al., 1989). Although HUD was proved to be
ergonomically effective (Ward and Parkes, 1994), it did not come into wide use
because the benefit was not large when only the speedometer was displayed.
With the introduction of the driver assistance system, the information to be
displayed during driving increased. Accordingly, HUD became more useful and came
to be used more widely. Moreover, when automated driving technology becomes
established, further use of HUD should also be considered. When the driver does not
have to control the traveling course or distance between cars in real time due to the use
of automated driving technology, it will be possible to display on a large HUD the road
scenery with information overlapped on it by augmented reality (AR) technology. It
may also be possible to use an AR display that would call the driver’s attention or
support and enhance the driver’s situation awareness during automobile driving.

1.4.2 Meters and Displays

With regard to the meter design, bobbin-type speedometers using the centrifugal force
of a rotating cable were used until around 1920, but later the clock-type rotary meters
came to be widely used. From the 1930s, lettering in meters was artistically designed
but some font designs were difficult to read and in low contrast. This tendency
continued until around 1960, but easy-to-read fonts started to be used in the 1970s.
The digital number display that started with neon tubes developed into seven-
segment liquid crystal displays came to be extensively used in calculators. Digital
speedometers were introduced in automobiles in the 1980s (Ishii, 1980). The
advantages of digital speedometers are that because only numerical values are
displayed, they can be visually recognized quickly and do not interfere much with
the steering wheel due to their small surface area. On the other hand, they have
challenges including flickering and glare on account of being self-luminous.
Therefore, development of technology for preventing flickering and studies on easy-
to-read brightness and contrast were conducted.
Reading analog meters can be quick using pattern recognition, while reading
digital meters requires symbol processing. Analog meters are convenient for grasping
the approximate values and their changes. Digital displays indicate accurate values,
but the changes in values are difficult to grasp. Digital displays are suitable for cases
where accurate values are required, such as in the case of cruise control or speed
limiter. An appropriate display method must be considered, depending on its functions
(Merker, 1966).
With the progress of automated driving technology, the information to be
displayed becomes different from the past. It is necessary to display the distance from
the preceding vehicle, position within the lane, positions of the surrounding vehicles,
and relative speed. Furthermore, the operation status of the system must be displayed,
such as the ON/OFF/READY status of the system, system error, and system mode (see
5.4.2.6). These are currently designed through trial and error. Since many elements
would need to be displayed, the challenge is how to display them in an integrated
manner. Although they are presented, sometimes it is difficult to detect the changes in
the elements from slight differences (Fig. 1.8). The design needs to be based on the
user’s mental model of the system and its operation.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Regeneration 245 ability to restore lost parts. The axial
organs-stem and root-are the ones most commonly employed in the
practices of propagation and have been most thoroughly studied.
Stem Cuttings. In stem cuttings of dicotyledons buds develop most
frequently at the apical end and roots from the basal one (p. 119)
but this polarity varies considerably. The buds may be the usual
axillary ones, many of which would not normally develop, or they
may be accessory buds. If these are absent, dormant primordia may
grow. Carlson (1950) has described the origin and distribution of
dormant root initials on willow shoots. Primordia may also develop
anew, from callus or from the normal tissues of the stem.
Adventitious roots in young stems usually come from the pericycle
but in older ones they may have a deeper origin in the vascular
cambium (Plett, 1921). Mahlstede and Watson (1952) found that
adventitious roots in blueberry originate in cambium or phloem and
push out through vascular tissue, cortex, and epidermis. Priestley (
1926a ) stated a general rule that, of the two lateral meristematic
regions of the axis, the phellogen is more likely to produce buds and
the vascular cambium to produce roots. Morphogenetic problems
here involved concern the causes of the differentiation of dormant or
"reserve" primordia in particular places and especially the factors
that first keep them dormant and then stimulate their development
in regeneration. Bud formation is frequent on hypocotyls and has
been studied particularly bv Rauh ( 1937 ) . In a few species these
buds normally develop into shoots. In other cases they may be
present but do not develop and in still others they may be induced
only by the stimulus of regeneration, after the decapitation of the
hypocotyl. In Linum usitatissimum, the origin of these buds has been
traced, in decapitated hypocotyls, to single cells of the epidermis (
Crooks, 1933; Link and Eggers, 1946a ) in which divisions begin to
appear. A group of cells is thus produced which develops into a bud
initial and finally into a shoot. Several buds may begin to grow, only
one of which becomes dominant. In undecapitated hypocotyls a few
epidermal cells may divide but they rarely produce buds. Bud
development is induced more readily in young hypocotyls than in
older ones. After a bud begins to grow, vascular strands differentiate
which connect it with the main vascular cylinder (Fig. 9-6). Van
Tieghem (1887) described similar bud development in the hypocotyl
of Linaria, as did Bain ( 1940 ) in cranberry. Such hypocotyls offer a
good opportunity for the study of cellular totipotency and the
redifferentiation of vascular tissue. So-called "adventitious leaves"
(really reduced shoots, Rauh believes) are produced abundantly on
the decapitated hypocotyl, or seedling tuber, of Cyclamen (Boodle,
1920; Rauh, 1937) and develop there from subepidermal cells. There
are transitions here from simple leaves to fully developed buds. The
great number of these buds normally produced sug 
 246 The Phenomena of Morphogenesis gests that this is a
case of reproductive regeneration rather than of restoration. The
stems of most monocotyledons lack a cambium, and this somewhat
limits the possibilities of regeneration of lost parts in them. Axillary
buds are often present, however, and the nodes and bases of leaves
remain somewhat meristematic. New roots commonly arise in these
regions. Methods of regeneration and of vegetative reproduction are
generally very specialized. Some members of the Juncaceae and
Cyperaceae reproduce vegetatively from tips or nodes of culms, as in
Eleocharis rostellata, where buds grow from the sterile culm tips ( La
Rue, 1935 ) . Fig. 9-6. A young adventitious bud which has grown
from epidermal cells on a decapitated hypocotyl of flax. Note the cell
divisions in the cortex which will give rise to a vascular connection
with the stele. (From Crooks.) Factors in the rooting of conifer
cuttings have been discussed by Deuber (1940). The physiological
basis of such regenerative processes has been widely investigated.
Gardner ( 1929 ) observed that, in both deciduous and evergreen
trees, cuttings from 1-year-old stems rooted more readily than those
from older ones. The influence of auxin and of various synthetic
growth substances has been much emphasized ( p. 391 ),
particularly in root formation. Van der Lek (1925) found that cuttings
rooted better if there were buds on them, presumably because of
the production of root-stimulating substances by the buds. Discovery
of the effectiveness of various organic
 Regeneration 247 acids in root formation has made "root
hormones" of importance in horticulture. Bud formation, also, is
influenced by physiological conditions. Miller and Skoog ( 1953 )
report that tobacco-stem segments, in sterile culture, form buds
much more readily if adenine is present and that indoleacetic acid
reduces their development. Both results, presumably, are due to
effects on nucleic acid metabolism. Ruge (1952) and a number of
earlier workers observed that a functioning chlorophyll apparatus is
necessary for the successful rooting of most cuttings. Shoots with
variegated leaves or in the dark root poorly. Whether this is owing to
the production by the leaves of food or of a growth substance is not
clear, but van Overbeek, Gordon, and Gregory ( 1946fo ) believe that
the main function of leaves in the rooting of cuttings is simply to
supply nutrition. Hereditary tendencies may also influence the
character of regeneration, as in the conversion of axillary buds into
tubers in the potato (Isbell, 1931). Root Cuttings. Under natural
conditions shoots are produced by roots rather infrequently and
chiefly in woody plants. In many cases roots may be used as
cuttings, however. Here the restoration of lost structures by the
production of adventitious roots or shoots occurs much as in the
stem, shoots tending to be restored at the basal (proximal) end and
roots at the apical ( distal ) one. Most growth is from callus. Roots
show a greater tendency to form adventitious buds than do stems.
Naylor ( 1941 ) finds that both structures arise from meristematic
tissue produced by parenchyma cells in the younger phloem and not
from the cambium. The polar development of regenerating
structures on fleshy roots has been studied by various workers (p.
124). Way ( 1954 ) investigated regeneration on apple roots of
different sizes. In some varieties the larger ones ( 8 to 12 mm. in
diameter ) produced only shoots and the smaller (3 mm.) only roots.
When both were formed, the zone of shoot production ( at the
proximal end ) extended farther distally in the wider roots, and that
of root production (at the distal end) extended farther proximally in
the narrower ones. Way interprets these differences as due to auxin
gradients, with different concentrations in large and small roots.
Buds on roots are usually endogenous in origin. In Bryophylhim they
arise from the subepidermal layer (Ossenbeck, 1927), and Rauh
finds them originating at the scars of the delicate branch roots. In
Aristolochia and the Podostemaceae they grow from the cortex.
Carlson ( 1938 ) reports that in the orchid Pogonia an adventitious
shoot arises by enlargement and division of the surface and cortical
cells at the tips of lateral roots. This forms a swelling in which a bud
develops. An important morphogenetic question concerned with
regeneration
 248 The Phenomena of Morphogenesis from roots and one
which has been rather widely discussed is whether the early
primordia of new organs are "indifferent" in nature and may produce
either buds or roots, or whether they are determined from the first
to form one or the other. A bud is a young shoot and has the
rudiments of leaves, which the root primordium does not have, and
it should therefore presumably be easy to tell one from the other.
This seems often to be difficult, however, in the very early stages,
and many instances where root primordia have been reported to
change into shoots, and vice versa, may be due to erroneous
observation. Dore (1955) has studied the origin of young primordia
in the regeneration of horseradish roots and finds that these are
produced as organized meristems in close association with the scars
of lateral roots and that they originate in the phellogen of the main
root. He is certain that at the beginning they are capable of
developing into either roots or shoots. That this is so is suggested by
the fact that the ratio of buds to roots, where they can be definitely
distinguished, is not constant but varies with conditions, as though
neutral primordia were being tipped in one direction or the other. If
this should finally prove to be the case and the existence of truly
indifferent primordia be established, useful material would be
provided in which to examine the very early stages in the
differentiation of these two structures which soon become so
dissimilar. This reminds one of the case in Selaginella reported by
Williams (1937). Here an "angle meristem" near the tip will normally
produce a rhizophore, a structure somewhat intermediate between
root and shoot and which finally grows downward and forms typical
roots. If the main axis of the shoot is decapitated, however, the
young primordium which would have produced a rhizophore will now
grow upward into a typical shoot. Mention has been made earlier (p.
71 ) of cases where a young leaf primordium, if isolated by deep
cuts from the meristem tip, will grow into a bud-like structure.
Cuttings from Other Parts. A variety of phenomena of regeneration
has been described in typical leaves and in cotyledons, scales, and
carpels, as well as in inflorescences, flowers, and fruits. In contrast
to the axial portion of the plant, leaves are organs of determinate
growth, and the restoration of lost parts by them is thus somewhat
different from the process in axial structures. It is especially common
in succulent leaves. The restoration of roots or shoots on leaves
detached from the plant and with petiole placed in soil has often
been observed ( Stingl, 1908; and Yarwood, 1946). In such cases,
after adventive roots and buds have been formed on lamina or
petiole, various anatomical changes may be observed, especially a
marked increase in the vascular tissue of the petiole. Furthermore,
instead of being disposed in an arc, as in normal petioles, this tissue
often enlarges to form a complete vascular ring. The petiole thus
becomes structurally as well as functionally a stem. Winkler ( 1907o)
reviewed cases
 Regeneration 249 of such conversion and studied a
particularly good example of it in Torenia asiatica. He believed that
increased transpiration is the cause of the change. Simon (1929)
found essentially the same thing in Begonia and noted that the
bundles from the young roots induced new vascular tissue only in
that part of the petiole just below them, suggesting the polar
distribution of a hormone. Similar results were obtained by Doyle
(1915) through grafting buds onto the petioles of rooted leaves. In
leaf cuttings, adventitious structures are formed predominantly at
the leaf base. Hagemann (1931), in an extensive survey of the
regenerative ability of leaves, investigated 1,204 species of
gymnosperms, dicotyFig. 9-7. Petals of Epilobium angustifolium
which produced roots when cultured on nutrient agar. ( From La
Rue. ) ledons, and monocotyledons. He found that some of these
showed no restoration, a very few formed shoots or both roots and
shoots, and the largest proportion roots only. Schwarz ( 1933 )
examined many other species. The location of the regenerated
structures is determined mainly by the anatomy of the leaf. It is
noteworthy that in a number of species, predominantly though not
always succulents, restoration and vegetative reproduction occur in
other parts of the leaf than the base, as in species of Drosera,
Achimenes, Begonia, Torenia, and the Crassulaceae. In Utricularia
Goebel (1908) found adventive shoots formed by the leaf tips.
Restoration of organs may also occur from isolated cotyledons.
Kiister ( 1903fo ) obtained both roots and shoots from cotyledons of
Cucumis and
 250 The Phenomena of Morphogenesis Luffa, Kowalewska (
1927 ) shoots from Phaseolus and Visum, and Carlson (1953) only
roots from Raphanus and Brassica. La Rue (1933) reviewed work on
this subject and reports his own success in obtaining roots on
excised cotyledons of 19 species and shoots on those of 22 species.
Several investigators have studied regeneration in inflorescences. If
this structure is cut off and treated as a cutting, root formation and
subsequent vegetative development of the inflorescence often
follow. Bormann (1939) reviewed the literature and made extensive
investigations himself, finding that, of 391 species studied in 65
genera and 45 families, the conversion of an inflorescence into a
vegetative shoot by treating it as a cutting occurred in about 17 per
cent of all the species. Flower cuttings of Cactaceae, where the stem
is incorporated into the fruit, have been found to form roots and
develop dormant buds ( Goebel, 1908 ) . The ovary of Jussiaea as
well as immature fruits of Lecythis react in the same way. Carriere
(1877) describes the rooting of the capsule of Lilium speciosum and
Kupfer (1907) that of pods of Plwseolus. La Rue (1942) found that,
under favorable cultural conditions that provide both moisture and
food, many flowers or their parts may be induced to root ( Fig. 9-7 )
, and by this means he obtained roots on flowers of three genera of
monocotyledons and 22 genera of dicotyledons. He went further and
was able to induce regeneration even in gametophytes. Female
gametophytes of Zamia in sterile culture not only increased in size
markedly but in a few cases developed small roots and buds. The
latter produced leaves resembling miniature seedling ones. He later
obtained similar results with Ctjcas (1954). Reproductive
Regeneration The ability of a part of the plant to restore missing
structures and thus regenerate a whole is essentially the ability to
reproduce. Regeneration is a reproductive process, and it is
understandable that during the course of evolution many plants
should have developed means to use the totipotency of their
individual cells and tissues as means for vegetative reproduction. In
many cases this has become a normal and spontaneous process, as
in the formation of foliar embryos on the leaves of many
Crassulaceae or of bulbils in other forms. Isolation or injury may
stimulate the growth of similar structures, and this process thus
grades over into regeneration. In many cases it is difficult to
distinguish between the two. This type of reproduction has been
described most commonly in leaves and leaf cuttings (Fig. 9-8).
Many cases have been studied in both dicotyledons and
monocotyledons. Goebel cites a variety of these from the earlier
literature. In some cases plantlets occur naturally on leaves and drop
off to form new individuals (gemmipary). In others
 Regeneration 251 these appear only when the leaf is
removed from the plant or its vigor reduced. Instead of actual
plantlets, bulbils or bulblets may be formed, modified buds which
drop from the plant and produce new individuals. Many plantlets
develop from preformed meristematic cells or cell aggregates and
thus are clearly to be regarded as reproductive structures even
though in some cases they are induced only by rather abnormal
conditions. Others arise from unspecialized cells, usually epidermal
or subepidermal ones, much as do the shoots on the hypocotyls
previously described. When these are frequently formed in nature
they are usually to be regarded as reproductive rather than
regenerative structures. Only a few typical examples can be
mentioned here. Fig. 9-8. Leaves of Achimenes, used as cuttings,
regenerating roots and bulbils from the base and producing plantlets
where veins have been cut. ( From Goebel. ) A familiar one is that of
Tolmiea menziesii (Yarbrough, 1936a), in which a plantlet regularly is
formed at the junction of petiole and blade from a preformed bud at
that point. This readily separates from the parent plant and forms a
new one. In Cardamine pratensis (Goebel, 1908) adventitious shoots
or plantlets grow in the autumn or under special conditions from the
axils of the leaflets by the activity of groups of meristematic cells. At
the junctions of the larger veins occur slight swellings and these may
also develop into plantlets (Fig. 9-9). In such forms there are
evidently many cells that can easily be induced to become
meristematic and form plantlets. How such cells differ physiologically
from others it is important to discover.
 252 The Phenomena of Morphogenesis Some species of
Drosera may also readily be induced to form shoots on their leaves
(Behre, 1929). These develop from single epidermal cells on the
morphologically upper side of the lamina, at the base of a tentacle,
on the petiole adjacent to stomata or trichomes, or in young
inflorescences adjacent to glands. In Drosera binata, a species with
linear leaves, the young plants thus produced have roundish blades
much like those of our Fig. 9-9. Cardamine pratensis. After a leaf is
removed, plantlets develop on it from preformed embryonic areas
(a). ( From Goebel. ) own common Drosera rotundifolia. It would be
interesting to find whether this fact has any phylogenetic
implications. In Begonia rex and some other varieties of begonia,
shoots may be induced very readily on petiole and blade by
removing the growing points of the shoot. Prevot (1938, 1939)
found that these arose from epidermal cells, but only after they had
reached a certain stage of maturity. Hartsema ( 1926 ) has described
the changes that such cells undergo
 Regeneration 253 at the start of shoot development (
strong protoplasmic streaming, migration of the nucleus, and
increase in cytoplasm). Here and in a good many other plants,
shoots will appear on the blade if one or more of the veins are cut
(Fig. 9-10), thus perhaps preventing the access of inhibiting
substances. Prevot was able to induce bud formation on begonia
leaves by the application of various substances and by growing the
plants in the absence of oxygen. He also found that strips of
epidermis removed from the leaf would form buds. Not all begonias
have high regenerative ability, and this seems to be an inherited
character when various types are crossed. Much like these cases is
the development of young plants on the leaves of Saintpaulia
ionantha. This species is often reproduced in cultivation by plantlets
formed on leaves that have been cut off and placed in a humid
atmosphere. From individual cells of the upper epidermis shoots Fig.
9-10. Propagation of rex begonia. If a leaf is removed and placed on
moist sand and certain of its major veins severed, plantlets will
regenerate at these cuts. (From Avery and Johnson.) develop, and
roots originate from parenchymatous cells near the boundary
between xylem and phloem in the veins ( Naylor and Johnson, 1937;
Fig. 9-11). Torenia asiatica behaves in much the same way (Winkler,
1903). In leaf cuttings, numerous shoot primordia begin to develop
over the surface of the blade, each from an epidermal cell above a
vein. Only a few of these primordia grow into shoots, and a single
leaf thus shows a wide range of stages in shoot development. The
shoots that form come to flowering very quickly, sometimes when
they have only one welldeveloped leaf, and should thus make
excellent material for a study of the factors that induce flowering.
Many members of the family Gesneriaceae, to which these plants
belong, regenerate readily. Leaf cuttings of Achimenes produce
clusters of bulblets at the base of the petiole and shoots from the
blade if the veins are severed ( Doposcheg-Uhlar, 1911).
Streptocarpus (Goebel, 1908) illustrates most types of regeneration.
 254 The Phenomena of Morphogenesis The most familiar
examples of reproductive regeneration are provided by members of
the Crassulaceae. In Kalanchoe pinnatum ( Bryophyllum calycinum),
plantlets develop from the marginal notches of the fleshy leaves.
This may sometimes take place while the leaf is attached to the
plant but is more common after it has fallen to the ground. In each
notch is a preformed foliar embryo (Fig. 9-12), long ago described
by Berge (1877) and more recently by Yarbrough (1932) and Naylor
( 1932 ) . This is more than a mass of meristematic cells, for it has
already taken the first steps toward organization of a plantlet and
shows the minute beginnings of root, stem, and leaf. In other
species the degree Fig. 9-11. Development of an adventitious bud
from cells of the leaf epidermis of Saintpaulia. ( From Naylor and
Johnson. ) of differentiation of the foliar embryos varies (Stoudt,
1938). In K. daigremontana and K. tubiflora the plantlets attain
appreciable size before the parent leaf has reached maturity. In K.
rotundifolia there is a residual meristem on the axial surface of the
petiole which develops a bud, but root primordia do not become
differentiated until after the leaf has fallen from the plant. The
factors that induce the foliar embryos to develop into plantlets have
been actively discussed. Loeb (1920), who made an extensive study
of regeneration in this genus, believed that a hormonal mechanism
inhibited their growth as long as the leaf was attached to the plant.
Reed (1923) attributed their behavior to the metabolic condition of
the leaf and showed that they tend to grow if the lamina loses vigor.
Ossenbeck
 Regeneration 255 ( 1927 ) regards the mechanical or
physiological conduction between the leaf and the growing points of
stem and root as important factors in inducing their development.
Mehrlich ( 1931 ) exposed plants to a wide range of environmental
factors in an attempt to solve the problem. In the activity of certain
enzymes and in the relative amounts of carbohydrates, he noticed a
difference between leaves in which the foliar embryos grew out and
those where they did not. Varietal differences were also evident.
Gotz (1953) finds that plantlets grow out readily in long days but
that short days tend to inhibit them. They are accelerated if the Fig.
9-12. Section through a notch on the leaf of Kalanchoe, showing a
preformed "foliar embryo" with two leaf primordia below and a root
primordium above, buried in the tissue. (From E. E. Naylor.) vessels
between lamina and petiole are cut or if auxin levels are low (Vardar
and Acarer, 1957). Other Crassulaceae differ in some respects from
Kalanchoe. In Byrnesia weinbergii, Stoudt (1934) found that the
foliar meristem from which a plantlet comes is at the base of the
blade, not the margin. It is quite undifferentiated and will not
develop until the leaf is removed from the plant. In Sedum
(Yarbrough, 1936c) there are no preformed meristems at all, but
these arise after the leaf is detached. In Crassula multicava
(McVeigh, 1938) a still different condition occurs and one
reminiscent of Begonia and Saintpaulia, for here, after a leaf has
been kept for a time in a moist chamber, plantlets begin to develop.
Entire plants— not the shoot alone, as in many other cases— have
 256 The Phenomena of Morphogenesis their origin in single
epidermal cells. These cells are not only presumably but
demonstrably totipotent. In a considerable number of forms the
reproductive structures arising in regeneration are not plantlets,
already differentiated and ready to start growth, but dormant,
almost seed-like structures. In Lilium tigrinum, for example, in the
axils of the upper leaves there are, instead of buds, hard black
bulbils which fall off and produce new plants. Detached scale leaves
in a number of the Liliaceae form adventive buds or bulbils from
their bases. On leaves of Hyacinthus, removed from the plant,
similar structures may be formed, but Naylor (1940) has shown that
in this case they do not come from preformed meristematic tissue
but develop from epidermal and subepidermal cells. In many ferns
vegetative cells of the prothallus may produce sporophytes by
apogamy. Aposporous gametophytes are also frequently formed,
especially on isolated juvenile leaves. Lawton ( 1932, 1936 ) was
able to induce apospory in 13 species of ferns and obtained from
them tetraploid sporophytes by methods similar to those used in
mosses. Aposporous structures are often strictly gametophytic, but
Beyerle (1932) found adventive structures in 34 fern species to
include sporophytic buds, undifferentiated structures, prothallia, and
bodies intermediate between sporophytes and prothallia (reviews by
Du Buy and Neurnbergk, 1938, and Steil, 1939, 1951). Regeneration
in the fern sporophyte often results in the production of new plants.
Buds may be formed on leaves and roots, and foliar embryos
resembling those of higher plants may be produced, as in
Camptosorus ( McVeigh, 1934; Yarbrough, 1936£> ) . A review of
reproductive regeneration in ferns, covering 35 genera and 197
species, has been made by McVeigh (1937). There should also be
mentioned a special kind of reproductive regeneration that occurs in
vegetative tissues of the embryo sac and ovule, by which embryos
develop from synergids, antipodal cells, or cells of the nucellus and
not only from the fertilized egg (Lebeqne, 1952). Strasburger (1877)
called this adventive polyembryony (as opposed to cleavage
polyembryony, p. 235 ) . Examples of this are known in Funkia,
Coelebogyne, Citrus, and others (review by Webber, 1940). The
embryos here formed somewhat resemble the foliar embryos of the
Crassulaceae and similar plants. Though sometimes started in their
development by a regenerative stimulus, these are cases of specific
reproductive processes made possible by the totipotence of cells in
various vegetative portions of the plant and which in a way are
comparable to asexual propagation by spores. In recent years
experimental work on morphogenetic problems has been concerned
primarily with the effects of environmental factors,
 Regeneration 257 particularly light and physiologically
active substances. There is still opportunity for fruitful investigation
through an experimental manipulation of the developmental process
itself, especially by work on problems of regeneration such as have
been discussed in this chapter. The significant results of earlier
botanical workers in this field, now cultivated somewhat less actively
than in the past, could be extended very profitably by supplementing
the older methods with the advantages of modern techniques.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com