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         
                    
A Publication of the Society of Dance History Scholars

  

The Origins of the Bolero School, edited by Javier Suárez-Pajares and Xoán M. Carreira

Carlo Blasis in Russia by Elizabeth Souritz, with preface by Selma Jeanne Cohen

Of, By, and For the People: Dancing on the Left in the 1930s, edited by Lynn Garafola

Dancing in Montreal: Seeds of a Choreographic History by Iro Tembeck

The Making of a Choreographer: Ninette de Valois and “Bar aux Folies-Bergère” by Beth Genné

Ned Wayburn and the Dance Routine: From Vaudeville to the “Ziegfeld Follies” by Barbara
Stratyner

Rethinking the Sylph: New Perspectives on the Romantic Ballet, edited by Lynn Garafola
(available from the University Press of New England)

Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War by Naima Prevots, with introduction
by Eric Foner (available from the University Press of New England)

José Limón: An Unfinished Memoir, edited by Lynn Garafola, with introduction by

Deborah Jowitt, foreword by Carla Maxwell, and afterword by Norton Owen
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Dancing Desires: Choreographing Sexualities on and off the Stage, edited by Jane C. Desmond

Dancing Many Drums: Excavations in African American Dance, edited by Thomas F. DeFrantz

Writings on Ballet and Music, by Fedor Lopukhov, edited and with an introduction by
Stephanie Jordan, translations by Dorinda Offord

Liebe Hanya: Mary Wigman’s Letters to Hanya Holm, compiled and edited by Claudia
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The Grotesque Dancer on the Eighteenth-Century Stage: Gennaro Magri and His World, edited by
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Kaiso! Writings by and about Katherine Dunham, edited by VèVè A. Clark and Sara E.
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Dancing from Past to Present: Nation, Culture, Identities, edited by Theresa Jill Buckland
Dancing from Past
to Present
Nation, Culture, Identities

Edited by

            

    

 The University of Wisconsin Press
1930 Monroe Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53711

www.wisc.edu/wisconsinpress/

3 Henrietta Street
London WC2E 8LU, England

Copyright © 2006
The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System
All rights reserved

1 3 5 4 2

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dancing from past to present: nation, culture, identities /
edited by Theresa Jill Buckland.
p. cm.—(Studies in dance history)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-299-21850-3 (cloth: alk. paper)
ISBN 0-299-21854-6 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. Dance—History. 2. Dance—Anthropological aspects.
I. Buckland, Theresa. II. Series: Studies in dance history (unnumbered).
GV1601.D36 2006
793.3109—dc22 2006008620
    

Preface vii
Acknowledgments xi

1 Dance, History, and Ethnography: Frameworks,

Sources, and Identities of Past and Present 3
     
2 Dances and Dancing in Tonga: Anthropological
and Historical Discourses 25
    .  
3 Constructing a Classical Tradition: Javanese Court
Dance in Indonesia 52
       - 
4 Utopia, Eutopia, and E.U.-topia: Performance and
Memory in Former Yugoslavia 75
   .  
5 Qualities of Memory: Two Dances of the Tortugas
Fiesta, New Mexico 97
   
6 Dancing through History and Ethnography: Indian
Classical Dance and the Performance of the Past 123
   ’  
7 Interpreting the Historical Record: Using Images of
Korean Dance for Understanding the Past 153
     
8 Romani Dance Event in Skopje, Macedonia: Research
Strategies, Cultural Identities, and Technologies 175
       

v
vi Contents

9 Being Traditional: Authentic Selves and Others in

Researching Late-Twentieth-Century Northwest
English Morris Dancing 199
      

Selected Further Reading 231

Contributors 239
Index 241
  

This book has two principal goals. First, it aims to stimulate debate on
the combined use of ethnographic and historical strategies in investigat-
ing dance as embodied cultural practice. Second, it aims to expand the
field of mainstream dance studies by focusing on examples beyond typi-
cally Eurocentric conceptualizations of concert dance. The eight essays
presented here constitute a specially commissioned collection of case
studies on dancing in Tonga, Java, Bosnia-Herzegovina, New Mexico,
India, Korea, Macedonia, and England. Each author was asked to root
discussion in her or his own long-term ethnographic inquiry and to
reflect upon issues of past and present within the dance practice inves-
tigated. Authors were also invited to discuss their relationship to the
research. The resultant collection provides examples not only of the
making of histories and identities through bodily practices, but also of
the part that disciplinary frameworks, methodology, and autobiography
play in determining selection and interpretation. The balance of this
collection lies with researchers of dance whose investigations did not
begin with history; rather they turned toward the diachronic perspec-
tive in order to shed light on present cultural meanings.
Scholarly examination of “the past” might not immediately suggest
the research focus of the human sciences as social scientists traditionally
concentrate their attention on the present, initially at least. Such was the
starting point for all the contributors to this volume. Traditionally too,
social scientists are concerned more with understanding communal
than individual practice. Again, this is a characteristic of the essays,
apart from one example ( Janet O’Shea), in which the practice of indi-
viduals is examined in relation to interpretations of shared pasts. Taken
as a whole, the collection of essays sheds light upon continuities and

vii
viii Preface

disruptions in codified movement systems, interrogates attributions of

significance and power to particular dance forms, and scrutinizes social
and political agency behind a rhetoric that may foreground dance as
cultural expression by reference to specific “past(s).” The inquiry has
been undertaken through the explicit juxtaposition of ethnographic and
historical frameworks. The concentration is on dance practices typically
associated with particular cultural groups professing national, ethnic, or
regional identities. Such identification may be challenged within the es-
says, and differing interpretations of the working processes of ethno-
graphic and historical inquiry are evident. Nonetheless, the emphasis
upon empirically based studies, resulting from long immersion in what-
ever constitutes the “ethnographic community,” is a collective feature.
Not every writer in this volume, of course, would necessarily con-
sider herself or himself first and foremost as a social scientist. Some con-
tributors work in university dance departments or dance organizations
and may have training that parallels or draws upon aspects of the social
sciences; others do hold specific qualifications as social scientists and are
institutionally situated in such disciplines. The resultant treatment of
the selected dance practices across this volume addresses a number of
research questions that reach across past and present documentation
and interpretation of dance practices. In answering such questions, the
research requires techniques and analytical models beyond those tradi-
tionally associated with a single framework of inquiry. What brings the
authors together here is less a single shared theoretical vision and more
an interest in issues and knowledge gained from dancing across both
pasts and presents.
Obviously, the collection does not represent every academic dis-
course that utilizes ethnography as a major methodology. Evident
absences are sociology and cultural studies, both fields that have made
innovative contributions to advancing dance knowledge and under-
standing.1 The principal academic frameworks used here are anthro-
pology, dance ethnology, folk life studies, dance history, and perform-
ance studies. The essays demonstrate variation in the ways in which
the researcher, as a result of his or her training, may relate to people
and their practices. Even where the authors explicitly locate themselves
within one disciplinary field, there exist differences of approach. Three
essays are written from within anthropology (Adrienne Kaeppler,
Felicia Hughes-Freeland, and Lynn Maners), but the specific treatment
emerges from the separate schools of ethnoscience, social anthropology,
Preface ix

and cultural anthropology, respectively. Dance ethnology may con-

stitute the disciplinary base for the essays by Judy Van Zile and Elsie
Ivancich Dunin, but each author’s treatment of the overall theme by no
means suggests a uniformity of engagement. The interpretations pro-
vide reminders that even if the writers have a declared “home” disci-
pline, they also exercise individual theoretical and methodological pref-
erences. Moreover, all authors respond to different influences in dealing
with their material in relation to the book’s theme. Interdisciplinary ten-
dencies evident in this collection may result from the author’s training
in more than one academic discipline and/or her or his openness to en-
gaging with literature beyond the declared home discipline.
Each case study is concerned with a dance practice that is popularly
seen as “other” to Euro-American-derived concert dance. The specific-
ities of each essay refute any overarching tendency toward monolithic
conceptualizations of world dance cultures. Hughes-Freeland’s study,
for example, reveals the fluid diversity of dance practice that belies the
current seeming stability and tightly defined notion of classical dance in
Indonesia. O’Shea discusses differing beliefs between individuals who
perform a genre that is often popularly and erroneously referred to in a
generalized fashion as “Indian dance.” Even within the arguably more
familiar terrain of scholarship on dancing in Europe, the three essays by
Maners, Dunin, and Theresa Buckland examine dancing that has devel-
oped within particular historical, socioeconomic, and political situa-
tions. The selection of dance forms and geographies in this volume,
then, is intended to contribute to redressing the long-standing balance in
dance studies, observed by many, that “classist and racist ideologies . . .
assigned the past and present of the socioculturally powerful to ‘history’
and ‘criticism,’ and the past and present of everyone else to ‘anthropol-
ogy/ethnography.’”2
This situation is changing, albeit slowly. It might be argued that this
particular assemblage of case studies in one volume perpetuates such a
division. At this juncture in the early twenty-first century, however, the
appearance of eight specialist essays within a mainstream book series
that is dedicated to dance history is symptomatic of the increasing profile
of the traditionally perceived “other” in dance academia. The volume
highlights sustained inquiry around a particular theme; it is not designed
as a collection of examples under the umbrella of “world dance,” a term
that has replaced, often without full critical interrogation, that of “ethnic
dance.” The essays presented here are representative of the regions that
x Preface

have been studied from both ethnographic and historical perspectives.

The original conception included material on Africa and the African di-
asporas, but, regrettably, the few knowledgeable scholars working in
this area were already pressed to contribute their research in a variety of
avenues. Considerable effort was made to elicit a suitable essay, but
both the timeframe and comparative paucity of research activity con-
spired against inclusion in this volume. Such a situation needs to be ad-
dressed in dance scholarship, not least to bear witness to the voices of
minority scholars. It is hoped that the examples within this volume will
prompt further publications on this theme of communal dancing pasts
and presents; not least with respect to the various dance practices of
Africa but also those of China, South America, and Australasia.

 
1. See, in particular, the works of Helen Thomas, for example, The Body,
Dance, and Cultural Theory (Basingstoke, Hampshire, and New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2003); and those of Jane C. Desmond, an influential example being
her “Embodying Difference: Issues in Dance and Cultural Studies,” in Meaning
in Motion: New Cultural Studies of Dance, ed. Jane C. Desmond (Durham and Lon-
don: Duke University Press, 1997), 29–54.
2. Kent De Spain, “Review of Ann Dils and Ann Cooper Albright, eds.,
Moving History/Dancing Cultures,” Dance Research Journal 34, no. 1 (2002): 106. See
also John O. Perpner III’s thoughtful critique, “Cultural Diversity and Dance
History Research,” in Researching Dance: Evolving Modes of Inquiry, ed. Sondra
Horton Fraleigh and Penelope Hanstein (London: Dance Books, 1999), 334–51.
     

The impetus for this collection began at the 20th Symposium of the
International Council for Traditional Music Study Group on Ethno-
choreology in 1998 when a major theme was traditional dance and its
historical sources. In addition to new historical research, a number of
often contrasting theoretical and methodological approaches to dance
study was exposed at this international meeting. These differences were
frequently the result of geographical circumstances and intellectual tra-
ditions in the practices of dance history and dance ethnography that
cried out for more overt acknowledgment and sustained treatment.
Since 1998, there has been ongoing expansion in scholarly investigation
across dance practices worldwide. Such developments, I would argue,
coupled with further questioning of how we conduct dance research,
have made the potential of juxtaposing dance history and dance eth-
nography even more relevant to the future direction of dance studies.
I am therefore most grateful to the editorial board of the Society of
Dance History Scholars, especially to Lynn Garafola, then its chair, for
recognizing the value of such a project for inclusion in their highly re-
garded series on dance and for offering advice. Ann Cooper Albright as
the new chair has continued to champion and advance the volume’s
production through helpful recommendations. Greatly appreciated too
has been the generous advice and attention to detail received from the
staff at the University of Wisconsin Press.
My thanks also go to my own institution, De Montfort University,
Leicester, for ongoing support and financial help to facilitate com-
pletion of the project. Thanks too to all those colleagues, Thomas
DeFrantz in particular, who came so quickly to my assistance in provid-
ing ideas and answers when chapter commissions unfortunately could

xi
xii Acknowledgments

not be realized. I would also like to thank Trvtko Zebec for his swift and
effective help in selecting and providing photographs.
For a considerable period in this book’s gestation, Georgiana Gore
acted as coeditor until time pressures unfortunately prevented her con-
tinuing participation. This present collection would undoubtedly be
much the poorer without her insightful editorial comments, sharp intel-
lectual input, and stimulating discussions in the earlier phases. Several
of the contributors to this volume and I have benefited greatly from her
suggestions.
This book could never have been realized without the ongoing pa-
tience of the contributors, who have toiled tirelessly in response to some-
times lengthy and frequent editorial requests; my grateful thanks to all.
An invaluable figure in the background, but whose participation has
been very much “hands-on,” has been Chris Jones, whose critical edito-
rial eye, expert advice, and unflagging commitment to the project have
been faultless. Added to this, her unbelievable patience, good humor,
and encouragement make her a treasured companion on any editorial
journey.
Finally, I would like to express my appreciation to my husband for
his unfailing support in listening and inspiring me to bring this volume
to fruition.
         
World map: Main locations cited in the text. Map by Stephen Heath.
 1

Dance, History, and Ethnography

Frameworks, Sources, and Identities
of Past and Present
  

Ethnography and history, as methodologies through which dance may

be researched, suggest contrasting spheres of space and time. For the
dance ethnographer, her or his usual territory is that of the field, where
source materials are created through the researcher’s systematic de-
scription of the transient actions and words of people dancing in the
present. For the dance historian, the familiar realm is the archive, where
extant sources, often fragmentary and sparse, have been created by
people other than the researcher, who now employs their surviving arti-
facts as testimony to the dancing of the past. Stereotypically, the dance
ethnographer investigates the customary dance practices of an aggre-
gate of people, such as an ethnic or cultural group. The dance historian
more frequently focuses on individuals or perhaps a dance company,
often seeking evidence of innovative rather than consensual activity.
In the twenty-first century, such a neat division into mutually exclu-
sive territories no longer holds; nor indeed, as this book demonstrates,
were such strict demarcations ever wholly operative in dance research.
Some branches of ethnography, in the Eastern European and Scandina-
vian disciplines of ethnology, ethnography, and folk life studies, explicitly

3
4         

aimed to document dances from the past by seeking out older ways of
life to record for posterity.1 From the middle of the twentieth century,
some historians of dance, influenced by Western European and North
American practices of oral history, for example, similarly found sources
among the living about dancing that was no longer performed.2 In pur-
suing dance research, it has not always been easy, nor necessarily desir-
able, to ignore the potential benefits to be gained by combining syn-
chronic and diachronic perspectives.
Both ethnography and history may be found interrelated in studies
of dance that, for their theoretical and methodological frameworks, are
located in anthropology, ethnology, cultural studies, social and cultural
history, performance studies, sociology, ethnomusicology, and folklore
studies. There are also the hybrid disciplines that clearly indicate their
focus on dance, as in dance anthropology, dance ethnology, and ethno-
choreology. As a comparatively new subject within academia, dance
studies in general draws upon established disciplinary frameworks in
which ethnographic and historical methods have already taken on dis-
tinctive hues that may not always be immediately evident to the dance
researcher’s eye. Very often the precise meaning of ethnography and
history when applied within a particular discipline may be the result of
certain intellectual traditions and geographical circumstances. There
is, for example, no consensus about the meaning of the term “ethnog-
raphy,” even within its home disciplinary bases of the social sciences. It
is beyond the scope of this introductory chapter to explore the detailed
and diverse terrain of disciplinary legacies, differences, and correspon-
dences in their application to dance. But some background to the older
traditions of dance ethnography and dance history, together with some
reflections on past and present sources and identities of dance, are pre-
sented here as a frame through which the essays that constitute this
book may be viewed.

Disciplinary Frameworks and Questions of Context

The terms “ethnography” and “history” share the characteristics of re-

ferring simultaneously to their practice and to their end result. In most
West European and North American practice, ethnography is a meth-
odology that deals with the present and typically concludes in a book
known as an ethnographic monograph or ethnography. History—or,
Dance, History, and Ethnography 5

more properly, the historical method—similarly signals a methodology

but investigates the past to produce a history, also most often in book
form. The practice of dance history and the production of dance histo-
ries were established features of mainstream dance scholarship for much
of the twentieth century.
For most of that period, mainstream dance scholarship in North
America concentrated on dance as an art form. This was certainly the
case during the late 1960s when dancer and anthropologist Joann Kea-
liinohomoku wrote her seminal article on ballet as an ethnic form of
dance.3 Research that addressed consensual meanings and the socio-
cultural contextualization of dance was regarded as the sole concern of
anthropologists. Anthropologists, unlike most dance scholars, predomi-
nantly studied supposedly oral, homogenous societies that were posi-
tioned as “other” to so-called civilized and literate white European and
North American society.4 Oral cultures were believed to possess no his-
tory since there were often no literary records to study their pasts. In
any case anthropologists sought to understand the present of cultures as
holistic systems, an aim for which the methodology of ethnography—
documenting and explaining the present—was essential. Culture, in the
broad anthropological sense of a discrete systematic totality of socially
transmitted beliefs, values, institutions, and practices, became a hugely
influential concept across academia in the later twentieth century, even
if debate raged over its usefulness as an analytical construct both within
and outside its home discipline.5
In the 1960s, though, for most dance scholars, the term “culture”
had quite another meaning. Culture was instead understood as synony-
mous with “high” art. This meaning, as elucidated by Victorian literary
critic Matthew Arnold, equated culture with “the best which has been
thought and said.”6 Such a definition positioned popular or vernacu-
lar artistic expression in opposition, so that the category of culture as
“high” accorded with the preferred arts of the aristocracy and bourgeoi-
sie. Artifacts and practices eligible for the designation of “culture,”
furthermore, were evaluated by Eurocentric criteria for the label of
“art.” This socially hierarchical and evolutionist conception of culture
continued to hold sway in the middle of the twentieth century, and most
dance scholars were not unusual in professing it. In line with other arts
and humanities subjects, those forms and practices deemed by society to
possess high aesthetic value were granted primacy as sources for aca-
demic investigation.7 Accordingly, dance forms other than ballet and
6         

modern dance were ranked lower in this order of aesthetic values and
received less attention.
Those scholars interested in the arts of non-Western cultures, or in
forms and practices other than those regarded as high culture, sought
theoretical perspectives and methodologies that aimed to circumvent
Eurocentric and evolutionist bias. Their work owed much to the out-
look of the human sciences, particularly to the discipline of anthropol-
ogy.8 In these studies, following classical anthropology, the focus was
upon contemporary manifestations of movement in societies that had
been colonized and where the retrieval of history was not a priority.
Classically trained anthropologists preferred to designate the field of
study as that of culturally codified human movement systems. They
thus highlighted the fact that the concept of dance was not necessarily
universal and underscored anthropological concern with indigenous
conceptualizations of dance and related phenomena.9
Anthropological thinking had a shaping influence on the discipline
of dance ethnology in the dance department at the University of Cali-
fornia, Los Angeles (UCLA). Unlike studies of dance conducted from
within departments of anthropology, here there was greater use of lit-
erature from the European disciplines of ethnology, ethnography, and
folk life studies.10 In European ethnographic studies of dance, it was not
necessary to question what conceptually constituted dance, since the
object of inquiry was the dance of one’s own culture. Another charac-
teristic of European ethnographic study was the status of the past and its
continuing relevance to the present.
In Eastern Europe, much of the research on dance was carried out
within the long established and government-funded institutes of ethnol-
ogy and ethnography, where the folk paradigm continues to dominate.11
In North America and Western Europe, the concept of “the people” or
“the folk” has been subject to considerable critique since the second half
of the twentieth century, even where the disciplines of folklore studies
and folk life studies have been maintained within the university sector.12
In this academic context, the early-twentieth-century conceptualiza-
tions and practices of anthropology and folk studies have been the sub-
ject of political interrogation, especially with respect to their construc-
tion in and contribution to the maintenance of power inequalities. If the
ongoing legacies of colonialism have been the source of much debate in
classical anthropology, in folk studies the major dispute has concerned
political affiliations with nationalism.13 Through this examination,
Dance, History, and Ethnography 7

the concept of the folk has been revealed as an ideological construct

whereby rural communities and their older practices were perceived by
the intelligentsia as survivals from an ancient, pure culture.
This “folk culture” had become a resource for asserting specific
ethnic and ultimately national identity and was principally constructed
in opposition to European high culture. With respect to dance categor-
ization, cosmopolitan genres such as ballet were positioned as com-
paratively recent, individually and consciously created sophisticated art
forms, in contrast to primitive, simple “natural” folk dances that arose
as a collective spontaneous expression of a people’s spirit. The songs,
dances, poetry, costume, dialect, and so on of the peasantry were col-
lected as relics of antiquity since such expressive forms were believed to
be dying out in the advance of modernity. The process and motivation
behind this form of cultural rescue archaeology shared similar aims to
that of nineteenth-century anthropological activities, and both shared
an evolutionist perspective.14 It was deemed essential to collect the signs
of primitive and folk cultures for posterity, before they became contam-
inated by modern civilization and disappeared in the wake of urbaniza-
tion and industrialization.
Given the significance of history in nation building and in articulat-
ing ancient ethnic identities, a diachronic perspective has been an inte-
gral part of folk studies for most of its existence. The political signifi-
cance of history has ensured a continuous emphasis on selecting dance
forms with long histories of performance tied to place or ethnicity.
Largely as a result of the political situation when much pioneering work
on dance was carried out in Eastern Europe during the Cold War years
of 1945–89, the dominant attention was not so much on issues of socio-
cultural context but on the dance forms themselves.15
The past has been granted a differing status in classical forms of
anthropology and folk studies, having been viewed as irrelevant to
scholarly exegeses of cultural practices in the former and pivotal to
those of the latter. As suggested above, however, this broad character-
ization does not reveal the nuances and exceptions in approach that
came increasingly to the fore from the 1970s onward. In the extensive
literature in anthropology that does engage with historical perspectives
are a number of works on dance such as those by Adrienne Kaeppler,
Cynthia Novack, Sally Ann Ness, and Zoila S. Mendoza.16 In late-
twentieth-century writings, proper attention to colonialist legacies has
necessitated engagement with the past, not in a naive replacement of
8         

the colonizer’s histories with those of the colonized, but in a critical rec-
ognition of their mutually constitutive nature.17 Within the broad frame
of folk studies, as pursued in North America, Britain, and Scandinavia
in particular, challenges to nationalist legacies in the scholarship have
resulted in critiques of dance scholarship and practice that have arisen
from examination of historical records, both written and oral.18 Beyond
these more established paradigms of anthropology and folk studies,
ethnographic and historical perspectives on dance have been utilized
within the fields of cultural studies, performance studies, and sociology.
A clear indication of growing interest in ethnographic perspectives on
dance is the specialized designation of “dance ethnography.” The appli-
cation of this label emerged more purposefully from the New York
school of performance studies during the 1990s to indicate a specific
focus on dance as embodied cultural knowledge. Exploration of this
premise is realized through methodological and theoretical approaches,
drawn from feminism and postmodern anthropology to address the dis-
tinctive nature of an ethnographic practice that is “necessarily grounded
in the body and the body’s experience.”19 Elsewhere, as in my own
usage of the term, the term “dance ethnography” has been employed as
an umbrella term to embrace a variety of intellectual traditions and
theoretical positions.20
There has been considerable cross-fertilization between disciplines
that have traditionally used ethnographic and historical perspectives in
the study of dance and increasingly so, following both the fall of the Ber-
lin Wall in 1989 and the earlier shift toward dismantling disciplinary
boundaries in the arts and humanities in the late twentieth century.
Nonetheless, all terms and methodologies have legacies, and it must be
remembered that the selection of disciplinary context is fundamental to
both methodological procedures and analytical outcomes. The choice
of social context through which to investigate dance emerges from the
choice of disciplinary context. The social context, however defined,
whether as the anthropological understanding of “culture” or as ethnic
group in the concept of “the folk,” provides both frame and resources
for interpretation. The problem with all contexts, of course, is that they
are “constructed for specific purposes and thus always negotiable, which
makes futile any attempts at defining contexts substantively.”21 This
means that it is imperative for researchers and readers to make public
the circumstances of their choice and to identify as far as possible ensu-
ing implications for their interpretation of dance.
Dance, History, and Ethnography 9

Ethnography and History:

Methodologies and Sources for Dance

The differing contexts of “culture” and “folk,” in whatever guise they

are utilized as an interpretive framework, lead to differing practices in
the methodology of ethnography and in the delineation of the field.
Typically, ethnography in classical anthropology has entailed long pe-
riods of a year or more living within the selected society, which tradi-
tionally has been far from the researcher’s normal country of residence.
The focus continues to be on the present. In folk studies, in contrast, the
researcher tends to work within her or his own country and undertakes
more restricted field trips. This latter style is generally characteristic of
ethnographic work undertaken in sociology, a discipline in which eth-
nography has been practiced since the early twentieth century. British
sociologist Helen Thomas characterizes ethnography as an
in-depth study of a culture, institution and context over a sustained
period of time, which is usually longer for anthropologists than sociolo-
gists. Ethnographic research employs a range of methods and tech-
niques such as participant-observation, interviews, filed [sic field]
notes, audio and visual recordings and, in the case of dance, movement
analysis. The aims of ethnography, the (far/near) relation between rep-
resentation and reality and the observer and the observed, are subject
to debate and largely depend on the theoretical, political and/or
methodological stance of the individual researcher.22
One thing is clear: ethnography is not a set of methods to collect data.
Nor is it value-free description. In anthropology and sociology, the aims
of ethnography are to analyze and interpret the perspectives and evalu-
ative concerns of insiders; it is not to impose judgments, explicit or im-
plicit, that are derived from the researcher’s own cultural position. In
this approach, the fieldwork is normally conducted by an individual. In
Eastern European ethnography, the aims have been to observe, docu-
ment, and analyze the cultural forms as manifestations of past and
present ethnic identities. More typically here, the research is conducted
by a team composed of specialists in different cultural forms, such as
music, song, and costume.23
Aside from distinctions relating to intellectual traditions across dif-
fering continents, over the twentieth century and into the twenty-first,
ethnography has been utilized in a myriad of ways across a diverse
range of disciplines. Within the narrower band of the social sciences as
10         

formulated in Western Europe and North America, it “escapes ready

summary definitions. . . . [and] has become a site of debate and contes-
tation within and across disciplinary boundaries.”24 Ethnography’s
exact interpretation and application have never been uniform in an-
thropology, sociology, and folk studies, but within these contexts eth-
nography has at least a common history of initial development within
the positivist paradigms of the early twentieth century.25 It was believed
that if the fieldwork had been conducted properly in the first place with
sufficient scholarly precision and objectivity, the results could be rep-
licated on subsequent visits and by other equally proficient ethnog-
raphers. This “scientific method” underpins the ethnography practiced
in much of Eastern Europe, where the very term of “ethnography” also
signals a disciplinary framework that remains very much rooted within
positivist sensibilities. The aim to document traditional rural culture for
posterity relies upon belief in a past that can be systematically and ob-
jectively recorded.
In the wake of postmodernism, these once cherished certainties,
believed to be indicative of true scientific method, have broken down
in the practice of ethnography across much of Western Europe and
North America. The post-positivist climate has led to recognition that
however much rigor the ethnographer exercises, the field does not
have a static existence in “reality”; results cannot be replicated. So, too,
the once strict division between “insider informant” and “outsider re-
searcher,” positioned as such in the name of objective scholarship, has
also undergone considerable criticism in the post-positivist climate. The
notion of the field as a site of inquiry has itself been subject to much de-
bate, being recognized as just as much a construction of historical, so-
ciocultural, and personal circumstance as the data discovered within
it. Despite the crises surrounding ethnography in Western Europe and
North America, the methodology has emerged, having undergone the
fires of intense criticism, still recognizable as a distinctive practice, if
perhaps differently forged than earlier in the twentieth century.26
Such epistemological concerns have equally swept across the study of
the past. The impact of post-positivist “new history” on dance historiog-
raphy has enjoyed greater prominence in mainstream dance scholarship
than that of reflexive ethnography, largely as a result of dance academ-
ia’s traditions of scholarly interest.27 Increasing engagement with ideas
that the past can only be known through the present, that it is particu-
larized and subject to manipulation, has opened up new territories for
Dance, History, and Ethnography 11

research and debate. In the new history, there can be no one “true” ac-
count of a historical event, as recognition of multiple perspectives reveals
the complexities underlying what was once selected and interpreted as
singular fact; for “when it comes to the historical record, there are no
grounds to be found in the record itself for preferring one way of con-
struing its meaning rather than another.”28
Not only does the researcher shape the field of inquiry that is deter-
mined as the past or the present, but historical or ethnographic sources
are inevitably part of that shifting process. Recognition of and engage-
ment with issues and dilemmas raised by post-positivism, however,
should not necessarily lead to anarchical clouds of unknowing in the
pursuit of ethnographic and historical methodologies in studying dance.
Nor should they ever be an excuse for not following precise scholarly
procedures of critical evaluation and reflection upon source materials,
whether they have been garnered in the past or present.

Evaluating Past and Present Sources for Dance

In moving from the present to the past in research into dance as cultural
practice, the investigator has a number of source materials at her or his
disposal, including personally recorded ethnographic field notes or those
written by previous researchers; taped interviews; traditional historical
sources such as journal entries, diaries, and letters; iconographic ma-
terial such as paintings and photographs; audiovisual records of film and
videotape; and personal memory in both its traditionally understood
meaning as a product of “mind” and as an embodied manifestation.
Traditionally, written evidence has been deemed the province of
historians; the oral, that of anthropologists and folklorists. The oral tra-
ditions of so-called folk and primitive cultures were judged through Eu-
ropean literate eyes to be poor history and therefore rarely admissible as
factual evidence. Since the mid-twentieth century, however, the disci-
pline of history has largely rejected the former hierarchical relationship
between oral and written testimonies.29 Historians accept that the writ-
ten is not necessarily any more reliable than the oral, both being situa-
tional records of perceived realities. Furthermore, within the disciplines
of anthropology, folk studies, and history, there has been increased rec-
ognition that in the construction of histories, both written and oral, the
interaction and interreliance of evidence stemming from both types of
12         

material is often richly complex.30 To an extent, of course, ethnography

is always history, in that the events recorded have already passed in
time. But the ethnographer usually has the benefit of moving people to
observe, imitate, and hopefully interact with when pursuing an investi-
gation; not so the researcher of the past, the historian, who must locate
and interpret sources that bear witness to the transient nature of dance.
In the majority of dance scholarship, both past and present, most of
the documentation has been made by those external to the dancing it-
self, even if witnessed at source. Both anthropology and history as disci-
plines owe their existence to textualizing practices. The ethnographer
commits her or his observations to a variety of texts, both written and
visual, before drawing upon them to create the written monograph.
The historian, as dance scholar and anthropologist Georgiana Gore ob-
serves, normally uses the records of other people. She points out that
both anthropologist and historian require the legitimating “presence of
the author.”31 This is a vital process of validation in both ethnographic
and historical methodology, although the motivation and positioning of
the author should always be subject to questioning. In distinguishing
between first- and second-hand testimonies, “the source which in his-
tory is considered primary . . . would be generally considered secondary
in anthropology.”32 An anthropologist or folklorist is the author of the
written field notes, the taker of the photograph, the maker of the film,
the notator of the dances, or the recorder of the interview. A historian’s
primary sources, on the other hand, have always been constructed by
somebody else. Yet a further distinction occurs between the anthropol-
ogist and the folklorist in their written documentation. The folklorist’s
field notes have always been written for public consumption; she or he
creates records as historical documents, in the sure knowledge of their
future use in the archive. There has always been an intended audience.
Not so the traditional anthropologist whose field notes and journals
have typically been private documents.33
Traditional textual sources of the past frequently prove fragmentary,
scattered, and sparse. In contrast, sources of the present may appear to
offer a clear route to the lost past. Individual oral testimony has a long
and rich history of being fruitfully mined in folk studies to recover past
practices in dance. But testimonies articulated in language, whether in
oral or written form, are not the only sources in the present. When con-
ceived as a repository of cultural meanings both past and present, the
moving body may be a source to be observed and documented from the
Dance, History, and Ethnography 13

outside.34 Traces of the past may be discovered in the ways in which

people execute particular movements and use their bodies; but caution
needs to be exercised. Researchers of today do not possess the same
bodies as those constituted in different material and symbolic circum-
stances of particular pasts.35 When attempting to uncover cultural val-
ues of the past in present dance forms, other source materials need to be
consulted in elucidating this archaeology of the body. The physical biog-
raphy of the individual dancer may not always be the same as the ideal-
ized cultural notions of the dancer’s body—age, injury, and health may
transform earlier practices, and as a living, moving source, the body
may not always replicate with exactitude the moves of the past. Treating
“the body” as a text to be read carries inherent dangers of objectification
and Cartesian dualities of inner/outer meaning. But new strategies have
arisen in a seemingly phenomenologically driven approach to under-
standing the moving body from an ethnographic perspective.
In ethnographic descriptions of dancing in the present, it has be-
come a favored technique since the 1990s to use the researcher’s body as
a means of access to information.36 Cultural embodiment is explored
through the researcher’s participation in and reflection upon the danc-
ing. Movement competence in the cultural forms on the part of the re-
searcher has always been an essential strategy of dance scholarship since
at least the 1950s, but as Sally Ann Ness makes clear, the later mode of
participation as a research tactic is of a different order.37 One obvious
difference to the objectified ethnographic descriptions of the earlier in-
quiries has been the foregrounding of participation. The researcher’s
own movement experiences become part of the means of comparative
analysis. Such an approach is not without its epistemological dangers, as
anthropologist and semasiologist Brenda Farnell has argued.38 None-
theless, the “I” persona as a source, dancing and reflecting on sensation
and meaning, has produced a significant extension and alternative to
earlier objective modes of analysis. In this endeavor, the methodology
of embodied practice in late-twentieth-century ethnography, despite
obvious analogies, is not, according to Ness, phenomenological in its
inquiry, since the aim is to gain, rather than to “bracket out” cultural
understanding. In these examinations of the dancing self as culturally
embodied, the individual’s potential location in relation to the parame-
ters and associated values of time and space operates within a largely
consensual framework of meaning. The performance and representa-
tion of self in such studies, though, is not reduced to that of static and
14         

“perfect replicants of some cultural template.”39 Instead, the process af-

fords opportunity to explore embodied cultural knowledge as tempo-
rally and spatially dynamic, situational in its meaning, and creative in
the interstices of personal and communal histories that reach across ex-
periences of researcher and researched. Such departures of inquiry are
often inextricably, though not exclusively, linked with issues of identity.

Constructing Identities through Dance:

Mythic Pasts and Cultural Memory
Postmodern scholarship has challenged notions of identity as being
singular and essential in character, treating the performance of identity
as historical and sociocultural. Since the 1980s, a considerable literature
has viewed dance performance through the lenses of gender, race, eth-
nicity, nation, and age, all of which have diachronic trajectories to ex-
plore; “any activity or practice, the agents who engage in them and the
patients who are their subjects, are themselves partly a consequence
of, but are not fully determined by, past practices and activities.”40
Whether we construe the contexts of past(s) as culture, national heri-
tage, tradition, local history, or oral history, affiliation to the particular
construct and its use in the present often serves the needs and aspira-
tions of personal and communal identities. The use of dance as a sym-
bolic political strategy in shaping a future society was particularly evi-
dent in the often integrated aims of research and reconstruction in the
institutes and state dance ensembles of Cold War Eastern Europe. This
formula for collecting, selecting, and constructing once participatory
dances for staged display has been pursued elsewhere in the world to
various ends.41
The use of a dance form to evoke former or authentic contexts of
performance may often be encountered in the public domain. Perform-
ances of traditional dances in international festivals and in tourist dis-
plays owe much to a twin embracing of the powers of nostalgia and
exoticism. Audience and performers are locked in a mutually constitu-
tive framework of interpretation and appreciation in which they, the
modern, gaze at dance, the tradition.42 In this respect dance is emble-
matic of another culture, or another past that the audience cannot ac-
cess through normal travel. As such, the act of dancing has become a
piece of repertoire, an object of aesthetic appreciation, and a symbol of
Dance, History, and Ethnography 15

a way of life. In such stagings, in a manner analogous to that of a tradi-

tional museum exhibition, the audiences’ lack of access to the dances’
former histories precludes them from recognizing their own positioning
or from understanding the lived experience of its earlier dancers.43 The
historicity of the past is denied to the audience since all that is repre-
sented to them is a piece of theater with no ethnographic context. Often
this is presented nonetheless as an authentic representation of another
culture or a since vanished piece of history.
Critical literature on concepts of “cultural heritage” and “invented
traditions” by historians David Lowenthal and Eric Hobsbawm has
influenced considerable interrogation of how the past is represented in
the present.44 The move to debunk what has popularly been regarded
as authentic history and traditions of origin has been particularly visible
in studies of dance with professed ancient histories. Much discussed ex-
amples are the Indian genre of bharata natyam and the English morris,
both of which appear in this book. Such analyses have certainly been
useful correctives to an uncritical acceptance or failure to engage with
mythic histories. Interrogations of “invented traditions” demonstrate
that formerly unchallenged conceptualizations and performances of the
past may have functional purposes for particular groups or agents in
terms of power relations. The performance of memory, whatever the
political discourse within which it is constructed, may also be consid-
ered through other analytical perspectives.
Anthropologist Paul Connerton’s distinction between incorporation
and inscription as modes of documentation offer important signposts to
the study of cultural memory as embodied performance in which the
practices of ethnography and history may be aligned.45 His character-
ization follows classic divisions between bodily, ultimately transient
modes of transmission (incorporation) and those of traditional textual
practices that use language or visual delineation to fix the moment
(inscription). Elsewhere I have suggested that “in traditional forms of
danced display . . . longevity of human memory is publicly enacted,
demonstrating the ethereality of human existence and the continuity of
human experience, as successive generations re-present the dancing.”46
Not that exact replication is a necessary condition in every ethno-
graphic community, and even then, as noted above, human bodies are
never stable over time. Yet they may be perceived to be stable in some
instances and viewed as an authentic conduit to a past and continuing
performance identity. As one English dancer explained to me:
16         

It’s something that, you know, has been handed down and handed
down and it’s all been handed down by word of mouth and practical
help in learning the steps. It’s not something you can just go and pick a
book up, read about, go and do it. Impossible.47

In such instances, the human body is both recipient and manifestation of

a local history that claims authenticity through its mode of transmission.
The quotation above is ultimately embedded in earlier dichotomies of
tradition and modernity that were operative in the folk paradigm to des-
ignate primitive or folk cultures from the civilized. But nonetheless the
significance of so-called tradition to modern life is not to be simply dis-
missed by dance scholars as redundant regurgitation of old evolutionist
theory circulating within ethnographic communities. In constructing
narratives of continuity in dance, dancers themselves often draw upon
such theory, self-consciously or not, to situate themselves within a tem-
poral framework that may differentiate their identities in opposition to
those dancers with perhaps younger histories of performance.48
But the embodiment of the past in performance form may serve
more concrete territorial needs. During the 1990s, tensions between
contrastive cultural understanding of the role and significance of em-
bodied documentation was highlighted in court cases concerning Aus-
tralian aboriginal lands. The presentation of traditional performance as
evidence to claim territorial rights was rejected as inadmissible evi-
dence.49 Yet such means of performance, as Connerton has discussed,
help to bind people to their own history. Cultural memory as perform-
ance operates to construct and consolidate identities even if that cultural
memory may be at odds with personal memory. Multiple voices of mem-
ory, however, tend to be quieter in such events where the performance
is a recurrent public enactment. The performance of memory in collec-
tive terms consolidates an agreed interpretation of what happened or
what is valued.50
The inclusion and positioning of voices within ethnographic and
historical texts has undergone considerable discussion since the advent
of postmodernism. The new benefits and drawbacks to understanding
have been variously assessed—at worst, as evidence of a cultural relati-
vism that evades material and moral responsibilities; at best, as a posi-
tive means of giving voice to the repressed, marginalized, or ignored.51
Authentic representation of experience has been a driving factor in
this scholarship, bringing to prominence the native ethnographer and
Dance, History, and Ethnography 17

historian. Interrelated questions of authentic identity and knowledge in

speaking, writing, and dancing continue to circulate in ethnographic
and historical studies of dance. In some respects, the “I” persona and the
practice of placing the author’s dancing body at the center of reflexive
inquiry is a further symptom of the drive toward authenticity of repre-
sentation. Ironically, of course, the concept of authenticity in contingent
areas of ethnographic and historical practice is, at the same time, subject
to intense critical scrutiny. While applauding and embracing the long-
awaited integration of individual embodied histories and the experien-
tial, it remains necessary to guard against naive belief in the body and in
the native researcher as sources of “natural” unmediated knowledge.
Attempts to question and to understand the often complex and cir-
cuitous relationships between past and present are then inseparably
constituted in present discourse and biography. Yet such recognition in-
spires dance scholars to acquire greater knowledge and insight of their
own values in relation to those of others, whether past or present. Ex-
treme positions in predicating the past as an extension of the present
need to be critically examined, for if we argue, as J. D. Peel does, that
“conceptions of the past are facts of the present,” and that “the content
of such conceptions of the past . . . may well be largely or entirely the
product of particular present interests,” then we are led “to the logical
absurdity of unhinging the present from the past completely.”52
Dancing pasts across several presents—for example, as an African
Caribbean performing the quadrille in London or a Caucasian swing-
ing in California—necessitate acts of selection, omission, exclusion,
transformation, and creation in the embodied production of cultural
memory.53 And the study of dance as representative practice requires
the skills and perspectives of history and ethnography, not only to ex-
plore legacies of colonialism and nationalism, but also to interrogate the
continuing impact of globalization and the politics of identity articula-
tion. Through reflexive and dialogic strategies, synthesizing synchronic
and diachronic perspectives, we can exercise our cultural and political
choices purposefully toward a more informed and imaginative future
for dance and its scholarship.

 
1. See, for example, László Felföldi, “Folk Dance Research in Hungary:
Relations among Theory, Fieldwork, and the Archive,” in Dance in the Field:
18         

Theory, Methods, and Issues in Dance Ethnography, ed. Theresa J. Buckland (Basing-
stoke, Hampshire: Macmillan; New York: St Martin’s Press, 1999), 55–70; and
in the same volume, Egil Bakka, “‘Or Shortly They Would Be Lost Forever’:
Documenting for Revival and Research,” 71–81, on collecting in Norway.
2. See, for example, the Oral History Project and Archive of the New York
Public Library Dance Collection from 1974 onward.
3. Joann Kealiinohomoku, “An Anthropologist looks at Ballet as a Form of
Ethnic Dance,” Impulse (1969–70): 24–33. It has deservedly been reprinted
many times, most recently in Moving History/Dancing Cultures: A Dance History
Reader, ed. Ann Dils and Ann Cooper Albright (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan
University Press, 2001), 33–43. For an evaluation of this article, see Theresa
Buckland, “All Dances Are Ethnic—But Some Are More Ethnic Than Others:
Some Observations on Recent Scholarship in Dance and Anthropology,”
Dance Research 17, no. 1 (1999): 7–9.
4. There are innumerable books on the history of anthropology, but see,
for example, Alan Barnard, History and Theory in Anthropology (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2000).
5. Raymond Williams referred to the term “culture” as “one of the two or
three most complicated words in the English language,” in his Keywords: A Vo-
cabulary of Culture and Society (London: Fontana Paperbacks, 1976), 87. For a crit-
ical overview of the use of the concept in anthropology, see Carla Pasquinelli,
“The Concept of Culture between Modernity and Postmodernity,” in Grasping
the Changing World: Anthropological Concepts in the Postmodern Era, ed. Vaclav Hu-
binger (London: Routledge, 1996), 53–73.
6. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1960), 6. (First published in 1869.)
7. For a comparable history of music study, see Jonathan Stock, “New
Musicologies, Old Musicologies: Ethnomusicology and the Study of Western
Music,” Current Musicology 62 (1998): 40–68.
8. For a history of these developments in North America, see Adrienne
Kaeppler, “American Approaches to the Study of Dance,” Yearbook for Tradi-
tional Music 23 (1991): 11–21.
9. This working definition is most often associated with Adrienne Kaep-
pler. See her “Structured Movement Systems in Tonga,” in Society and the Dance:
The Social Anthropology of Process and Performance, ed. Paul Spencer (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985), 92–93. See also Judith Lynne Hanna, To
Dance Is Human: A Theory of Nonverbal Communication (Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1979), 19.
10. For a history of the dance ethnology program at UCLA and its relation
to cognate developments, see Elsie Ivancich Dunin in this book; and Allegra
Fuller Snyder, “Past, Present, and Future,” UCLA Journal of Dance Ethnology 16
(1992): 1–28.
Dance, History, and Ethnography 19

11. See Anca Giurchescu and Lisbet Torp, “Theory and Methods in
Dance Research: A European Approach to the Holistic Study of Dance,” Year-
book for Traditional Music 23 (1991): 1–10. For light on the differences between re-
spective schools in North America and Europe, see Colin Quigley, “Methodol-
ogies in the Study of Dance: Ethnology,” in International Encyclopedia of Dance, ed.
Selma Jeanne Cohen (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 4:372–76.
12. For a critical history, see Regina Bendix, In Search of Authenticity: The For-
mation of Folklore Studies (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997).
13. See Roger Abrahams, “Phantoms of Romantic Nationalism in Folklor-
istics,” Journal of American Folklore 106 (1993): 3–37.
14. See Drid Williams, Anthropology and the Dance: Ten Lectures, 2nd ed. (Ur-
bana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), for a detailed critique of evolutionist
perspectives on dance. On the concept of folk in relation to dance, see Theresa
J. Buckland, “‘Th’Owd Pagan Dance’: Ritual, Enchantment, and an Enduring
Intellectual Paradigm,” Journal for the Anthropological Study of Human Movement 11,
no. 4, and 12, no. 1 (Fall 2001/Spring 2002; double issue): 418–20. See also An-
drée Grau, “Myths of Origin,” in The Routledge Dance Studies Reader, ed. Alexan-
dra Carter (London: Routledge, 1998), 197–202.
15. See Anca Giurchescu, “European Perspectives in Structural Analysis of
Dance,” in Dance—A Multicultural Perspective, ed. Janet Adshead (Guildford, Sur-
rey: National Resource Centre for Dance, University of Surrey, 1984), 33–48;
and chapters by Anca Giurchescu and Gra˙zyna D˛abrowska, and László
Felföldi in Adrienne Kaeppler, ed., Dance and Structural Analysis (Budapest: Hun-
garian Academy of Sciences, forthcoming).
16. Adrienne L. Kaeppler, “Preservation and Evolution of Form and
Function in Two Types of Tongan Dance,” in Polynesian Culture History: Essays in
Honor of Kenneth P. Emory, ed. Genevieve A. Highland et al. (Honolulu: Bernice
P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 56, 1967), 503–36; Cynthia J. Novack,
Sharing the Dance: Contact Improvisation and American Culture (Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1990), 22–113; Sally Ann Ness, Body, Movement, and Culture: Kin-
esthetic and Visual Symbolism in a Philippine Community (Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 154–76; and Zoila S. Mendoza, Shaping Society through
Dance: Mestizo Ritual Performance in the Peruvian Andes (Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press, 2000), 84–108.
17. See, for example, John and Jean Comaroff, Ethnography and the Historical
Imagination (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992), 235–63; and Georgiana
Gore, “Present Texts, Past Voices: The Formation of Contemporary Represen-
tations of West African Dances,” Yearbook for Traditional Music, 23 (2001): 29–36.
18. See, for example, Arzu Öztürkmen (who trained in North American
approaches to folklore), “Modern Dance Alla Turca: Transforming Ottoman
Dance in Early Republican Turkey,” Dance Research Journal 35, no. 1 (2003): 46–
51, and her “Politics of National Dance in Turkey: A Historical Reappraisal,”
20         

Yearbook for Traditional Music, 23 (2001): 139–43; Catherine Foley, “Irish Tradi-
tional Step-Dance in Historical Perspective: Tradition, Identity, and Popular
Culture,” in Dans Müzik Kültür, ICTM 20th Ethnochoreology Symposium Proceedings
1998, ed. Frank Hall and Irene Loutzaki (Istanbul, Turkey: Bo˘gaziçi University
Folklore Club, 2000), 43–55.
19. Deidre Sklar, “On Dance Ethnography,” Dance Research Journal 23, no.
1 (1991): 6. For a further characterization of dance ethnography, see Deidre
Sklar, “Reprise: On Dance Ethnography,” Dance Research Journal 32, no. 1
(2000): 70–77. Examples from the general field of performance studies include
Margaret Thompson Drewal, Yoruba Ritual: Performers, Play, Agency (Blooming-
ton: Indiana University Press, 1992); Barbara Browning, Samba: Resistance in
Motion (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); and Deidre Sklar, Danc-
ing with the Virgin: Body and Faith in the Fiesta of Tortugas, New Mexico (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2001).
20. See Theresa J. Buckland, “Introduction: Reflecting on Dance Ethnog-
raphy,” in Dance in the Field, ed. Buckland, 1.
21. Mark Hobart, “Texte est un con,” in Contexts and Levels: Essays on Hierar-
chy, ed. R. H. Barnes, D. de Coppet and R. J. Parkin, Occasional Paper no. 4
(Oxford: JASO [ Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford], 1985), 48.
22. Helen Thomas, The Body, Dance, and Cultural Theory (Basingstoke,
Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 67.
23. For insight into a field trip conducted from a typical institute of ethnol-
ogy, see Andriy Nahachewsky, “Searching for Branches, Searching for Roots:
Fieldwork in My Grandfather’s Village,” in Dance in the Field, ed. Buckland,
175–185.
24. Paul Atkinson et al., eds., “Editorial Introduction,” in Handbook of Eth-
nography (London: Sage, 2001), 1.
25. For a succinct discussion, see Paul Willis, “Notes on Method,” in Cul-
ture, Media, Language, ed. Stuart Hall et al. (London: Hutchinson, 1980), 88–95.
26. For reflections on ethnography written by one of its fiercest critics, see
George E. Marcus, Ethnography through Thick and Thin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1998).
27. See Susan Leigh Foster, ed., Choreographing History (Bloomington: Indi-
ana University Press, 1995); Amy Koritz, “Re/Moving Boundaries: From
Dance History to Cultural Studies,” in Moving Words, Re-writing Dance, ed. Gay
Morris (London: Routledge, 1996), 88–103; Norman Bryson, “Cultural Studies
and Dance History,” in Meaning in Motion: New Cultural Studies of Dance, ed. Jane
C. Desmond (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 55–77; Shelley Berg, “The
Sense of the Past: Historiography and Dance,” in Researching Dance: Evolving
Modes of Inquiry, ed. Sondra Horton Fraleigh and Penelope Hanstein (London:
Dance Books, 1999), 225–48; Alexandra Carter, ed., Rethinking Dance History: A
Dance, History, and Ethnography 21

Reader (London: Routledge, 2004). A sustained critical response to the new his-
tory can be found in Lynn Matluck Brooks, “Dance History and Method: A
Return to Meaning,” Dance Research 20, no. 1 (2002): 33–53.
28. Hayden White quoted in Richard J. Evans, In Defence of History (Lon-
don: Granta Books, 2000), 100–101.
29. For insight into the methodology’s own history and practice, see David
K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum, eds., Oral History: An Interdisciplinary Anthology
(Nashville, Tenn.: American Association for State and Local History, 1984).
30. See D. W. Cohen, The Combing of History (Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press), 1994; and Buckland, “‘Th’Owd Pagan Dance.’”
31. Georgiana Gore, “Traditional Dance in West Africa,” in Dance History:
An Introduction, ed. Janet Adshead-Lansdale and June Layson (London: Rout-
ledge, 1994), 64.
32. Ibid.
33. For discussion on field documentation, see Robert M. Emerson, Rachel
I. Fretz, and Linda L. Shaw, Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1995); Roger Sanjek, ed., Fieldnotes: The Makings of Anthropol-
ogy (Ithaca, N.Y.: University of Cornell Press, 1990). As an example of classic
modes of documentation in folklore studies, see Kenneth S. Goldstein, A Guide
for Field Workers in Folklore (Hatboro, Penn.: Folklore Associates, 1964).
34. See, for example, Joann W. Kealiinohomoku, “A Comparative Study
of Dance as a Constellation of Motor Behaviors among African and United
States Negroes,” in Dance Research Annual, VII: Reflections and Perspectives on Two
Anthropological Studies of Dance, ed. Adrienne Kaeppler (New York: CORD,
1976), 1–179; Theresa Buckland, “Dance, Technology, and Metaphors of Mo-
dernity,” in International Academic Conference on Dance: The Challenge and the Message
in Dance, ed. Malborg Kim (Seoul, Korea: KIDE ’95 Committee and Yong-hu
Park, 1995), 96–105; Andrée Grau, “Dancers’ Bodies as the Repository of Con-
ceptualisations of the Body with Special Reference to the Tiwi of Northern
Australia,” in Semiotics around the World: Synthesis in Diversity, ed. Irmengard
Rauch and Gerald F. Carr (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997), 929–32; and
Jane C. Desmond, “Embodying Difference: Issues in Dance and Cultural
Studies,” in Meaning in Motion: New Cultural Studies of Dance, ed. Jane C. Des-
mond (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 29–54.
35. See Yvon Guilcher, “Du témoignage au document: Nécessité de la cri-
tique,” La Danse et ses sources, actes du colloque, Toulouse 31 Octobre 1992, ISATIS Ca-
hiers d’Ethnomusicologue Régionale, no. 2 (Toulouse: Conservatoire Occitan,
Centre des Musiques Traditionnelles en Midi-Pyrénées, 1992), 45–48; and in
the same volume, Theresa Buckland, “Le barbare et le pittoresque: Figures de
danse d’un monde en movement,” 15–16. For discussion with reference to con-
cert dance, see Thomas, Body, Dance, and Cultural Theory, 110–12.
22         

36. See, for example, Browning, Samba; Sklar, Dancing with the Virgin.
37. Gertrude Kurath’s descriptions of Native American dances are an ex-
ample of mid-twentieth-century approaches to participation as a research
method. See Gertrude P. Kurath, Half a Century of Dance Research: Essays by Ger-
trude Prokosch Kurath (Flagstaff, Ariz.: Cross Cultural Dance Resources, 1986).
Classic examples of participation occur in structural analyses of dance where
personal movement competence is a necessary means of gaining understanding
of indigenous conceptualizations and means of structuring movement. See
Adrienne Kaeppler, “Method and Theory in Analyzing Dance Structure with
an Analysis of Tongan Dance,” Ethnomusicology 16, no. 2 (1972): 173–217; and
George Martin and Ern™ Pesovár, “A Structural Analysis of the Hungarian
Folk Dance: A Methodological Sketch,” Acta Ethnographica Scientiarum Hungariae
10 (1961): 1–40. See also Kate Ramsey’s study of early methodological opposi-
tion in anthropology to participation, “Melville Herskovits, Katherine Dun-
ham, and the Politics of African Diasporic Dance Anthropology,” in Dancing
Bodies, Living Histories: New Writings about Dance and Culture, ed. Lisa Doolittle and
Anne Flynn (Banff, Alberta, Canada: Banff Centre Press), 196–216. Sally Ann
Allen Ness identifies a new rationale for participation in her essay “Being a
Body in a Cultural Way: Understanding the Cultural in the Embodiment of
Dance,” in Cultural Bodies: Ethnography and Theory, ed. Helen Thomas and Jami-
lah Ahmed (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 123–44.
38. Brenda M. Farnell, “Ethno-graphics and the Moving Body,” Man 29,
part 4 (1994): 936–37. Sklar in this book presents a theoretical case for the
method.
39. Ness, “Being a Body in a Cultural Way,” 139.
40. Mark Hobart, “As They Like It: Overinterpretation and Hyporeality
in Bali,” in The Problem of Context, ed. Roy Dilley (New York: Berghahn Books,
1999), 112–13.
41. See Anthony Shay, Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Repre-
sentation and Power (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2002).
There is a growing literature on this phenomenon, and the nature of transfor-
mation from field to stage is diverse. For a sample of the range of different ap-
proaches from field to stage and attitudes toward the phenomenon, see the dis-
cussion of Katherine Dunham in John O. Perpener III, “Cultural Diversity and
Dance History Research,” in Researching Dance: Evolving Modes of Inquiry, ed. Son-
dra Horton Fraleigh and Penelope Hanstein (London: Dance Books, 1999),
343–44; Catherine Foley, “Perceptions of Irish Step Dance: National, Global,
and Local,” Dance Research Journal 33, no. 1 (2001): 34–45; Sylvia Glasser, “Trans-
cultural Transformations,” Visual Anthropology 8, nos. 2–4 (1996): 287–309; Rich-
ard C. Green, “(Up)Staging the Primitive: Pearl Primus and ‘the Negro
Problem’ in American Dance,” in Dancing Many Drums: Excavations in African
American Dance, ed. Thomas F. DeFrantz (Madison: University of Wisconsin
Dance, History, and Ethnography 23

Press, 2002), 105–39; Sally A. Ness, “Originality in the Postcolony: Choreo-

graphing the Neoethnic Body of Philippine Ballet,” Current Anthropology 12, no. 1
(1997): 64–108; Jacqueline Shea Murphy, “Lessons in Dance (as) History: Abo-
riginal Land Claims and Aboriginal Dance, circa 1999,” in Dancing Bodies, Liv-
ing Histories, ed. Doolittle and Flynn, 130–67; and Ann Cooper Albright, “Em-
bodying History: Epic Narrative and Cultural Identity in African-American
Dance,” in her Choreographing Difference: The Body and Identity in Contemporary Dance
(Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1997), 150–78.
42. This discussion owes much to James Clifford’s stimulating essay “On
Collecting Art and Culture,” in The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Eth-
nography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988),
215–51.
43. See Theresa Buckland, “Multiple Interests and Powers: Authenticity
and the Competitive Folk Dance Festival,” in Authenticity: Whose Tradition? ed.
László Felföldi and Theresa Buckland (Budapest: European Folklore Insti-
tute, 2002), 70–78; and Buckland, “Competing Interests: Culture, Histories,
and Scholarly Appreciation in Adjudicating International Folk Dance,” in
preparation.
44. David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1985) and The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Eric Hobsbawm and Terence
Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983).
45. Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1989), 72.
46. Theresa Buckland, “Dance, Authenticity, and Cultural Memory: The
Politics of Embodiment,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 33 (2001): 1.
47. Derek Pilling, Britannia Coco-Nut Dancers, Bacup, Rossendale Val-
ley, Lancashire, recorded interview, 21 April 1981.
48. Eric Martin Usner provides a fascinating case study of disjunction
between past and present in “Dancing in the Past, Living in the Present: Nos-
talgia and Race in Southern California Neo-Swing Dance Culture,” Dance Re-
search Journal 33, no. 2 (2001): 87–101.
49. Dara Culhane, The Pleasure of the Crown: Anthropology, Law, and First Na-
tions (Burnaby, British Columbia: Talonbooks, 1998), 123.
50. For work that includes dance as collective memory, see, for example,
Dorothy Noyes and Roger D. Abrahams, “From Calendar Custom to Na-
tional Memory: European Commonplaces,” in Cultural Memory and the Construc-
tion of Identity, ed. Dan Ben-Amos and Liliane Weissberg (Detroit, Mich.:
Wayne State University Press, 1999), 77–98; Susanne Kuchler and Walter Me-
lion, eds., Images of Memory: On Remembering and Representation (Washington,
D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991); David M. Gordon, “The Cultural
24         

Politics of a Traditional Ceremony: Mutomboko and the Performance of His-

tory on the Luapula (Zambia),” Comparative Studies in Society and History 46, no. 1
(2004): 63–83.
51. For critical responses to postmodernist approaches, see, for example,
Ernest Gellner, Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion (London: Routledge, 1992)
and Richard J. Evans, In Defence of History (London: Granta Books, 2000). More
welcoming responses can be found in Norman K. Denzin, Interpretive Ethnogra-
phy: Ethnographic Practices for the 21st Century (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997)
and A New Philosophy of History, ed. Frank Ankersmit and Hans Kellner (Lon-
don: Reaktion Books, 1995). For other texts on this subject, see “Further Se-
lected Reading” in this volume.
52. J. D. Y. Peel, “Making History: The Past in the Ijesha Present,” Man
19, no. 1 (1984): 112.
53. Helen Thomas, “Mimesis and Alterity in the African Caribbean
Quadrille: Ethnography Meets History,” Cultural and Social History: The Journal
of the Social History Society, 1, no. 3 (2004): 280–301; Usner, “Dancing in the Past.”
 2

Dances and Dancing in Tonga

Anthropological and Historical Discourses
 . 

The study of dances as historical and cultural discourses can be an illu-

minating anthropological project. The combination, however, diverges
from typical anthropological research and analyses where these two
approaches are usually separated. Classic ethnographic research was
based on extended fieldwork that attempted to present a picture and
synchronic analysis of a contemporary society and usually resulted
in a detailed account of the “ethnographic present.” In contrast, late-
nineteenth-century “armchair anthropologists” studied written accounts
and theorized about diffusion or migration in the long ago. More re-
cently, historians have researched historical records for societies usually
reserved for the anthropological gaze. The twain did meet during the
second half of the twentieth century when some anthropologists, such as
Fernand Braudel and Marshall Sahlins, began to focus their attention
on history and embarked on studies of “structures in the long run.”1
Even though many anthropologists have felt that structure and
history are opposing concepts, they have used history in their studies—
especially the long view of history as taken from archaeology and oral
history with its contributions to the study of myth and genealogy.

25
26    .    

Because of the problematic heritage of evolutionism and diffusionism,

however, anthropologists have generally shied away from history and
especially from grandiose schemes. Those, such as Marshall Sahlins,
who have attempted to bridge the gap between the structural/func-
tional emphasis on synchrony and the historian’s emphasis on di-
achrony, have carried out long-term fieldwork in contemporary soci-
eties and combed libraries and archives to place them in a historical
perspective. Sahlins has demonstrated the possibilities and significance
of combining structural analysis, history, event, and action in his struc-
tures in the long run and has concluded that “the historical process un-
folds as a continuous and reciprocal movement between the practice of
the structure and the structure of the practice.”2
As a student in the 1960s, I became drawn to the vibrancy and im-
portance of dance performances while carrying out anthropological
fieldwork in Tonga. Why was dance so important? Who were the pa-
trons, composers, performers, and audiences? How did these dances
come to their present complexity? What could dance tell me about soci-
ety? Over the years I have often focused my attention on dance (or on its
broader application as “structured movement systems”) and its relation-
ships to social structure, authority, gender, and art, as well as more
theoretical concepts such as the analogy of dance with language, style,
and aesthetics. I have also, nonetheless, found it necessary to place these
concepts into historical perspectives. Here I explore this combination of
some historical and cultural aspects of dance.
That dance can be a form of historical and cultural discourse is not
common in the study and analysis of dance; historically anthropologists
have not often focused on dance, except for its use in ritual.3 Dances are
surface manifestations or exemplars of movement languages that con-
vey information, just as speech sequences are surface manifestations of
spoken languages. The analogy is a convenient one, but it is always nec-
essary to point out that what movement and speech communicate may
be similar or quite different. If discourse is “communication of thought”
usually through conversation (as the dictionary tells us), how can bodies
converse and convey history? And how can history help us to under-
stand dance and other structured movement systems in the present?
The term “history” evokes the idea of a linear knowledge of what
happened in the past that has been recorded in writing. But even in the
best of times, written history records only select “moments” when some-
one happened to write down what she or he saw or was told. When we
Dances and Dancing in Tonga 27

attempt to look at the history or historical processes of dance outside of

the Euro-American traditions, we find that only occasionally did some-
one commit to writing information about dance performances. But his-
tory does not just depend on what was written down by outsiders or in-
siders. In this chapter, I pursue an anthropological approach to dance
history and ethnography in the Kingdom of Tonga in the south Pacific
that does not depend only on accounts that were written down, but
rather on a variety of discourses derived from oral history, ethnohistory,
ethnography, and movement itself. Dancing and its history are not just
“out there” in some positivistic sense; it is the framing and interpreta-
tion of dancing that makes history for the present.

History, Politics, Oratory, Dance, and

Aesthetics in Tonga

Ethnographic fieldwork often elicits a series of puzzles—puzzles that

cannot be solved by the ethnographer without the use of historical
sources and the dialectical engagement of the ethnographer with the
ethnographer’s mentors and hosts. My mentors and hosts in Tonga and
their ancestors have been literate for more than a century, but they do
not have a tradition of writing down their impressions of dance perform-
ances or the meanings of the dances to their contemporary lives. Nor do
they have a tradition of written dance criticism. Indeed, the most im-
portant aspects of a dance are the sung text that the movements accom-
pany and the skill with which this text is conveyed. Although many
dance song texts are written down, their interpretation is in the oral tradi-
tion, and there are specialists who are skilled in such interpretation.
These specialists became my mentors, and this chapter is the result of
interaction with these dance specialists and interpreters of historic and
contemporary events.
Because of the lack of written critical analyses of how specific works
influence later works, dance historians often deny to non-Western pro-
ductions the status of “works of art”; here I demonstrate that historic
Tongan dances are known and do influence later works, and that they
embed an aesthetic system that is widely recognized. Tongan dance is
essentially an extension of the “oratorical voice.” Oratory is the most
important art form in Tonga; through oratory emotions are expressed
and reciprocated. The job of the orator is to make people laugh and cry,
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treas Hetzel's Ine " Clara A (wid J Henry) h2525 Lincoln way " Frank
L electn r823 39th av " Harold (Eleanor) h825 Junlpero Serra blvd "
Harold elk Dept Pub Wks rll25 Anza " Helen E elk Raphael Weill & Co
r260 San " Henry L (Grace K) elk Anglo Calif Natl Bank hl850 Gough
" Hugo h786 6th av " Irving E r444 12th av " Jos baker r890 Steiner
" Jos eleetn rll25 Anza " Jos (Josephine) marble polshr hl547 LaSalle
" Jos R (Florence) slsmn Atlas Paper Co h380 Valdez av " Matilda J
(wid P W) hl45 Julian av " Paul E slsmn Stone & Youngberg r977
Pine " Pauline Mrs h823 39th av " Saml slsmn h444 12th av " Theo
elk H F Blum r8 Jordan av Reichard Jeanne elk B B Cassell r641
O'Farrell " Kenneth wrapper Roos Bros r Sausalito Reichardt Howard
E (Kathleen) h3420 Scott " Kathleen M sten Am Tr Co r3420 Scott
Reichart Ann (wid Morris) confy 3309 Balboa " Emma elk r235
Coleridge " Gustave elk r235 Coleridge " Margt (wid Hans) h235
Coleridge Reiche Carl (Elsie) cbtmkr h520 29th " Edna elk r72 Rondel
pi " Eric meat ctr r3635 19th REICHEL C B ENGINEERING CO (Cart R
Reichel) Complete Steam. Gas and Oil Burner Installation and
Equipment, Boiler and Tank Cleaning, Tanks Rust-Proofed, 73!)
Clementina. Tel HE miock 2673. Night Call Tel DO uglas 5521 "
Charlotte rl479 Van Dyke av " Curt R (C R Reichel Engineering Co) r
San Mateo " Erwln J drftsmn F W Woolworth Co r Los " Georgette
(wid Walter) smstrs hl479 Van Dyke av " Jos elk r949 Ellis " Osman
h616 Shrader Reichelet Henry (Idai carp h534 11th av Pacific
Reichenberger Saml slsmn h640 Oetavia Reichert August r481 14th
av " Earl A (Kathervni v-pres-genl mgr Berger Mfg Co of Caiif h481
14th av " Predk L phys Lane & Stanford Univ Hosps rI5 7th av "
Helen M sten Waters & Ross rl686 Haves REICHERT IRVING F REV
(MadeUne) Rabbi Congregation Emanu-El, h:!6!>U Jackson "
Isabella (wid M R) h2643 Folsom " K R restr wkr rl447 Valencia "
Louis (Gwendolyn) slsmn h700 Mason " Martin J chauf r2643 Folsom
" R R slsmn U S Rubber Products r Ala " Richd (Mamie) baker h848
Cayuga av " Rose Mrs hl686 Hayes " Mary G elk rl318 Gene 22d "
Jos M elk U S Int Rev r64 Beaumont av " Martin (Dorothy) mach
h266 States " Paul X r2658 22d Reichling Bernard A (Mary) police
hl750 Greenwich " Rose iwid O Hi rl065 Fell " Wanda tchr Pub Sch
rl80 Liberty Reiehman Carter A h2136 Calif " Fredk (Uma) clo ctr h70
Hancock REICHMAN " Jack W compositor SPCo r Okld " W F hl209
Bush Reiehmuth Anton (Prances) h342 8th av " Anton F veast mkr
r3012 Harrison " Anton L slsmn r342 8th av " Bernard (Mary) hl25
Sanchez " Bernard F (Maryi driver h2611b Brya Yeast Co h30l2
Harrison " Steph F baker r3012 Harrison " Walter mgr Wm Tell Hotel
r630 Clay " Walter H liquors 710 Montgy r632 Clay " Wm J (Kath)
h418 5th av Reichmutz Anton (Katie) meat ctr hl290 Golden Gate av
Reichovich A rl095 Mission Reichow Forest L (Sara G) elk h532a 21st
av " Sara sten Jas F Waters r532a 2lst av Reichsrath Albt S litho
Steeher-Traung Litho Corp r Bkly ihstein Herm ^hstetter Bmi Geo
hSOl Newhall Reick John r60 Market REID. See also Read, Reade.
Reed and Wrede " A J electn r88 6th " Alan R lab rl79 Jessie " Alex H
rl32 Highland av " Alex W (Alice) draying 377 Minna r811 Head " Alf
(Bessie) h2576 Washn " Alice (wid Robt A) h415 Belvedere " Allan R
bld^ contr 100 Potrero av r2211 Calif " Andw (Emily) galvanizer
h664 Arguello blvd " Andw J (Cath) h339 Seneca av " Annie T rl515
Diamond " Anthony R Mrs h2211 Calif " Archibald tailor 704 Market
R1003 r Mill Valley " Benson (May) h3661 Market " Bert mailer S F
Call-Bulletin hl949 Mc Allister " Berfha designer S & G Gump Co
hl043 Green " Bessie bkpr Otto Borkon r2576 Washn " Bessie V elk
Met Life Ins Co r Ala " Bettv underwriter Grant-Birkholm & Co r Bkly
" Bridget (wtd Wm) rl526 35th av " Bros Thos Tierney pres Philip
Ablan v-pres L J Lewis sec-treas hosp supp mfrs 99 Drumm " C A
rl390 Calif " Carolyn elk Retailers Credit Assn rl325 16th Cedric M
auto mech hl827 Turk Chas (Clara) carp h2738 Diamond Chas A
compositor S P News r Mill Valley Chas R auto mech r905 Eddy
Chester J elk SPCo r San Leandro Christine rl367b Natoma Clifford
r339 Seneca av Cornelia J elk Travelers Ins Co rl08 Anza D N hl830
Beach Daisy T bkpr Rhine Optical Co r548 Ashburv David W (Rosalie)
bkpr A W Reid r531 HoUoway av Donald C lawyer 625 Market R906 r
Burlingame Douglas slsmn H O Harrison Co rl334 Van Ness av
Duncan D (Angelina) cash Sussman Wormser & Co hl486 6th av
Emmett (Zella) police h4208 24th Enos (Ida) elk h2174 Calif Ernest
(Hazel) mach hl70 Bocana Ervin J barber 2269 Mission r711a
Guerrero Ester L r821 Pine Eva C h766 Sutter Evelyn R tehr rl700
Bush Ferol hd nurse Lane & Stanford Univ Hosps rl700 Ellis Florence
R rl515 Diamond Florence H priy sec Transpacific Trans Co r2647
Buchanan ' Florence R agcy see West Coast Life Ins Co r Redwood
City Frances r339 Seneca av ' Prank (Doris) cook hl094 Golden Gate
av Norris Beggs & Simpson Property Management Insurance
Mortgage Loans Flatiron Bldg. 544 MARKET Tel. DO uglas 5660
GRANT AVENUE APPAREL H-LIEBES t CO ACCESSORIES GA RFIELD
6240 FURS SINCE 1864 s A F E S The Hermann Safe Co. 200
Howard St. Tel. GA. 3041
 TAKE THE "IF" OUT OF JFe THROUGH Mass. Mutual Life
Ins. Co. JOHN W. YATES AND ASSOCIATES FJ.VANSTRALEN
MANAGER 681 Market St. GA rficld 3866 JAMES F. WATERS World',
Largett DE SOTO and PLYMOUTH Di»tribut»r WATERS BUILDING
Van NcM at Bu«h St. San Francisco Phone TU xedo 1865 560
MARKET ST. 33 SUnER ST. Patrick and Moise-Kunkner Co. RUBBER
STAMPS— SIGNS— PRINTERS— STATIONERS In Oakland Dial
Operator rEN terprise 10438 BEID " Frank R refrigeration enginemn
Bd of State Harbor Com hl022 Geneva av " Predk W mach City &
County Dept of Elec r284 Golden Gate av " Geo r340 O'Farrell " Geo
fcty wkr rl736 Sanchez " Geo D supt Prudential Ins Co of Am h945
Bay " Geo F h47 West Portal av " Gertrude Mrs h2701 Van Ness av "
Grlnnel G sten Loveland Engineers r562 Sutter " H L genl mgr
Marcus-Lesoine r San Mateo " Harold D (Loisl mach r4321 26th -'
Harry h4130 20th " Harry (Madeline) mech hl6S Chattanooga "
Harvey F lab r3661 Market " Helen metal wkr r506a Shotwell " Helen
Mrs hl367b Natoma " Henry rll30 Ulloa " Heni\ I Nora 1 hl46 27th "
Henry C elec contrs 389 Clementina r Bkly " Herbt L with Kern
County Land Co r Ala " Hubert (Margtl lab hl45 Randall " Hugh hdw
531 Dlvisadero r450 35th av " Irma Jan City Parks Dept h2021a
Lombard " Irvin (Margt) h711a Guerrero " Isabelle (wid Robt) hl075
Calif " Jack r905 Columbus av " Jas hi 100 Union " Jas elk rll7
Parnassus av " Jas (Jean) emp Am Meter Co r825 Clement " Jas
(Eva) granite ctr Dept Pub Wks hl355 I2th av " Jas (Ana K) restr
1411 Polk hl424 do " Jas A asst mgr Owl Drug Co hl07 11th av " Jas
A (Margt HI car bldr hl32 Highland av " Jas C (Margtl hl455 33d av "
Jas D h604 Bush REID JAMES L (Marie) Mer Pacific Building, )C1
Market KSii, Tel KE arny 3M7. hL521 mond ' Jessie S Mrs ins broker
969 Bush John (Frieda) h2610 19th av John Jan h662 Parker av John
mech Brunswick-Balke-CoUender Co r548 Ashbary John servmn
Dalmo Mfg Co r70O Mason John Jr archt hl090 Chestnut John A
(Sadie) carp h2029 Pierce John G musician r205 Missouri John J
r339 Seneca av John M (Jennie) furn rms 221 7th John M (Gene)
with Crocker Estate Co hlios Diamond Jos (Rosa I carp Dept Pub Wks
h858 42d av Jos M elk SPCo r Ala Keith drftsmn Jas Arnott & Son
rl029 Natoma Kenneth r339 Seneca av Kenneth M dist slsmgr
Scoville Mfg Corp r Okld . M P M Holloway " Lea assoc prof S F State
College REID LEE C, Real Estate Broker Since 1899, Room 301
Alexander BIdg, 155 Montgomery, Tel SU tter 5654. rtlO Fell, Tel HE
mlock 6239 " Lois rl242 Polk " Louise (wid Wm Jl h48 Tioga av "
Louise M (wid H E) hll6 Frederick " Louise T Mrs office sec J C
Meyerstein h2226 Grove " Marcella elk r415 Belvedere " Margt r209
8th av " Margt sten W N Moore Dry Goods Co rl455 33d av " Margt
Mrs (wid JohnI h450 35th av " Marjorie paper wkr r3661 Market "
Mary (wid John) h4208 24th " Maryann rl700 Bush " May A elk Met
Life Ins Co r Okld " Milton R hl515 Diamond " Morgan rl68
Chattanooga " Murdock & Co D J Pulls mgr whol gro 101 Mission "
Nell nurse r2655 Pine " Nell E sec CaUf Card Mfg Co h2901 Van "
Ralph B elk Federated Metals Corp h910 Fell " Robt asst eng PG&ECo
r Bkly " Robt auto repr 466 Eddy rU05 Larkin " Robt elk r639 Bush "
Robt A rl482 Sutter " Robt A elk r379 20th av " Robt C elk Russell's
Mail Service " Robt H dentist 135 Stockton R629 r405 Taylor " Robt
W chauf U S Eng r654 Van Ness av S " Rosemary r4026 Mission "
Ruby cash SdooI Cotton Co r Burlingame " Russell G (Florence El
garage 55 11th h2045 CabriUo " S C r447 Eddy " Saml R Dkr r277
Day ■' Shirley M sten h729 Hyde " Stewart (Ann) coppersmith h46
Wawona " Stewart I (Jean) mgr Carjolee Wall Paper " Thos D (Mary
A I elk h704 Moult: " Vincent A hosemn SFFD r827 22d " Vincent M
(May) bldg servmn PT&TCo h3661 Market " Virginia Mrs rl6 Turk "
Walter elk r4280 24th " Wesley (Edna M) slsmn h427 42d av " Wm
hl242 Polk " Wm E miner hl636 Clay " Wm P (Evelyn) elk h2933 Pine
" Wm H h719 Fillmore " Wm H (Ida) credit mgr Levin's Auto Supp Co
h4280 24th " Wm M mgr Zurich General Accident & Liability Ins Co r
Okld " Wm P dept mgr Calif Pkg Corp h901 Calif " Wm S elev opr
rl355 21st av " Wm V electn hl524 35th av Relde Chas F (Margarete)
chauf hl510 Pacific av Reidel A C (Bonnie) atty SOCo r44 Cervantes
blvd " Oscar rl393 Noe " Robt elk rl356 Grove " Wm H sporting gds
1657 O'Farrell rl464 Ellis Reidelbach Theo (Frances) labty asst U C
Hoso h64 Prentiss Reldell Merle L atdt Veterans Admin Facility r418
Central av Reidener Paul formn Sussman Wormser & Co r21I
Brighton av Reider BenJ news agt Natl Serv Co r445 O'Farrell Reidt
Henrietta Mrs r818 Buchanan " Henry c elk United Grocers Ltd r Okld
REIDT, See also Ready, Reddy, Reedy and Riedy " Agnes I tel opr
r2825 Van Ness av " Agnes M office sec A D Strecker r846 24th "
Alice M tchr r846 24th av " Anna G sten Hearst Consolidated
Publications r642 Jones " Cath bkpr L F Seapy r558 17th av " Claire
sten Am Blower Corp r304 Irving " Danl J (Margt) police h335 Jersey
" Dennis J (Breda) supt Haslett Whs Co h558 17th av " Edw (Normal
prsmn Schmidt Litho Co h424 8th av Elmo W restr 215 Market R411
r565 Hill Florence rl900 Washn Geo J (Loretta Gl hosemn SFFD h316
27th Jas bartndr r358 Frederick Jerome J (Vivian) police h2658 23d
av John J (Prances) elk hl550 9th av Jos C r481 40th av Julia Mrs
h358 Frederick Mary C sten Am Tr Co r San Mateo Mervyn T
(Florence) hosemn SFFD h376 Valley Nellie h4159a 24th Patk h2825
Van Ness av Patk (Margt) br mgr Purity Stores Ltd hl90 Castro Philip
orderly S P Hosp r2I30 Pulton Philip J r846 24th av Robt h3440 25th
Wm J (Anna S) slsmn Samarkand Ice Cream Co h846 24th av Reidz
Theo K (Caroline C) waiter h572 Frederick Reiel Daisy (wid Andwl
hl423 Webster Reier Geo H aud U S Int Rev r Pled Reif Ben
(Miriame) slsmn Tllton's r300.16th " EUz A (wid A F) h391 Missouri "
F Indy wkr rlll9 Webster " Faith E bkpr Borden's Dairy Del Co r391 "
Miriame slswn Roos Bros r300 16th av Reifeiss Louis w (Joan) teller
Anglo Calif Natl Bank h776 Geary Reift John hl543 Palou Relfler Jack
iron wkr rl825 Eddy Reifschneider Richd P acct SPCo r Mlllbrae
Highlands Reigg Robt C h795 Pine Reighard Thos (Pauline) chauf
r243 2d av " Walter L Rev (Sadie) pastor Life Line Gospel Mission
h473 Guerrero Reighart Wm H h3155 Dlvisadero Reighley LiUian M
elk Great Am Ins Co r Okld " Walter G (Genevlc hll2 Roanoke Reigle
Roy E (Edna) Co h2449 Chestnut Reigo Vincent waiter rl466 Sutter
Reik Carl W (Hanna) delicatessen 1441 Polk hl437 do Reiker Saul
(Violet hllOl Oak Reiley Alex lab r927 Fillmore " Cecil hl328 Hyde "
Fred lab rl710 Webster " Harold servmn Pac Tire Sales Co rl609
Franklin " Patricia elk hl045 Leavenworth Reillng Edw H (Mabel M)
concessioniare h4312 Judah " Kath waiter hl231 Jackson Relllac
Emile acct Shell Chemical Co r Sausalito REILLEY, See also Reilly.
EUey and Eytey " Frank J (Georgia) Int dec hl35 Idora av " John
(Kath) millwright h818 47th av orderly S slsmn Tubbs Cordage slsmn
Weinstein Co sten rl819 9th Alice C sten hl030 Franklin Ahce M tchr
r381 Douglass Alma E elk Anglo Calif Natl Bank rl819 Arth r364 Eddy
Bernard (Jennie) h349 3d av Bernard B h48 Majestic av Cath (wid
Martini h3364 22d Chas (Mary) rl668 Mission Chas J treas S F Lndy
r750 7th av rl22 Delmar vld J P) slswn h525 Leavenworth " Clinton "
Cora E _ _ _ , " Danl r865 Capp " Dolores F Mrs beauty shop 133
Geary R434 " Dorothy Mrs tchr Pub Sch rlO Linares av " E P Mrs
rlOSO Van Ness av " Edw E (Rose E| cond Mun Ry h225 Corbett "
Edw F sec-treas Electric Corp of San Francisco r Palm Springs " Edw
H (Dorothy) tchr Pub Sch hl71I Oak " Edw J drftsmn PT&TCo r
Lomita Park " Edw J (Lulu) longshoremn hl7 Hollls " Edw M Jr
(Isabelle) elk Bank of Am h22 Crown ter " Eileen sten Stecher-Traung
Litho Corp rl735 " Elmer r227a Winfleld " Emmett P (Gertrudel h531
Diamond " Emmit elk Bank of Am r605 19th av " Eug F (Mavl h2590
Sacto " EveljTl Mrs rl949 Oak " P E mfrs agt 200 Davis R208 ''
Florence M cash Livingston Bros r61a 29th briUo Frances J sec J T
O'Connor r6350 Pulton M sten McCutchen Olney Mannon & Frank lab
r61a 29th WM. BAT EM AN BANK, OFFICE AND STORE FIXTURES
1913-1919 BRYANT STREET TEL. MA RKET 2457
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FOUNDED 1797 NORWICH UNION FIRE INSURANCE

SOCIETY LIMITED 234 Sansome Street OF NORWICH. ENGLAND
Pacific Departn Tel. EX brook 0840 REILLY " Frank J atdt Veterans
Admin Facility rill Taylor Frank J (Nellie) carp h6350 Fulton " Geo
blksmith 532 Gough hiai9 9th av "" Geo P eng U S Eng r Okld Geo P
tmkpr Ocean Shore Iron Wks rl420 Chestnut Geo R tKathi member
City Board Permit Appeals h51 Nantucket av Gerald P prsfdi- Field -
Ernst Envelope Co rS25 Eddy Grace M tchr Pub Sch r99 6th av Harry
E drEtsmn SPCo r Bkly Henry A (Jeani police h381 Douglass Henry A
Jr elk r381 Douglass Henry P (Emma i plmbr Dept Pub Wks hI282
Church Herbt L ins agt r99 6th av Howard E elk Sloss & Brittain r
Daly City Jas (Kath) seamn h917 Polsom Jas C bkpr rl20 Delmar Jas
H Jr (Hazel M) (Jas H Reilly & Co) 1598 Dolores ■ Jas J rl325 3d av '
Jas J (Vivian) auto mech h39a McCoppin • Jas J (Bettyi trucker SPCo
r592 Castro ■ Jas O (Agnes Oi elk SPCo r2386 15th Jas P (May I
hl046 Diamond ■ Jas P (Irmai flremn h5164 3d Jas T elev opr r290
Mullen av Jean pkr rlI40 Sutter John h278 Clara ' John r906 Howard
John asst mgr Weinstein Co r Daly City John (Annie) police hl362
31st av John c flremn rl40 Ellis John P meat ctr r2030 Mission John J
h541 Elizabeth John J elk r940 Diamond Jos A (Jas R Reilly & Co)
rI596 Dolores Jos A (Violet) driver h235 Remain Jos P (Lvdia Ji hl61
Chattanooga Julius J (Hedwig) h227b Winfleld Kate tea pkr r3364
22d Kath fctywkr r917 Folsom Kath nurse r2570 Bush Kenneth J
musician r227a Winfleld Lawrence G (Alice) h2127 San Jose Leo
slsmn r227a Winfleld Leo I (Jas H Reilly & Co) rl596 Dolores Leslie E
tchr Pub Sch r99 6th av Madeline elk Retailers Credit Assn r421
Alvarado Margt r39 Lippard av ■ Margt Mrs elk Wells Fargo Bank &
Union Tr Co rl524 Alemany blvd Marjorie D sten Travelers Ins Co
r3919 23d ' Mary elk Pattern Fashion Syndicate r940 Diamond ■
Mary (wid John) h428 Jersey Mary (wid Peter) h311a San Jose av
Mary E elk Aetna Casualty & Surety Co rl735 8th av Mary J eompt
opr rl441 6th av ■ Mary M (wid J Ji h227a Winfleld ■ Mary R rl70
Upper ter May A Mrs tchr Pub Sch r2590 Sacto ■ May E pub sten
465 Calif R538 rl430 Clay Michl J (Margt) police hl575 24th av Norma
acct r428 Jersey Patk A (Heleni slsmn h417 Guerrero Patk P bldg
contr 760 Market R401 hl70 Upper ter Patk J cond Mun Ry r605 19th
av Peter whsmn rlOGl Church Philip h71 Coleridge Philip A dentist
1167 Valencia Philip H elk hl661 Bush Raymond chauf rl337 Scott
Raymond B (Muriel E) h664 10th av Rita emp Union League Club
r3037 Clay Robt hl430 Clay Robt elk Bank of Am r605 19th av Robt
fndywkr hlll4 Sutter ■ Robt A slsmgr Thos J Llpton Inc r Burligame
Robt M (Bertha M) restr 200 Market h610 16th av Rose (wid John I
h32 Grattan Rose (wid M Pi r99 6th av Sadie Mrs cook City Parks
Dept r69 Ottawa (Nellie Ti h588 Hearst Thos G h4188 20th Thos P
(Tressa) h361 Lexingtoi Burlingame ■ Walter S (Betty) (Simpson-
Reilly Ltd) r2285 Bway ' Wm (Paye) h243 Remain Wm (Anna T) phys
490 Post R452 h56 25th Wm A (Heleni phys 384 Post R415 hI20
Santa Ana Wm C (May Pi photo engr hl236 45th av Wm C Jr seamn
rl236 45th av Wm H h4950 Calif Wm H (Anna Ei elk City & County
Tax P J Kllmm h415 3d av " Wm S (Mary) hl270 LaPlava " Wm W
(Eliz) hl92 Miramar av " Winifred elk Met Life Ins Co r421 Alvarado
REILY. See also Reilley. Reilly. Riley and Ryley " Edwin F v-pres Utah
F*uel Coal Co r San Anselmo " Ella R Mrs rl828 Oakdale av " Jos T
(Golden Gate Engr Coi h635 Clayton Re: *" .-. " 1 " Pred H " Hans
(Loretta) seamn h219a Shipley " W R r281 Mallorca way Reimann
Antone (Annai plstr h4128 26th " Benj (Ann) baker rl857 Hayes "
Ernest S (Lillian) driver hl488 5th av " FYed G (Dorothy) mech Wesix
Elec Heater Co h508 Larkin " Otto S mech Elec Heater Co r508
Larkin " Vera Mrs tchr Pub Sch r833 Head " Walter W (Vera) dist mgr
Dennison Mfg Co h833 Head Reimche Helmuth woodwkr r3I Belcher
" Julius (Esther) woodwkr h31 Belcher " Louis (Louise) boxmkr
h3332a 16th Reimer Beatrice r65 Guerrero " Bertha smstrs rll85c
Guerrero " Prank acct Price Waterhouse & Co r Okld " Helen nurse
h2480 Washn " Leo C h955 Oak " Martin J (Anna) cook h756 6th av
" Otto bkpr h50 Buena Vista ter " Peter C (Bertha) h380 4th av "
Wayne asst chf elk Bank of Am rSan Leandro Reimers Carl formn
Prank Flood Co hl675 Hayes " Ella h736 Jones " Emma A slswn
Original Calif Pleating Co h725 O'Farrell " Francis M (Alice)
underwriter Fidelity & Casualty Co r630 Jones Pred (Eliz) carp h634
30th Fredk H archt 233 Post R609 I Henry mach appr rl563 Turk
Okld Henry C (Anna M) millmn h266 Cumberland ■ Herbt slsmn
Leon Finch Ltd r208 Ivy ■ Herman A (Josephine) h730 8th av John H
cbtmkr rl296 Connecticut ' Louis egg candler J T Freitas Co r Mill
Valley Ludvig chf chemist Sperry Flour Co r Bkly Martha Mrs h208 Ivy
Mary A sten Paris Beauty Parlor Supp Co (Vera M) lab City Parks
Dept r730 8th " Norman G rl236 4th " Peggy h3459 26th " Theo jan
r4433 17th " Walter (Margt) sec-mgr S F Junior Chamber of
Commerce h3549 DIvlsadero " Wm marine eng r286 2d " Wm p cash
Chapman & Co r Bkly " Wm P (Marie C) crmry wkr h742 BrunsReimle
Gus hl600 Calif Reimund Laurel D elk Retailers Credit Assn rl047
Franklin Reimus Peter A (Gertrude) mech h550 18th av " Robt r550
18th av Rein Geo (Mary) sta eng h567 Athens " H Norman (Leona)
elk rl702 Fulton " Julius Jwlr 1433 Polk rl424 do Reina Jas barber
1136 Mission rll46 do " L hl297 18th " Salvatore (Adele) drugs 785
Columbus av h2360 Filbert Reinack Wm drftsmn rl20 Webster
Reinberg Herman (Gertai h312 Maple " Pauline Mrs r2867 Sacto
Reincke Lucie M sec Orrlck. Palmer & Dahlquist h701 Pine Willy H
(Kathleen) acct hl685 Sutter Reine John (Emma) mach h448 Brussels
Reinech Albt r4019 Army Pred A lab r4019 Army hl80 Alhambra
Harold H rl80 Alhambra Wm elk Palace Hdw Co r Burlingame Eliz
r3656a 20th " Kath elk rll79 Union Reineman H r Hotel El Cortez
Reinen Emma sten r53o Waller " Randolph h530 Waller Reiner Albt A
iMariei hl024 Ellis " Alta B h3201 Gough " Carl E with S F Bank r567
Uth av " Donald E h200 Irving " Edith E elk PT&TCo rl229 7th av "
Ethel (Wid Adolph) hl229 7th av " Herbt A (Adele) drftsmn SPCo
h3255 Laguna " Lawrence J elk PT&TCo r567 11th av " Louis (Anna)
cbtmkr h772 Page " Louisa Mrs r338 11th av " Mary A elk rl301
Geary Reinero Pred P examiner Bd of Fire Underwriters of the Pac r
Bkly " Louis J (Mary) baker h581 Pennsylvania Relners Eliz B sec
Califurze Inc r Okld " Hertha elk r2427 Washn Reinert Albt H (Ethel
G) (Reinert & Riley) Riley (A H Reinert. A J Riley, G W REINFELD,
See also Rheinfeld " Chas J jr plmbr r817 York " Harry L (Ruby)
drftsmn Dept Pub Wks rl612 Vallejo " Jas W (Winifred T) dept City
and County Recorder Reinfried Ernest slsmn E J Beedle r814 Eddy
Reingold Jerry slsmn J M Attie r Okld " Leon (Betty) chauf h457 19th
av Reinhard Albt cbtmkr r250 Burrows " Edmond (Margaret) lab
h757 Hamilton " Elsie H elk Stauffer Chemical Co r255a 24th av "
Emma Mrs h250 Burrows " Pred restrwkr rill Mason " Fred A glazier
Habenicht & Hewlett r Brisbane " Gertrude (Quality Sh " Louise bkpr
J H Ba " Rudolph agt Northwestn Natl Ins Co r250 Burrows
Relnhardt Albt M (Lueile F) genl frt Santa Pe hl880 Jackson " Andrea
J sten r2562 26th av " Andw fVivlan) slsmn Rutledge-Glissman Co
h2562 26th av " Arth h281 14th " Boris G drftsmn Western Sugar
Refinery h2645 Sacto " Harry v-pres Loveland Engineers Inc r Bkly
Harry F elk Suhr & Valencia h280 Chenery John rl51 Albion Louis K
(Marie) eng State Indstrl Ace Com Ralph hl9 Ramona Ruth M r397
30th Sally (Wid Aug) hl359 10th ; Seraphina rl761 DIvlsadero Walter
G (Garnet) met pict opr h601 O'SAN FRANCISCO GRADING CO.
GRADING — EXCAVATING — PAVING — SIDEWALKS 6565 Third
Street Red Rock Macadam Phone DE laware 8480 RETAIL C R E D I
TREPORTScoLLECTIONS
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accurate

z o < ^ I t« '-' u H) "tJ .J< c 0 < 03 S H 2 < Ho iP <=s I

Gif* of Furniture, Clothing, Paper, etc. Call SU tter 3518 FOR RED
SHIELD TRUCK THANK YOU Help to Perpetuate Our Varied Activities
REMEMBER THE SALVATION ARMY IN YOUR WILL ^ S REINHARDT "
Wm W h805 Valencia REINHART. See also Rinehart REINHART C E &
CO. C E Reinhart Pres. Lumber and MUl Work, 535 10th, Tel
UNderhlll AZGi " Chas E lEva Vi pres C E Reinhart & Co hll35 Stanyan
" Chas P hammer opr Irvine & Jachens r Daly CUv " Clifford L elk
r3008 Ulloa " Elton (Bernlcei slsmn C E Reinhart & Co " Enid elk
Palace Hotel r654 5th av " Geo 'Marthai drftsmn Am Can Co rl69
Ashton av "HA hl501 Lincoln way " Helen sten Monotype Co of Calif r
Daly City " Herbt E elk SPCo r Bklv " Hiram L iBlanchei mllimn h3008
Ulloa " Irene S slswn Raphael Weill & Co h654 5th av " Rex A
(Theresai elk C E Rinehart & Co hll20 Hvde " Stanley h739 Jones "
Walter H slsmn h2235 Larkin Relnheimer A M acct r627 Central av "
Jas lArlene) mach hl55b Russ " Mose h627 Central av " Moses rl405
Van Ness av " Wm mgr American Writing Mach Co r Okld Reinhertz
Abr iMildred) men's furngs 162 6th hl845 Franklin " Jennie r3306
Pulton " Julian S (Kathi v-prin Pub Sch h2823 Union " Lottie Mrs
h3306 Fulton " Nathaniel r3306 Fulton Reinhold Anna bkpr h536 Day
Anthony P (Amanda i rl738 10th av Arth E elk Great Am Ins Co r Ala
Beatrice D elk A G Spalding & Bros r461 h461 Yerba Bu Edgar L elk
Am Red Cross r2938 Pine Edgar C dancer r461 Verba Buena av Emily
rlOl Parnassus av Ernest P delicatessen 2046 Mission r636 Van Ness
av S Gabriel (Jacobs & Reinhold) rl482 Sutter " Geo ptrnmkr rl35
Yukon " Hugo c (Leeper & Reinhold) r Burlingame " John restr wkr
r2162 Market " Saul slsmn hl962 McAllister " Sophie F Mrs hlOl
Parnassus av " Valentine J ptrnmkr r536 Day Reinholdt Carl A iRitai
examiner Federal Reserve Bank hl895 Paeiftc av Reinholdtsen Leif
(Emmai flshermn h2656 Van Reinila Paul V h873b Capp Retningham
Marguerite r2329 Pacific av Reininghaus Jas M (Jean Ri h3455 Pierce
" Jean R sten Westn Glass Products Co r3465 Pierce " Marguerite
sten J B Swim rl490 Pine " Virginia elk Met Life Ins Co r Mill Valley
Reinke BenJ C (Elsie Al dentist 708 38th av hl706 9th av " Carl A
(Victoria Bi car einr r427 Lisbon " Clara Mrs h524 Moraga - L elk
Anglo Calif Natl Bank h321 Bank h353 Bartlett " Fritz (Pearl) elk h34
Williams av " Geo W (Pearl Mi h427 Lisbon " Henry A iNob Hill
Frocksl h2646 34th av " Lillian r2914 21st Reinkemeyer Fredk H
(Kathi h49 Valley Reinkin May smstrs Lillian May Relnmlller Vernon
whsmn r853 43d " Woodrow emp Stecher-Traung Litho Corp r402
Bwav Relnmund Helen Mrs hl051 Franklin Reinoehl Eleanor (wid
Chas Hi h783a Guerrero " Thelma E Instr Marchant Calculating Mach
Co r783a Guerrero " Virginia nurse r3810 Fulton Reinsberg John
h522 Joost av Reinsch J E hll55 Howard " Martin A drftsmn
Mangrum-Holbrook Co r637 10th av " Sarah r2444 Van Ness av
Reinshagen Chester A elk SOCo r Okld Reinstein Chas slsmn Edw
Pollak " Sara hl201 Calif Reinsurance Underwriters H D Haupt pres T
A Ward v-pres Mrs M L Haupt sec-treas ins agts 114 Sansome Reios
Anita (wid E Wi hl21 Buena Vista ter Reip Hobert adj Goodvear Tire
& Rubber Co r2134 Van Ness av Reipon Arth cook rl059 Leavenworth
Reippeur Agnes Mrs furn rms 346 Kearny " Bernard elk r346 Kearny
Reirman Irving r951 OFarrell Reirson Chris S Jan hl350 Franklin
REIS. See also Rees, Reese, Reiss, Ries and " Chas (Prancesi drugs
2701 Lombard hl246 Alemanv blvd " Dollie r830 Bush " E hl451
Tavlor " Estate 230 Calif 6th fl " Eugenie (wid Osborni h2030 Scott
W_ (Pauline I phys 1005 Market R202 Tamale Factory r745 urove ■
Lee furrier Vincent Belmonte ■ Lewis R advmn rl472 Filbert ■ Lydia C
hipr S F Hosp ' Manuel (Henrietta i ins broker 345 Front R208 h3560
Pierce ' Mattie r841 Polk ' Monroe M (Kath J) drugs 755 Taraval
h2243 18th av Pauline P Mrs hl472 Filbert Sidney M (Elizi slsmn hll20
Shrader " Virginia facty wkr r516 Ellis "WD v-pres Santa Margarita
Land & Cattle Co r2701 14th " Wm B pres Santa Margarita Land &
Cattle Co and El Dorado Oil Works r2368 Vallejo Reisberg Elma R
sten S H Frank & Co rl550 Clement " Max (Elma F) mens elo 130 3d
hl550 Clement Reisburg Adele rl427 Post Reischack Chas E elk
Swayne & Hoyt Ltd hl775 Bway Reise Edna r561 I4th av Reisen Carl
H (Florence Ml teller Am Tr Co h308 Laidley " Rebecca R pharm
Morris Benatar r300 Page Reisenberg Felix jr reporter S F News h640
Mason Reiser Harry rlOOS Fell " Jos (Maude I C S pract h209 Preclta
av " Josephine (wid Benji h716 O'Farrell " Paul (Twin Peaks Electric
Col " Saydee sec S F Assn for the Blind rl90 11th Reisfelt Esther Mrs
apt mgr hl261 Grove " Harry musician h297 Juanlta v;ay Reising
Gertrude tel opr rl470 Calif " Gretchen sten Eastman Kodak Stores
rl470 Calif Reisinger Conrad B elk Home Owners Loan Corp h2844
Lyon " Wilson optician Pacific Optical Co r Okld Reisler Chas i Evelyn i
hl928 Page Reisman Alf E r777 6th av ReismuUer Wm r402 Bway
Reisner John (Heleni h826 Central av " John A r826 Central av " John
G (Mabeli (Reisner & Deming) h890 Urbano dr " Vivian beauty shop
2059 Polk r2055 Polk " & Deming (J G Reisner L S Deming) lawyers
Adele r3636 Webster Alma nurse rl660 Divisadero Emile iLlnda) mfrs
agt 101 Post R305 h2111 (Maryi driver h356 Connecticut " Jos H
(Genevieve M) slsmn h546 41st av " Julius longshoremn r818 Hayes
" Laura Mrs slswn Arth Steineke " Leslie asst Louis Roncovieri " Louis
J sht mtl wks 2272 Market " Lucien B collr Galland Merc Lndy Co
h3740 Fillmore " Philip clo cinr 1405 Haight 702 Irving 760 Market
R252 and 842 Taraval r Burlingame " Saml mfrs agt 77 O'Farrell 2d fi
h3806 Clay Reisse Oscar F (Clarai elk hl28 Mangels av Reist Fred
cementwkr rll79 Turk Reiswig Arth R lEmmai chauf hl369 Noe Relsz
Lawrence J (Mabel) printer hl50 5th av Reit Benj slsmn h300 16th av
" Carl E (Julia I h666 Sanchez " Harry prsr SFERA r377 6th " Olga B
sten r666 Sanchez Reite Edgar E (Margery Li longshoremn h725
Grove " Margery L Mrs apt mgr r725 Grove Reiter C J h441 Ellis "
Clarence ( Helen i concrete wkr h95 Harring" Joan C bkpr C A
Christin r San Anselmo " Julius h455 Hyde " Marian Mrs ant mgr
h575 Pierce " Maurice rl41 5th " P M sandal mkr Dance Art Co "
Prosper (Mariani consul geni Luxembourg r575 Pierce " Victor
lAugustai hll95 Stanyan " Victor Jr nurservmn rll95 Stanyan
Reiterman Jos (Mildred) car elnr hl228 Kansas " Neil D garmt ctr hl77
Page " Wm A h50 Laguna " Wm J (Marvi hn7 Page Reith Alex H
(Margt Si gro 1939 Irving hl307 20th av " Alice Mrs wrapper rl35
Park " Edw A (Hannah L) eng h460 20th av " Edwin W iplorencei
mach hl520 Gough " WIllv sausage mkr r809 Bryant Reitheiser Paul
rl224 Washn Reither Herman photog r2114 Mission Reitmann John
elk Baker Hamilton & Pac Co Geo J acct London & Lancashire Ins Co
r Bkly Reitz Carl (Elsiei mach h33 Santa Monica way " G Mrs h2400
Pacific av " Herman J ( Lillian i slsmn hl224 45th av " Louella D bkpr
King Knight Co r Okld " Lyle C distiller Am Cream Tartar Co rl776
Turk " Maud Mrs (Sea Cliff Restr) h478 27th av " Raymond hl37 Scott
Reitzel Josef D (Georgiana) elk h252 Lexington " Raymond J phys
384 Post R403 r San Mateo Reitzig Carl (Margueritei bartndr hl541a
15th Reitzler Arno J jan M Seller Co r Brisbane Reive David h978 Ellis
Reiwitz Alex A eng H T Gettins Co rl625 Chestnut Reizner Ernest pntr
r38 Conrad Rekdal Myrtle nurse 175 29th av Rekow Albt rl308'2 Ellis
" Amelio flremn rl308'j Ellis " Fred W (Silvereai hl308"2 Ellis " Jos M
(Fanny I auto mech h643 2d av " Saml firemn rUOS'i; Ellis " Wm
rl308',- Ellis Rekuam Peter r251 9th Relat Marguerite Mrs apt mgr
rll65 Francisco " Peter (Margueritei brklyr hi 165 Francisco Relei Albt
lab rl643 San Jose av " Danl meat ctr r400 Faxon av " Gene X
(Josephine i electro hl547 25th av " Rose factvwkr r210 Jewel Relfe
Edw C (Grace Ei h3535 Fillmore " Howard P elk Anglo Calif Natl Bank
r Okld Reliable Auto Parts & Supply Co (H C Alexander F C Hursa )
auto wreckers 524 Golden Gate av " Grocery (L J Neuschwander
Herbt Phielhopi 249 Cortland av " Home Sausage Co (Leonard and
Martin C P Bargeri 2415 19th RELIABLE SHEET METAL CO <0 F
Justice) Established lO'l. General Sheet Metal Workers, Warm Air
Heating and Ventilating, 472 .>th. Tel DO uglas 7995 RELIABLE
TIME SHOP THE (H E Harper) Watches and Clocks Really Reliably
Repaired, Also Sold, New or Rebuilt, Jewelry Repaired. 40'' Market,
Tel DO ufflas 8395 iliance Acceptance Co M L Rapheld pres H P
Kllnger sec 1336 Van Ness av Finance Service V G Wise mgr 785
Market R802 RELIANCE LIFE INSURANCE CO OF PITTSBURGH, PA.
N J Nelson Mgr, E E KeUer Asst Mgr. J H Mcintosh Cashier, 111
Sutter, Suite 10:M>. Tels DO uglas 18^-1835 (For further
information see left side lines and page 54, Buyers' Guide)
RELIANCE TRAILER & TRUCK CO INC. John R Konetsky Pres. Milton
J Konetsky V-Pres, Andrew R Konetsky Sec-Treas, 2765 16th nr
Folsom, Tel MA rket 4894, Auto Truck Body Division 20^ Folsom H.
A. BROWN AT THE BROWN President CHEVROLET BRIDGE • NEAR
EVERYTHING CO. 7TH AND HARRISON STS. Phone MA rket S668
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.91%
accurate

REAL ESTATE BUILDER INSURANCE BROKER GRACE

PEREGO 176 SUTTER STREET Telephone GA rfield 7840 LEASES
RELIANCE UNDERWRITERS (of Philadelphia) Chas J Stovel Genl Agt.
Geo A Sherman Asst Genl Agt, Royal Insurance Bldg. 201 Sansome.
Tel DO nglas 4396 Relich Kosta ctr Arnold Liebes r Bkly Rello Manuel
baker rl228 22d Relof Albt h255 9th av Remaro Frank (Birdie)
factywkr h712 TennesRembado Peter (Dolores) hl445 McKinnon av
Rembarger Geraldine hllOl Francisco Rembart Casper factywkr r706
North Point Rembaugh Agnes Mrs r392 3d HEMBOLD A A & CO
(Albert A Rembold) Industrial Engineers. Business Counselors "E-Z
Sort" Tabulating Systems and Equip 440 Russ Bldg, 235
Montgomery, Page Remco Steamship Co C J Wood pres C E DeCamp
v-pres G A Freudenberg sec 582 Market R1600 Reme Fred sta eng
rl500 25th Remedi Frank (Marinello) nurserymn hl42o Wavland "
Jennie rl420 Wayland Remedia Giuseppe sugar wkr r58 Shotwell
Remegie Louis P (Marianne) h2443 15th av " Nicholas (Mayi wtchmn
h557 Congo Remele Frank rl824 Page " Max (Matildai hl824 Page "
Otto rl824 Page Remell Arth L drftsmn SOCo r Bkly Remensperger
Bros (W A and H W) autos 640 Valencia used cars 476 do " Herman
W (Edna) (Remensperger Bros) h598 Darien way " Wm A (Dora)
(Remensperger Bros) h990 Monterey blvd " Wm U (Kath Ml asst mgr
Remensperger Bros h481 Verba Buena av Remer Aileen slswn r875
North Point " Emile tel opr rllOl Pine " Fredk jr asst mgr Zinkes r240
4th av " Fredk W (Alice C) waiter h2450 47th av " Geo (Emile) hllOl
Pine " Wm A millmn r2450 47th av Remers Frank art gds 1643
Market Remesaro Ernesto jan r421 TJnion Remetich Fredk rl75 6th
Remetta Jos (Rubinai hl4 San Antonio pi Remezzano Nick jan rl943
Stockton Remi Jay R rl424 Polk Remick Dorothy sec W I Garren r Ala
" John A iRosei elk C&HSR Corp hl360 Lombard " Mamie nurse hl034
Sutter Remillard Delia (wid Frank) h863 37th av Remillong Peter W i
Laura ) restrwkr h564 REMINGTON ARMS CO INC, PETERS
CARTRIDGE DniSION, J G Heath Manager. ,511 Sharon Bldg, .55
New Montgomery, Tel KEarny 3176 Carlton (Florence) hll32 Portola
dr Clare asst bkpr Western Women's Club r609 Sutter E B slsmn
Johnson-Locke Mercantile Co Okld Edw examiner Bd of Fire
Underwriters of the Pac hl050 Franklin Eric h2100 Leavenworth Ethel
Mrs h545 O'Parrell Florence cash C L Cline rn32 Portola dr Geo L v-
pres Wildman & Co Inc r Los Post Henry C (Maude) hl907 9th M
r960 Bay M elk Wei: Merrill L r701 Sutter Muriel sten h3759 Fillmore
-Rand Inc H H Sealander div mgr typewriters 509 Market Ruth Mrs
elk Selbach & Deans hl016 Cole Thomas J auto mech rl907 9th av
Weston r50 Germania Remtsh David chauf rl222 Geary Remlzoff
John r34i O'Parrell Remke D cigar mkr r236 5th Remler Co Ltd E G
Danlelson pres radio mfrs 2101 Brytant " Nellie M Mrs hl605 Lincoln
way Remley Adolph (Hedrickt waiter h327 Locust " Walter bldg eng
Sutter Hosp Remmarck Edna radio asmblr rl060 Munich Remmel Alva
J (Lillian Bi phys 870 Market R310 h81 San Felipe REMMEL " Oscar
h3763 24th Remmele Harold (Frances! pntr h793 Chenery " Louis L
dep coUr U S Int Rev r715 Leavenworth " Richd (Maryi pntr h311
Eureka " Wm O gro 2706 Diamond Remmen Albt underwriter St Paul
Fire & Marine Ins Co rl60 Haight " Oscar auto washer rl5Ba Church
Remmer Elmer F h501 Taylor " Sam tailor Artist Tailors r Daly City
Remmers Al A hl435 Bay " W ~ ■ "' Ren Remneff Eug P (Marie) elk
w U T Co h2361 Calif " Ludmila (wid P) mach opr h3548 Geary blvd
Remo P Martin cook U C Hosp r32a Harris pi " Proceso (Lillian)
waiter hl350 Ellis Remogna Antonia (wid Dominic) hl55 Charter Oak
av Remogna Cath rl55 Charter Oak av Remolif Victor barber h27
Monroe Remond Ernest r237 4th av Remore Virgil (Murieli driver
h505 Shotwell Remos Chris (Frances) gro 1397 Revere av hl395 do
Remson J Mrs hl545 Sacto Remus Roy A (Hazel Ei reporter Retailers
Credit Assn h443 Holloway av Remy Albt tmstr A L Arata " Albt T jan
Dept Pub Wks rlI67 Hayes Forrest h945 Hyde " Prances E rl338
Vallejo " Margt M elk United Drug Co rl825 Anza " Raymond W (Eliz
Gj lieut SFPD hl825 " Rita M rl338 Vallejo " Walter R elk rl825 Anza
Rena Apartments, 1920 Pine Renaker Mass r628 Montgy Renal Victor
wood carver r38a Shotwell Renaldi Albt chauf rl531 Pacihc av "
Antone (Rose) hl531 Pacific av " Frank mech rl531 Pacific av " Jos
(Louise I gdnr h75 Laura Renaldo Geraldine elk rl290 Green Renando
Alf (Amelia) hn53 Greenwich Renard J r610 McAllister " Ronald E
(Julia) drftsmn Am Can Co h2200 Francisco Renaro Attilo lab rl423
Kansas " Jos (Corinne) lab hl423 Kansas Renati Chas (Delphina)
scavanger h62 Boyce " Prank gas sta atdt hl863 Filbert " Geo
(Mabel) chauf h3029 Laguna " John elk Bouquet-Cohn Cigar Co "
Kath A sten rl040 Bush " Linda Mrs fctywkr rl863 Filbert RENAUD,
See also Reynaud Co h3141 Franklin John lab r973 Howard John P jr
(Elenore E) elk h3830 19th Jos B Rev asst pastor St Monica's Catholi(
"MA hl808 Pacific " Mary F iwid John Pi h3a30 19th " Raymond
(Vera) h266 Romain Renberg Rosetta E elk r65 Buena Vista av
Rencehausen Lloyd E ( Wanda i marine eng h389 Guerrero Rench
Dolores r3983 17th " Jas H elk Sherman Clay & Co r Burlingame
Rendahl Bernice sten Cullinan Hickey & Sweigert r219 16th av "
Kenneth N (Mary) slsmn h378 20th av " Leonard E elk SOCo r Bkly "
Orville B elk Johns-Manvllle Sales Corp r219 16th av Rendalis Manuel
L bartndr r823 Balboa " Steph L (Mary) tchr h823 Balboa Rendall
Wm D i Mary i slsmn Met Life Ins Co h3335 Scott Rende Prank slsmn
rl74 Prague " Jos lab rl74 Prague RENDE " Leonard (Rosina) lab hl74
Prague " Sylvia elk rl74 Prague Rendell Geo E (Olive) barber 3172
Mission r246 Crescent av Ren Delle Ruth r245 Scott Rendelle Wm
phys h243a Oak Render May waiter r972 Bush " Thos R msngr r972
Bush Rendigs Fred (Lupe) elk Schmidt Litho Co r480 Pine Rendlen
Jean editor Five Star Pub Corp r Fairmont Hotel Rendon Clara E rl909
Larkin " Julian G (Mary A) cigar mkr hl909 Larkin " Pearl Mrs slswn
Nathan-Dohrmann Co r875 Union " Rose M sten rl909 Larkin Rene
Emily r524 39th av " Estelle S maid r918 Haight " Mir rl85 Marston
av " Wm r9l8 Haight Reneau Humphrey S eond Mun Ry rl766
Community M E ch h985 Vienna " Lloyd (Amanda I h829 Fell
Renebome D D with Braun-Knecht-Hetmann Co r Okld " Harry G
(Elizl h2206 Hyde " Robt H (Alice Ci with Lilienthal Lee & Co h2801
Union Renee Marie Beauty Shop (Christine Cofleld. Mary Ohmi 3160
22d Renegar Clifford G glass blower hl716 Mission ion Bureau r Ala
Renesis John cook h77 Langton Renetzki Jean nurse rl36 Guerrero
Renfort Alfred (Clara) mgr Bunny's Waffle Shop rl960 Valley " Harold
A (Eliz) h557 28th av Renfree Beatrice L elk Chanslor & Lyon Stores
r665 Eddy Renfrew Frances E bkpr rSl Ord " Wm A h81 Ord Renfro
Dorothy rl428 Post " Elma r400 Page " Frank h2869 Army " Harrv A
teller Bank of Am r400 Page " Steve A (Hazel) chauf hl650 Calif
Renfroe M Miss slswn Stevens Shops " W J jr lieut U S A r Presidio "
Wade B chauf r60 Market Renfrew Mae (wid Richd L) hl205 Bueha
Renger Edw Indy wkr Sts John Hosp Rengger Hermine Mrs h430
Bartlett Renghiasci Jos (Martha) elk hl471 Van Ness av S Rengstorff
Anna rl70a Jersey " Clarence (Minnie F) shipwkr rl70a Jersey "
Clarence H (Virginia) h3485 22d " Milton shipwkr rl70a Jersey Renia
Mary (wid Salvador) h2255 North Point Renick Alice C sten r2521
Van Ness i " Anita L sten Wm L Hughson Co r2521 Van Ness av " H
W jr elk Columbia Steel Co r Okld " W Leonard jr rep Wm R Staats
Co h367 Filbert Renieri Frank (Emma) USA h836 McAllister Renini
Enrico shoe shiner 44 Jones r2358 Lombard Renish Allen J rl740
Lyon Renish David S chauf rl222 Geary " Geo W (Jeanne) carp hl740
Lyon Renk Geo W (Edith M) chauf h374 Noe " Retta waiter r610
Ashbury Renken Geo F Frances mgr Leavitt Apts h2114 Mission
Renker Chas cash Brush Sloeumb & Co r5441 Geary blvd Renkevich
Anna Mrs r2215 Scott Renler Louis (EHz) h4810 Mission Renn Amalia
nurse rl72 Cervantes blvd " C Hjalmar h49 Walter " Carl J (Hanna)
tailor r49 Walter " Kath hl595 Treat av " Madeline sten Dept Pub Wks
rn2 Cervantes blvd " Rudolph W (Adela) hl72 Cervantes blvd Renna
Prances tailor Violet Saunders r Okld " Louis (Delia) barber 5324
Mission h3031 Army " Vincent (Kath) mgr Rosemont Courts h536
14th Rennaldson Robt (Ruth) elk h322 Flood av Rennard Robt L
(Celestine M) h425 2d av Phyllis ) slsmn Republic Morgen Jewelry
Co. DIAMONDS OLD GOLD SILVER AND PLATINUM Bought 888
Market St. Near Powell Phone DOuglat 3517 ACCURATE OPTICAL
SERVICE Style and Accuracy in Glasses — Complete Optical Service
Cameras, Microscopes, Telescopes, Binoculars, Opera Glasses, etc.
TRAINER & PARSONS, Dispensing Opticians - - San Francisco Moines
A.F. SMITH Agency Mgr. PACIFIC BLDG. Tel. sutler 3677
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.86%
accurate

•AS SOLID AS THE GRANITE HILLS OF VERMONT"

NATIONAL UFE INSURANCE COMPANY Home Office Montpelier,
Vermont A Purely Mutual Company Founded in 18S0 DONALD A.
LAMAR Mgr. (or Northern California 1 Montgomery St. San Francisco
EX brook 1942 364-14th St. Oakland TE mplebar 8621 PROCREDIT
COMPANY INC. CREDIT AND COLLECTION SERVICE 26 O'Farrell St.
Suite 401 Phone EX brook 1670 WESTERN COOPERAGE CO. BEER,
WINE, TIGHT AND SLACK BARRELS OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS | KITS,
TUBS AND PAILS FOR ALL PURPOSES 14th and Harrison Street* San
Franciaco, California Phone HE mlock 3600 lenner Agnes J sec U S
Bur of Mines hl985 Fulton Amelia P Mrs hlll4 Sutt' Augusta (wld JosI
h3533 24th " Carl R lab h69 Noe " Caroline waiter rlO08 Larkln "
Chas (Emma) hll38 Dolores " Claire rU14 Sutter " Eliz compt opr
r3533 24th " Emma cook r2840 25th " Frank F (Lucille) pntr h4372
Mission " Fred usher r435 Hayes " Fred J ( Elsie 1 pres-mgr Stetson-
Renner Drayage Co rl960 Bway " Frieda M sten Van Raalte Co r Okld
" Geo bellmn hl008 Larkin " Karl W (Martha D) meat ctr r2828
Kirkhan " Lewis E elk SPCo hl465 Dolores " Lloyd J barber r77 Blake
" Lucille elk rl008 Larkin " Marie sten r3533 24th " Ned rlll4 Sutter "
Rex (Nina I mech hl849 Pine " Thos rl040 Leavenworth " Walter
(Lena) driver h459 Justin dr " Walter slsmn rnsS Geary " Wm H
(Gladys! millmn h3932 19th Rennert Roland (Leone) meat ctr h879
Turk Rennev Irene rl409 20th " Isabel hl409 20th " Selma M sec
Eng-Skell Co r Burlingame Rennie Ads " " ~" " Clementi! R407 h2200
Paciflc " Geo F (Myrtle) driver hl87a Parnassus a " Gordon F elk
r28I0 Washn " Jemes hlpr Toy-Holbrook Inc rl Jurl " Jessie (wid Jas)
h7ei Guerrero " John (Myrtle) h570 28th av " John G (Olga M)
printer h514 5th av " John M h761 Guerrero " Leslie M slsmn r215
Arguello blvd " Maude D siswn I Magnin & Co Burlingamt " Ronald H
mgr Atlas Powder Co r Pied " Walter ship ftr r761 Guerrero Rennilson
Roy (Jean) elk SPCo h2843 Baker Renno Alfonso (Josephine) cement
fnshr hl330 Assoc Oil Co h645 Giln Reno Helen priv Stockton " Hotel,
252 6th " Howard E (Mary) iron wkr h4030 Army " Jas W machy 582
Market R913 r San Mateo " Kath A aud State Finance Co rl644 Taylor
-' Lillian hl2 Washburn '- Orien (Tovel elk Met Life Ins Co h2255
North Point " Peter restrwkr r589 Post " Virginia elk Distillers Distr
Corp rlOl Gough " Gaston bakery 1330 Howard r84 Washburn "
Marcel h923 Sacto Renos Manuel (Imperial Coffee Shop) r788
O'Farrell Renovich steph (Susani cbtmkr h748 Paris Apartments. 745
Halght rl828 15th Mrs hlpr s'p Hosp rl230 Rensberg Lou Rensch Nell
Utah Renshaw Ai School of Design h729 Jones instr Rudolph
SchaefTer Addle L h2047 Hyd( Albt (Laura) h479 7th av Barclay adj
Indemnity Ins Co of No Am r San Anselmo Chas W (Mary) gas sta
atdt hl999 Green Donald state dir Natl Emergency Council r
Woodacre Mary bkbndr E L Bosqul Printing Co rl999 Green Norman
elk h965 Oak Wm G (Pauline Gl eng S F Water Dept ngr Mathews
h3868 Calif Rensink Chester W (Pearl) Paint Co Inc h2367 15th "
Dorothy dom 2840 Lake " Eleanor sten r2367 15th av Rensselaer
Valve Co F H Brune mgr 55 New Castro " Frank O jr slsmn F E
Renstrom r96 Castro " John A (Alma) h249 Noe " John F (Josephine)
bldg contr 3176 Washn " John F jr elk Bank of Am r3176 Washn "
Myrtle V sec F E Renstrom r96 Castro Renteria oildardo (Alice) lab
hl22 Connecticut Renton Alice H typist SPCo r Larkspur iron wkr
hl007 Rentsch Walter F Rhode Island Rentschler Albt auto mech r473
Bartlett " Albt F (Sophia) (Rentschler Bros) h220 Castro " Amelia Mrs
r3700 20th " Bros (F J and A F) auto repr 1767 15th " Dorothy sten
r473 Bartlett " Fred J (Mabel) (Rentschler Bros) h473 Bartlett " Helen
hl234 Jones " Russell M h265 Fell " Wilfred auto mech r473 Bartlett
Rentz Chas S carp rl526 31st av h855 Pilb( " John W (Viola C 31st av
Renu Nicholas cook h281 Page Carl Gellert hl526 Chas H h645
Stockton Chas W h2737 Sutter Evelyn R slswn s & Sutter Florence
r562 Sutter Fred W bkpr Regal Amber Brewing Co Gump Co r562
Sutter " Harrletta Mrs maid rl710 Larkin " Jas A (Cath) slsmn hi 530
Dolores " Minnie E Mrs cash Natl Surety Co r Burlingame " Patk br
mgr Aluminum Industries Inc Renworth Geo H dept hd Federal
Reserve Bank r Kentfleld Renz Edna E slswn J C Penney Co rSlO 14th
" Edw H inspr S F Water Dept hSOO 26th av " Herman baker r775
Valley " Monona D Mrs tchr h25 Greenwood av " Steph N
chiropractor 1263 Octavia " Waller J acct 225 Bush R520 r901
Monterey blvd " Wilfred H elk Title Ins & Guaranty Co r810 14th
Renze Laura (Unique Hair Shoppe) r895 Sutter Renzi Mario (Mamie)
lab h2722 Bryant Reo Hotel. 422 Valencia REO SALES
CORFOKATION. Factory Branch. Wilmer Wood Mgr. Reo Speed
Wagons. Trucks and Bnses. 1158 Mission. Tel I'Ndertalll 1551
Reordan Chas E comdr U S N hl201 Greenwich " Danl asst pastor
Church of the Most Holy Redeemer hll6 Diamond Reorganized
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints 411 Arguello blvd
Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints 201a Caselli
av Repardo Jasue L barber r826 Kearny "— attl " ~ ■ ettl 40th "
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h265 Fell Reposa Francisco (Marcella) jan hl258 Turk h Ray Oil
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slsmn Davis Emergency Equip Co r (Mae) tailor hl731 25th h594
Moscow (Carol) elk McKenzle i A Magnificent Assortment of
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(Bertha) notions 976 Geneva av h585 Eureka Reppard Fred W (Alice)
electn h907 Valencia Reppeto Fred l " Laundrv 2067 Sutter
REPUBLIC NOODLE FACTORY. Robt Choy REPUBLIC STEEL
CORPORATION, 116 New Montgomerv. R718. Tel GA rfieid 0977
Republican Central Club of Calif Palace Hotel R2030 Repulis Chris K
cook h527 24th av Requa Geo W h40 Capra way " Kelly Mrs asst
bkpr Blumenfeld Theatre Circuit r40 Capra wav " Raymond R elk
hlOO Broderick Rerat Avis lino opr h757 Leavenworth Peret John
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Madeline elk r20 Ruth " Paul elk h20 Ruth Resburg Delia Mrs h957
Pell h3372 Sact. " Helen A priv sec Royal Ins Co rl855 Washn " Henry
office mgr Associated Mfrs Co h87 Dolores " Jos M iMarie) electn
h478 30th av " Lucille M bkpr Borden's Dairy Del Co r2370 32d av "
Michl (Ida) agt John Hancock Mut Life Ins Co and notions 2225
Irving " R J h20 Octavia " Ray Mrs hl472 Filbert " Ruth tchr Pub Sch
rl472 Filbert " Thos O (Dagna) elk Am Chicle Co h3348 16th Rescher
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Geo H (Mary A) sta eng hl035 Pine " John genl mgr Wakelee & Co
rl035 Pine " John v-pres Co-Operative Drug Syndicate Resendez
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UNDERWRITERS, Paciflc Coast Agency Co, W A Bartlett Mgr. 60
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Mut Life " Tania r2590 Sacto Reshatoff Ezat longshoremn h842
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r842 Rhode Island " John (Marvi longshoremn hl714 20th " Michl
(Hobrecht-Reshatoff Studio) r842 Rhode Island Resia Saml (Frances)
shoe shiner h25 Morrell Residence Club 940 Powell Resing Arnold W
mech Geo Windeler Co r36 28th " Edwin J (Resing & MeGuinness)
h36 28th " P Mary h635 Castro archts 488 Pine Reske Chas H
(Genevii h5640 Mission e) slsmn Arth Williams GROUND FLOOR
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