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Robotics and Automation Computer Science and Engineering

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Robotics And AutomAtion
computeR science And
engineeRing

Dr. Dileep Kumar M.

Dr. Uppin Chandrashekhar
S. R. Jena
Dr. Sohit Agarwal

www.xoffencerpublication.in

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Copyright © 2025 Xoffencer

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ISBN-13: 978-93-48116-29-1 (Paperback)

Publication Date: 03 May 2025

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 Author Details

Prof. Dr. Dileep Kumar M

Prof. Dr. Dileep Kumar M., is the Vice Chancellor of Hensard University of
Nigeria. Having more than 22 years of experience, he has worked in institutions like
UM6P (Morocco), University Institute of International and European Studies
(Netherlands), Berjaya Business School (Malaysia), International Teaching University
Georgia (East Europe), University Utara Malaysia, (Malaysia) MoHE & MoMP
(Sultanate of Oman), Symbiosis Center for Management & HRD (India) etc. He was
the Deputy Vice Chancellor of Nile University Nigeria, Pro Vice Chancellor of GNS
University, India, Director of DBA Program, UNIES, Netherlands, Head of
Leadership, innovation and Change Competence Center (OYAGSB, UUM, Malaysia)
and the Corporate Relations of AIMS, Bangalore, India, add to his professorial
responsibilities.

He was selected as the best employee of MoMP Colleges, and has got the
outstanding performer recognition in academics from MoHE, Oman.Working knit with
the academia, he has published 180 research papers in management (WoS/Scopus
journal papers), 56 online articles, 22 books, 3 monographs, 15 papers in edited books,
80 short case studies (including Emerald Emerging Marketing Cases), and presented
more than 90 research papers in international conferences. He has engaged as keynote
speaker, invited speaker, and chief guest for more than 180 conferences. Dil has 15
vii
patents and 27 copyrights, further demonstrating his contributions to research and
innovation. He is the Editor/Editorial Member/Reviewer of several international
journals including Scopus journals. Dil has won numerous national and international
accolades, including the Honorary Professor award (UCB), Man of Excellence Award,
Academic Excellence Award, Outstanding Leadership Award, Excellence in Research
Award, Global Academic Icon Award, best research paper awards in IFERP
International conference, IBRIICT conference, SJBIT Conference, & IPE National
Conference, India, demonstrating his accomplishments in academic and research. He
has engaged as a member in quality assurance and accreditation process (AACSB,
EQUIS, AMBA, ISO certification, and ADRI quality Assurance etc). He is the external
examiner of 50 PhD, DBA, MPhil and MBA dissertations of various international
universities.

viii
 Dr. Uppin Chandrashekhar

Dr. Uppin Chandrashekhar currently serves as the Dean of Science and

Computing at Hensard University, Nigeria. He earned his Ph.D. from Chhatrapati
Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, India, and brings with him a wealth of teaching
experience across national and international academic institutions. Dr.
Chandrashekhar specializes in core areas of Computer Science, teaching subjects such
as Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Advanced Algorithms,
Data Structures, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, and Programming
Languages (C, C++, Java, Python) at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
During his tenure as Head of Department, he successfully launched three postgraduate
programs—M.Sc., Ph.D., and a Postgraduate Diploma in Computer Science. He has
also led undergraduate program accreditation and reaccreditation processes under the
National Universities Commission (NUC) in Nigeria. His curriculum development
work aligns with evolving global industry standards and national educational policies.

Dr. Chandrashekhar is instrumental in establishing structured academic

systems for teaching, learning, examination, and evaluation. He actively engages in
faculty recruitment, performance appraisal, and professional development initiatives.
He frequently organizes seminars, workshops, and technical training sessions to foster
research and skill enhancement among staff and students. In addition to his
departmental leadership, he has been a Senate Member at Baze University since 2017
and is affiliated with numerous international professional bodies, contributing
significantly to academic excellence and institutional growth.

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x
 S. R. Jena

S. R. Jena is the Lab Head of x RESEARCH & INNOVATION LABTM,

Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Presently, he is working as an Assistant Professor in School
of Computing and Artificial Intelligence, NIMS University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
Presently, he is pursuing his PhD in Computer Science and Engineering at Suresh Gyan
Vihar University (SGVU), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India and he is also the Post-Doctoral
Fellow at NextGen University International, United States. He has completed his M.
Tech degree in Information Technology form Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha,
India in the year 2013, B. Tech in Computer Science and Engineering degree from
BPUT, Rourkela, Odisha, India in the year 2010 and also certified by CCNA and
Diploma in Computer Hardware and Networking Management from CTTC,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India in the year 2011. He has more than 10 years of teaching
experience from various reputed Universities and Colleges in India. He is basically an
Academician, an Author, a Researcher, an Innovator, an Editor, a Reviewer of various
International Journals and International Conferences and a Keynote Speaker.

His publications have 400 citations, h index of 10, and i10 index of 10 (Google
Scholar). He has published 30+ international level books, around 30 international level
research articles in various international journals, conferences which are indexed by
SCIE, Scopus, WOS, UGC Care, Google Scholar etc., and filed 30
international/national patents out of which 15 are granted. Moreover, he has been
awarded by Bharat Education Excellence Awards for best researcher in the year 2022
and 2024, Excellent Performance in Educational Domain & Outstanding Contributions
xi
in Teaching in the year 2022, Best Researcher by Gurukul Academic Awards in the
year 2022, Bharat Samman Nidhi Puraskar for excellence in research in the year 2024,
International EARG Awards in the year 2024 in research domain and AMP awards for
Educational Excellence 2024. Moreover, his research interests include Artificial
Intelligence, Edge AI, Green Computing, Sustainability, Renewable Energy Resources,
Cloud and Distributed Computing, Internet of Things, Internet of Energy etc

xii
 Dr. Sohit Agarwal

Dr. Sohit Agarwal is currently serving as an Associate Professor and Head of

the Department of Computer Engineering and Information Technology at Suresh Gyan
Vihar University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. With over 20+ years of teaching experience,
Dr. Agarwal has made significant contributions to academia and research. He has an
impressive research portfolio with 30 publications in esteemed national and
international journals, including those indexed in Scopus, Web of Science (WOS), and
SCI highlighting the quality and global impact of his work. Additionally, Dr. Agarwal's
dedication to technological advancement and innovation is reflected in his 20 published
Indian patents, showcasing the practical and real-world applicability of his research.

xiii
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 Preface

The text has been written in simple language and style in well organized and
systematic way and utmost care has been taken to cover the entire prescribed
procedures for Science Students.

We express our sincere gratitude to the authors not only for their effort in
preparing the procedures for the present volume, but also their patience in waiting to
see their work in print. Finally, we are also thankful to our publishers Xoffencer
Publishers, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh for taking all the efforts in bringing out this
volume in short span time.

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 Contents
CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO.

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Robotics and Automation 1-13

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Key Concepts of Automation 3
1.3 Applications of Robotics and Automation in 5
Modern Industries
1.4 Future Trends in Robotics and Automation 10
CHAPTER 2 Fundamentals of Robot Designe 14-32
2.1 Classification of Robots 14
2.2 Components of A Robot 19
2.3 Kinematics and Dynamics of Robots 23
2.4 Introduction to Robot Control Systems 26
CHAPTER 3 Robot Kinematics and Motion Planning 33-41
3.1 Kinematic Equations 33
3.2 Trajectory Planning and Motion Control 34
3.3 Path Planning Algorithms: Dijkstra, A*, and Rrt 35
3.4 Collision Avoidance and Workspace Analysis 39
CHAPTER 4 Robot Programming and Control 42-54
4.1 Programming Languages for Robotics 42
4.2 Robot Operating System 44
4.3 Control Algorithms 47
4.4 Real-Time Control Systems for Robotics 50
CHAPTER 5 Automation Technologies and Systems 55-68
5.1 Principles of Automation 55
5.2 Process Control and Manufacturing 59
Automation
5.3 Automated Assembly Lines and Flexible 61
Manufacturing Systems (Fms)
5.4 Major Elements of Flexible Manufacturing 64
System
5.5 Case Studies in Industrial Automation 67
CHAPTER 6 Control Systems in Robotics 69-88
6.1 Open-Loop Vs Closed-Loop Control 69
6.2 Pid Controllers 70
6.3 Feedback Systems 76
6.4 Adaptive and Robust Control 83
6.5 Control of Manipulators and Mobile Robots 85

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CHAPTER 7 Embedded Systems and Microcontrollers in 89-103
Robotics
7.1 Microcontrollers and Microprocessors 89
7.2 Arduino, Raspberry Pi, and Other Platforms 91
7.3 Sensor Interfacing and Signal Processing 94
7.4 Real-Time Systems 96
7.5 Programming Embedded Systems 99
CHAPTER 8 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 104-129
in Robotics
8.1 Introduction 104
8.2 Artificial Intelligence 105
8.3 Robotics 107
8.4 Machine Learning in Robotics 114
8.5 Robotics and Artificial Intelligence 115
8.6 Path Planning and Decision Making 123
8.7 Classical Path Planning Algorithms 124
8.8 Computer Vision and Object Recognition 125
8.9 Decision-Making Under Uncertainty 126
8.10 Reinforcement Learning in Robotic 127
Applications
8.11 Natural Language Processing in Human-Robot 128
Interaction
CHAPTER 9 Automation Technologies and Industry 4.0 130-162
9.1 Introduction 130
9.2 Industry 4.0 in Automation 131
9.3 Concepts of Automation 135
9.4 Real-Life Examples of Automation 138
9.5 Plcs And Scada Systems 141
9.6 Smart Sensors and Iot in Automation 146
9.7 Smart Applications in Iot 149
9.8 Iot Enabling Technologies 152
9.9 Artificial Intelligence 154
9.10 Digital Twins and Industry 4.0 Integration 158
CHAPTER 10 Robotics in Healthcare and Service 163-176
Industries
10.1 Robots in Medicine and Healthcare 163
10.2 Service Robots in Hospitality, Retail, And 166
Domestic Settings
10.3 Rehabilitation Robots and Assistive 172
Technologies
10.4 Ethical Concerns and Regulatory Challenges in 173
Healthcare Robotics
CHAPTER 11 Kinematics and Dynamics 177-203
11.1 Forward and Inverse Kinematics 177

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 11.2 Denavit – Hartenberg Parameters 186
11.3 Trajectory Planning 195
11.4 Dynamics of Robotic Systems 199
11.5 Motion Control Fundamentals 200
CHAPTER 12 Conclusion 204-208
12.1 Introduction 204
12.2 Summary of Key Concepts 206
12.3 Integration of Robotics and Automation in 207
Computer Science
12.4 Final Remarks and Future Roadmap 208

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 Abstract
Within the fields of computer science and engineering, robotics
and automation have emerged as transformational disciplines, radically altering
the way in which systems interact with the physical environment. The goal of
this multidisciplinary discipline is to produce intelligent machines that are
capable of doing activities on their own or with minimum assistance from
humans. This is accomplished by integrating concepts from mechanical design,
electrical engineering, computer vision, artificial intelligence (AI), and
embedded systems. The acceleration of technological breakthroughs in robotic
systems and automation technologies may be attributed to the growing need for
efficiency, accuracy, and scalability across a variety of sectors, including
manufacturing, healthcare, agriculture, logistics, and defence, among others.
The creation of autonomous robots that are able to adapt to dynamic
surroundings, learn from data, and work securely with people has been made
possible by recent advancements in machine learning, sensor integration, real-
time processing, and human-robot interaction. Automation, which is driven by
software engineering and control systems, continues to boost productivity by
deploying sophisticated algorithms that monitor, optimise, and control processes
with minimum human supervision. This is accomplished via the deployment of
automation. Throughout the course of this book, the fundamental ideas, systems,
and algorithms that form the basis of robotics and automation in computer
science are investigated. In addition to this, it investigates modern tendencies,
difficulties such as ethical considerations and system resilience, and future
possibilities such as collaborative robots (cobots), swarm intelligence, and the
incorporation of edge computing into robotic systems. The purpose of this
project is to give a complete knowledge of the ways in which robots and
automation are revolutionizing engineering methods and paving the way for
intelligent, networked, and autonomous systems in the digital era.

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of robots may be seen as highly developed automated systems when
viewed from a certain point of view. In addition, robotics may be seen as both a
scientific area and a technology that has emerged from automation via the collaborative
efforts of several other fields of endeavour. These are some other viewpoints about
robotics. In general, an automated system requires relatively little in the way of
intelligence or manipulation, yet it may be simply programmed to achieve productivity
goals. This is because it is able to function without human intervention.

Additionally, it is feasible for the system to do some processes more than once. Keeping
in mind that the mechanical structure of an automated system often only permits it to
do the one task for which it was created is an essential point to bear in mind. The
capacity of a control unit to be reprogrammed is what determines the degree of
flexibility that it possesses; in the majority of cases, it is simply able to adjust the timing
of the actions that have been defined.

Hardware is responsible for supplying the mechanical capability to carry out an

operation of movement and/or manipulation that has been predetermined in advance.
This capability comprises mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic
components. Hardware is also responsible for giving the capability to carry out the
operation. Because the control and operation counterpart is composed of software and
electrical components, the system is able to work independently and with a degree of
flexibility.

This is made possible by the system's capacity to function independently. Both of these
are necessary elements that make up an automated system, and they work together to
accomplish their respective functions. It is necessary to consider their design and
operation as separate but complementary aims in order to attain and maintain optimal
performance in an automated system. This is because they are so dependent on one
another that they are unable to function without one another.

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1.1.1 History And Evolution Of Robotics

The history of what we now know as robots may be traced back to the ancient world.
In the case that people were to develop the structural engineering skill of controlling
electricity at the time of the Industrial Revolution, it would be conceivable for machines
to be pushed by extremely small motors (motors). At the beginning of the twentieth
century, the idea of a humanoid machine was initially first introduced.

The applications of contemporary robots that were utilised in industrial settings were
among the earliest applications of them. By utilising these industrial robots, which were
stationary machines that were outfitted to carry out production operations, it was
feasible to minimise the quantity of people that was necessary. This was accomplished
by the use of these machines. The decade of the 2000s saw the development of
industrial robots that were equipped with artificial intelligence and were digitally
programmed before being used.

When you hear the word "robot," you probably picture a machine that is powered by
energy, has several functions, and is automated. Picture this in your mind anytime you
hear the words. The word "robot" was first used in a play that was written by Karel
Capek in 1920 and given the title R.U.R., which is an abbreviation that stands for
Rossum's Universal Robots. This play was one of the first to utilise the word. The term
"robot" comes from the Czech word "robota," which itself may be interpreted as
"difficult tyranny" or "forced labour." The English word "robot" originated from this
Czech word. In the play, the antagonists are mechanical beings who have human traits
and can be seen labouring as slaves in Rossum's workshop.

These monsters are the plays' foes. The fact that robots are machines also contributes
to the fact that they are mistreated by humanity. An errant scientist equips the robots
with the capacity to feel emotions, which ultimately results in the robots rebelling
against their creators, eliminating the bulk of humanity, and taking control of the
international system. Due to the fact that robots are incapable of producing offspring
of their own, it is regrettable that they will never be able to live. Nevertheless, in order
to ensure the continuation of their species, the lone human being who is still alive
constructs a robot that possesses both male and female characteristics.

A feedback system was one of the earliest kinds of robotic control. This technique
allowed the robot to fix its own mistakes, which was a significant advancement. It was
Xoffencer International Book Publication House 2|Page
a trough that was used for the purpose of watering plants, and it was equipped with a
float that was used to determine the level of the water that beneath it. When the water
level in the trough drops to an undesirable level, a valve is opened, which causes
additional water to be pumped into the trough. This happens when the water level in
the trough falls to an unacceptable level. As the water level increases, the float will also
raise to account for the change.

After the water level reaches a predetermined level, the valve is shut, which results in
the water being unable to flow through the system. The basic arm that was capable of
being subjected to task programming was invented by the American inventor George
Devol Jr. in the year 1954. In 1975, a mechanical engineer from the United States
named Victor Scheinman came up with the concept for the Programmable Universal
Manipulation Arm (PUMA).

This invention revolutionised the field of manipulation. This is a manipulator that has
a wide range of applications. The company PUMA was successful in accomplishing its
objectives because it was able to manipulate items and position them in whatever
direction and location it wished. During the decades that preceding the 1960s, the term
"robot" was frequently used to refer to any mechanical device that resembled a man
and had the capacity to act or do duties in a manner that was like to that of a man.

This concept was prevalent in the United States. Smaller robots as well as bigger
wheeled robots that are capable of playing full-size football with a basketball are now
available. This capability is already within the realm of possibility. In 1995, there were
around 700,000 robots that were being used in various capacities across the whole
planet. The car industry is one of the organisations that makes the most use of robots
in its operational processes. A wide range of operations, such as painting, spot welding,
machine loading, parts transportation, and assembly, are carried out by more than
16,000 robots that are employed by General Motors.

1.2 KEY CONCEPTS OF AUTOMATION

1. Basic automation

It is feasible to automate operations that are uncomplicated and repetitive by

utilising basic automation, often known as workflow automation. Some
examples of basic automation include the electronic distribution of onboarding

3|Page Xoffencer International Book Publication House

 materials to new employees, the electronic mailing of Chapters for approval,
and the automated preparation of bills for customers. There are many other
examples of basic automation as well. By automating these tasks rather than
relying on human workers to accomplish them, we can reduce the number of
errors that are caused by humans, speed up the work that is transactional, and
free up people to concentrate on work that is of better value and has a deeper
significance.

2. Process automation

The goal of process automation is to automate multi-step processes that are

growing increasingly complex and need a high level of repetition. These
procedures could include a number of different systems, depending on the
specifics of the situation. As a result of the automation of business and
information technology activities, the consistency and transparency of these
processes are enhanced.

The use of robotic process automation has the potential to enhance production
and efficiency, shed light on difficulties pertaining to information technology
and business, and provide suitable solutions. Using a decision-making process
that is based on rules allows for this to be done.

There are many different types of processes that may be improved by the
implementation of automation. Some examples include robotic process
automation (RPA), workflow automation, process mining, and business process
management (BPM).

3. Intelligent automation

The term "intelligent automation" refers to an improved kind of automation that

integrates artificial intelligence, business process management, and robotic
process automation in order to streamline and expand the decision-making
process for enterprises.

The use of virtual agents, which are made feasible by robotic process
automation (RPA), intelligent search, and natural language processing, is one
example. Natural language processing is another example. This group of
representatives has the ability to empower both internal and external consumers
Xoffencer International Book Publication House 4|Page
 while simultaneously reducing the expenses associated with administrative
tasks.

An increase in productivity as well as an improvement in the quality of the

experience that clients have with the firm may be achieved through the
utilisation of this type of automation. Other instances of intelligent automation
that may be found in the real world are AIOps and assistants that are powered
by artificial intelligence.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION IN MODERN

INDUSTRIES

1.3.1 Applications of robotics

1. Medical

In the majority of cases, the operating room is the location where medical robots
are utilised the most frequently. A wide range of surgical procedures and a
method that strongly encourages patient engagement are both available in the
operating room, which is the location of the surgical procedure. Surgical robots
are not intended to replace human surgeons; rather, they are intended to
augment the skill set of human surgeons by giving them with a set of cutting-
edge technologies that are capable of treating a wide range of patient ailments.

This is the objective of surgical robots. The fact that this is the case is the reason
why medical robotic systems are utilised as collaborative surgical assistants. A
subset of these technologies is typically utilised in the course of performing
surgical operations from a distance, as this is a regular practice. There are two
primary kinds of surgical aid robots that are now available on the market, and
you have the option of selecting one of these devices.

In the first place, surgeons have direct control over the type of extenders that
are referred to as surgeon extenders. The surgeon's proficiency with surgical
tools is improved as a result of their use during the surgical operation. These
technologies have the potential to make even the most ordinary doctors capable
of doing remarkable feats, such as eradicating hand tremors or performing
delicate procedures within the body of a patient, among other things.

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 This is because these technologies have the ability to bring about these kinds of
capabilities. As a consequence of this, not only has the number of casualties
decreased, but the amount of time it takes to complete operations has been cut
in half. In the second type of surgical support, which is known as auxiliary
surgical help, the surgeon frequently collaborates with the assistant to carry out
tasks such as retracting or holding the endoscope. This type of support is
essential for the success of the surgical procedure.

2. Mining

Mineral deposits that are inaccessible can be investigated by robots and moving
equipment, in addition to enhancing production and shielding workers from
potentially dangerous dust, noise, gas, and water. Robots and moving
equipment can also be used to study mineral deposits. It is possible for room-
and-pillar mining to achieve its goal because it follows a strict cycle that
includes cutting coal, removing coal, and maintaining the roof.

This cycle allows the mining method to achieve its target. Therefore, in order
to make use of it, it is essential to possess the capacity to precisely slice coal
while concurrently operating a robot in a very confined space. It is feasible to
make use of the data collected by the laser range scanner in order to model the
environment and determine the location of the robot. This is something that may
be done.

3. Space

An objective that has been expressed in a clear and concise manner by the global
community of space researchers is the analysis of planetary and lunar systems,
in addition to other celestial entities that are situated in close proximity to one
another. Through the utilisation of a robotic approach to investigate these
bodies, we are able to save money and prevent putting humans in risk, all while
doing a significant number of the same tasks.

We shall be able to do a great deal of the identical things as a result of this. For
such robotic systems to be effective, it is vital for them to exhibit both strength
and adaptability. This is especially true in circumstances when there is a strong
priority placed on minimising costs. The usage of robots in space has the

Xoffencer International Book Publication House 6|Page

 potential to undertake a wide range of activities, including the maintenance of
equipment in orbit, the exploration of other planets, the construction of
autonomous outposts, and the establishment of the foundation for human
colonies.

In addition to this, robots are capable of carrying out a broad range of scientific
enquiries, including the sample and return of planetary atmosphere or terrain,
the evaluation of atmospheric composition, the modification of the environment
(by moving rocks, drilling, and so on), and many other potential applications.

4. Underwater

Applications for underwater robots include the finding of minerals (for

example, manganese nodules) and the maintenance of ships (both at sea and in
dry dock). Other applications include the exploration of underwater
environments. The second scenario involves a shipbuilding firm in France that
has finished the construction and testing of a mobile robot prototype with the
goal of removing barnacles off the sides of ships. The robot is designed to be
able to move around on the ship surface.

As one of its many outstanding qualities, this tripod can be transported both on
land and in water. This is only one of its many noteworthy characteristics. By
utilising magnetic feet and hoover attachments, this gadget utilises a tried-and-
true method of firmly gripping the sides of the ship while maintaining a solid
grip. Scrubbing is accomplished by the use of a spinning brush that is attached
to a rotary axis arm in order to accomplish the task.

5. Defence

There is a large amount of importance that is placed on mobile firefighting units

by the military institution, specifically the navy and the air force. It is possible
that these machines, which are fitted with infrared sensors, may be able to
respond more swiftly than regular humans when they are confronted with
potentially life-threatening circumstances. In addition, robots will be utilised in
the actual combat for the aim of providing safety and protection.

Despite the fact that the thought of robots participating in robot warfare is not
wholly out of the question, the defence industry is more likely to find immediate

7|Page Xoffencer International Book Publication House

 use for these machines in areas such as mine clearing, artillery loading, and
surveillance (for example, guard and sentry duties). It is possible that large
civilian facilities, such as power plants and oil refineries, might be the targets
of terrorist attacks. In such cases, robots could be utilised for the purpose of
carrying out security tasks and monitoring.

In addition to being able to defend themselves or launch attacks, it is quite likely

that these robots will be mobile (wheeled, treaded, or tracked), equipped with a
vision system and other sensors (for example, infrared), and able to move
around. A number of law enforcement organisations, most notably those in
London and New York City, have already placed prototypes of these robots into
duty for the purpose of removing explosives from their various sites.

1.3.2 Automation in modern industries

1. Fixed Automation

Fixed animation is a type of automation that involves keeping the same

configuration throughout the entirety of the production process. This type of
automation is often referred to as hard automation. Because of this, the type of
automation that is being discussed here is most successful when it comes to
carrying out a certain set of obligations on a consistent basis. Take, for example,
the scenario of fixed automation, which occurs when the automation approach
uses the same components to carry out the same operations. This is an example
of fixed automation.

2. Programmable Automation

"Programmable automation system" is a piece of machinery that is either

robotic or automated and has the possibility of being programmed to produce
items in batches. This type of machinery is referred to as a "programmable
automation system." An automated system is run by a computer, and the code
that it uses gives it the ability to make modifications to its sequence whenever
such modifications are necessary. When it comes to this type of industrial
automation, it is just as simple to make changes to the control software as it is
to make changes to the product or the process. The deployment of novel
approaches is made possible as a result of this, in addition to the
aforementioned.
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 3. Flexible Automation

The term "soft automation" is sometimes used to refer to flexible automation,

which is an extension of programmable automation that has nearly no downtime
and a changeover procedure that requires very little involvement from the user.
As a consequence of this, there is a greater opportunity for flexibility, which in
turn results in a faster rate of production. When it is in its most fundamental
form, flexible automation makes it feasible to create a wide range of product
types without the need for extensive reprogramming.

Production is able to transition between operations in this manner, which

ultimately results in a reduction in the amount of downtime that occurs. One of
the fundamental building blocks upon which flexible automation systems are
constructed is programmable automation. These systems frequently feature
electromechanical controls that are extremely accurate. The flexible CNC
machines and industrial robots are two examples of inventions that fall under
this category.

4. Process Automation

Process automation is a capability that enables technology to automate

operations that were previously carried out manually. This is accomplished
through the integration of data and systems. It does this by utilising automation
systems that are both adaptable and interconnected, which allows it to
incorporate all of the many forms of industrial automation into a single system.

Within the context of the contemporary digital economy, businesses that rely
on software programs or applications to carry out a series of processes are
increasingly turning to process automation as a means of coordinating their
operations. It is anticipated that this pattern will continue. In order to improve
the organization's workflow, it is the obligation of a company to manage its
business processes in such a way that they become more visible and consistent.

In the vast majority of instances, a process automation system will be

responsible for performing the three duties that are listed below:

 Automating standard operating operations

 Making it simpler to get all of the info

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 Elimination of the need for human supervision throughout the performance of
the task

5. Integrated Automation

With the aid of a computer, an integrated automation system makes it possible

to automate each and every stage of a manufacturing process. This may be
performed by using the system. Through the facilitation of simpler
communication across various automated work processes, the goal of integrated
automation is to simplify a wide variety of automated work processes. The
integration of the processes is what allows this to be done.

Integrated automation may be illustrated by the merging of three autonomous

systems into a single control system. This reduces the requirement for each
system to operate independently, which is a key characteristic of integrated
automation. As a consequence of this, a single command system will be
responsible for regulating the cooperative operation of data, autonomous
equipment, and processes.

6. Robotic Process Automation

The development, creation, deployment, and management of software robots

that mimic and do human tasks are now within the realm of possibility thanks
to advancements in software technology. This type of process automation is
known as robotic process automation (RPA), and it originates from the field of
software technology.

ROPA stands for robotic process automation. It is because of the development

of software technology that the robots are able to do jobs that are governed by
rules. jobs like as arranging things on shelves, gathering data from screens or
insurance forms, and other jobs of a similar kind are included in this category.

1.4 FUTURE TRENDS IN ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION

1. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Machine learning and artificial intelligence are two of the most exciting new
avenues that have emerged in the field of robotics, and they are among the most

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 fascinating new advances in the field. In contrast to machine learning, artificial
intelligence (AI) gives robots the ability to learn and adapt based on their own
internal experiences. Because of this, robots are now able to perform tasks that
were before beyond their capability. This is a significant advancement.

As a result of the fact that it is now being utilised in autonomous cars, industrial
robots, and drones, it is projected that this technology will acquire a great deal
more momentum in the years to come. Both the area of artificial intelligence
and the field of machine learning are shining brilliantly at the forefront of
technological innovation. The purpose of these technologies is to streamline
company operations, automate decision-making processes, and mine vast
databases for useful insights. These technologies are being utilised by
companies operating in a broad variety of industries.

People's interactions with e-commerce suggestions and the content curtain on

social networking websites are undergoing a dramatic transformation as a result
of the introduction of personalisation that is driven by artificial intelligence
(AI). By making it possible to make more accurate diagnoses, the use of
artificial intelligence is assisting the healthcare business in accelerating the
process of increasing the rate at which new medications are developed.

Additionally, the proliferation of autonomous vehicles and smart houses may

be attributed to the development of artificial intelligence and machine learning
and their subsequent applications. As a result of the increasing need for AI
professionals and the expansion of AI research and development, there are
indicators that artificial intelligence and machine learning will continue to exist
in the future.

2. Service Robotics for Healthcare

The tasks that robots are taking on are causing a shift in the healthcare business,
which is now experiencing a transformation. These responsibilities include
giving company for patients who are old and offering assistance to surgeons
when they are doing delicate operations. Both robotic exoskeletons and
telemedicine robots are beneficial in the process of physical rehabilitation.
Telemedicine robots make it possible to perform medical consultations
remotely.

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 3. Agricultural and Environmental Robotics

Agriculture is benefiting from the application of robotics, which is helping to

increase productivity while simultaneously lowering destructive effects on the
environment. This is a really significant development in view of the fact that
the population of the world is expanding at a rate that is very concerning.
Utilising autonomous drones and robots that are outfitted with cameras and
sensors, precise planting, crop health monitoring, and harvesting are all
attainable with the help of these technologies.

4. Soft Robotics and Bioinspired Designs

The area of soft robotics, which focusses on the production of manipulators

created from manipulators manufactured from materials that are pliable and
elastic, such as elastomers and silicone, is one of the many topics of study that
is rapidly expanding.

The ability of these robots to interact with things in a manner that is far more
natural than that of standard stiff robots, which are able to quickly adapt to their
environment, set them apart from the traditional robots. There are a large range
of sectors that might potentially benefit from the advancements that have been
made in soft robotics. These industries include agriculture, industry, healthcare,
and many more.

5. Autonomous

The Methods of Transportation Techniques When it comes to the many uses of

robotics, the idea of autonomous autos is the one that has garnered the most
attention and discussion among the numerous applications. It is not uncommon
for these autos to make use of sensors, global positioning systems (GPS), and
artificial intelligence in order to navigate their surroundings and make accurate
assessments.

It is possible that the landscape of transportation will experience a considerable

alteration as a consequence of the introduction of self-driving vehicles and other
forms of autonomous mobility. It is possible that this transition will result in the
reduction of traffic congestion, the improvement of traffic flow, and the
removal of the requirement for parking spaces.
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 6. Medical Robotics

One of the areas that is experiencing great advancements is the realm of medical
robots, which are bringing about a big shift in the manner in which healthcare
is provided. In the field of medicine, robots are now being utilised for a broad
range of applications, which include, but are not limited to, surgical operations,
medical care, and support with rehabilitation.

There are a number of advantages that surgical robots possess in comparison to

human surgeons. These advantages include the capability to carry out their tasks
with more precision and accuracy, as well as the capacity to operate
continuously without experiencing weariness.

7. Humanoid Robots

The procedure is intended to be used for the goal of designing a humanoid robot
with the objective of giving it a human appearance and gait. In spite of the fact
that these robots are still in the early phases of development, it is incontestable
that they have the potential to bring about significant changes in a variety of
different industries.

Among the many other prospective uses, humanoid robots might be utilised in
a range of fields, such as education, entertainment, and even personal support,
to name just a few of the numerous possibilities.

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 CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT DESIGNE

The term "programmes" refers to the machines that can be programmed to perform
certain tasks, such as moving components or utilising tools. Robots are machines that
can be taught to perform these tasks. The study of robotics is an interdisciplinary area
within the discipline of engineering that focusses on the development of autonomous
devices. Manipulators and mobile cars are two examples of autonomous gadgets that
one could encounter.

In addition to being responsible for modelling, planning, sensing, actuating, and

regulating the motion of mechanical devices, robot cists are also responsible for the
construction of mechanical devices that are capable of moving on their own. These
devices are able to interact with an unstructured environment in a safe manner and carry
out the functions that have been assigned to them without the fact that human
engagement is required for them to do so.

The term "device" refers to a moving mechanism that may be influenced by elements
of sensing, planning, actuation, and control, as stated in this description. To put it
another way, a gadget does not merely move by itself. The "consumer" who uses the
gadget is not required to make any of these characteristics modifiable or to include any
certain amount of them into the software. The makers are not required to do any of
these things. For this reason, neither this definition nor the content of this section of the
WE Book is limited to "pure" robotics or the more general subject of automation and
robotics altogether. Rather, it comprises both of these domains in its entirety. The term
"intelligent" washing machines and "dumb" woodworking machines are two examples
of the types of devices that fall into this category. The processes of sensing, planning,
and control are all present in these scenarios, despite the fact that they are not
necessarily carried out in isolation from one another.

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS

Depending on the context in which they function, robots can be categorised into several
categories. It is feasible to categorise robots according to the surroundings in which
they function according to the situations in which they operate. The fact that the

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majority of robots are able to either remain stationary or move about is one of the most
important characteristics. As a result of the major differences that exist between the
two distinct sectors, it is necessary for both of these types of robots to be able to do
tasks that are somewhat distinct from one another. The overwhelming majority of
robots that are classified as "fixed" are industrial manipulators that operate within
environments that have been specifically designed for robots. These environments have
been designed to accommodate robots.

In the context of automobile assembly lines, for example, industrial robots are tasked
with the responsibility of applying solder or paint to certain components. As the
development of sensors and tools for human-robot interaction progresses, robotic
manipulators are finding more and more applications in settings that are less regulated,
such as high-precision surgery. Additionally, the demand for these manipulators is
growing. On the other hand, it is anticipated that mobile robots would be able to
investigate and carry out tasks in environments that are expansive, filled with
uncertainty, and devoid of help.

They are needed to deal with things that are not always easy to foresee and are prone
to change over the course of their work. It is not out of the question for this kind of
ecosystem to be inhabited by species that are difficult to anticipate, such as people and
animals. Two instances of mobile robots that are examples of the many different types
of mobile robots are robotic hoover cleaners and autonomous autos. As a result of the
fact that people are allowed to interact with industrial robots and mobile robots are
constrained to travelling on tracks, it is simple to regard the two groups to be essentially
different.

This is the case despite the fact that there is no obvious and unmistakable distinction
between the duties that are carried out by mobile robots and those that are carried out
by stationary robots. More specifically, in order to determine their location, mobile
robots are needed to rely on their perception of the surroundings, but stationary robots
are able to do so due to the fact that their internal states and the stability of a ground
mount allow them to do so.

When it comes to mobile robots, the three primary domains in which they operate—
the aquatic (underwater investigation), the terrestrial (vehicles), and the aerial
(drones)—require quite distinct approaches to design. Because the motion processes in
each of these domains are essentially distinct from one another, this is the reason why
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this is the case. An good illustration of how loosely the categorisation is applied is
provided by the existence of amphibious robots, which are able to move both on land
and in water thanks to their aquatic capabilities. There are subcategories of robots that
are designed to work in each of these three settings: those that operate on land may
have legs, wheels, or tracks, whilst those that operate in the air may be either heavier-
than-air aircraft (helicopters) or lighter-than-air balloons. These robots are designed to
perform in each of these habitats respectively.

1. Humanoid Robots

In popular culture as well as in science fiction, robots are frequently portrayed

as having physical attributes that are similar to those of humans. The idea that
serves as the foundation for the robotic characters that are featured in the Star
Wars films, such as R2-D2 and 3-CPO, has been around for a considerable
amount of time. Pierre and Henri-Louis Jaquet-Droz, together with Jean-
Frédéric Leschot, were the Swiss watchmakers who were responsible for the
production of humanoid automata throughout the 17th and 18th century. They
were also responsible for the creation of the first humanoid automaton. The
purpose of these automata was to showcase the quality of their craftsmanship
and to promote their timepieces to potential customers.

As a result, a big number of modern businesses are working on producing robots

that have characteristics that are similar to those of humans. When it comes to
humanoid robots, the capacity to move its limbs and arms independently is
made possible by a mechanical design that is extremely detailed. These robots
are able to perform the functions of a mobile robot that is autonomous as a result
of this. Research studies that focus on the interaction between humans and
machines, as well as those that investigate the mechanics of walking, make use
of humanoid robots. It is possible that humanoid robots might be used to
conduct tasks that are associated with the maintenance of both the house and
the planet. A study is now being conducted to investigate the potential
application of these products in the care of elderly individuals, who may
experience anxiety when they are presented with inanimate objects.

2. Industrial Robots

There was a period when companies used robots to undertake laborious and
repetitive jobs that people were capable of executing by hand. These tasks
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 included tasks that were tedious and repetitive. An assembly line at a factory is
a controlled environment in which robots are allowed to perform their
operations. The completion of these tasks may need these robots to follow a
predetermined sequence and operate particular items in order to accomplish
their goals. There is no longer a requirement for human engagement with the
use of this method.

Although it is plausible to say that they are more comparable to automata than
robots, this is not the case. Automata in the modern day, on the other hand,
frequently rely on sensors to the extent that they resemble robots with their
capabilities. The sleek aspect of the robots can be attributed to the fact that they
operate in a controlled environment in which humans are absolutely prohibited
from engaging in any activity. On the other hand, modern robots require a larger
degree of adaptability than their predecessors. They must, for example, be able
to handle things in a range of orientations and be able to recognise which
components need to be packed in which sequence.

There is a wide range of applications that might be utilised for this robot, one
of which is the transportation of items to and from storage facilities. On the
other hand, the essential quality of the robot has not changed: it is able to adjust
to its surroundings, which are the majority of the time confined.

Fig 2.1 Industrial Robots

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)
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 3. Autonomous Mobile Robots

Mobile robots that are operated remotely are capable of doing a variety of
activities, including checking pipes, taking aerial images, and removing
explosives from the environment. Through the use of their sensors, these robots
make it possible for their operators to remotely travel to locations that are
hazardous, remote, or otherwise inaccessible. In contrast to the conventional
approach of operating independently, this follows a different pattern. To a
certain extent, it is probable that some of them are capable of performing some
responsibilities on their own responsibility.

However, it is the pilot's responsibility to choose the flight route of the drone,
even if the autopilot is responsible for stabilising the flight of the drone. It is
possible for a person to be searching for problems that can be addressed at the
same time that a robot is making its way through a pipe. Mobile robots that are
totally autonomous are able to carry out a variety of tasks, including the
movement of materials, without the need for human supervision. This is true
even in environments that contain obstacles, such as building walls and doors,
traffic intersections, and the ever-changing presence of humans and
automobiles. This is the case even in circumstances where such obstacles are
present within the environment.

Earlier models of mobile robots were more suited for doing repetitive tasks,
such as automatic lawn mowers and robotic pool cleaners. These robots were
also more capable of cleaning pools. Robotic hoover cleaners are now readily
available as a result of the fact that it is now possible to construct robots that
are not only cost-effective but also able to navigate through an interior space
that has a great lot of obstructions.

4. Collaborative robot

Having the capacity to carry out activities in a shared environment without

putting the safety of other individuals at jeopardy. Autonomous robots, on the
other hand, are pre-programmed to perform the same repetitive duties over and
over again, to function without the need for human participation, and to remain
in the same spot wherever they are. Advancements made in A collaborative
robot, also known as a cobot, is a type of industrial robot that makes use of

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 mobile technology, artificial intelligence, machine vision, cognitive computing,
and touch in order to perceive its surroundings and carry out a variety of
activities in close proximity to people without putting either of them in danger.
Cobots are also known as collaborative robots.

In addition to the fact that cobots may be designed to ensure the safety of their
human coworkers, they are also able to acquire jobs in a short amount of time
via the use of reinforcement learning and demonstration. Cobots are often
utilised in the manufacturing sector for the purpose of carrying out a wide range
of duties, which may include, but are not limited to, the following: assembly,
automation of packaging, material handling, machine tending, and product
quality monitoring.

2.2 COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT

There are many different approaches that are utilised in the field of slope stability
analysis. Some of these approaches are as follows:

One method that might be utilised is to carry out an examination of the limit
equilibrium. The premise that underpins this strategy is that the slope will undergo a
change in direction at a certain place on the failure plane. Finding the difference
between the forces that are working on the slope and those that are operating against it
along that plane is the next step in determining the safety factor. This is done by
calculating the difference between the two sets of forces. When conducting an
examination of this nature, researchers have the opportunity to choose from a variety
of approaches, such as the Bishop's methodology, the Janbu method, and the Spencer
method, among others.

The second method is called finite element analysis, and it entails breaking the slope
down into a number of smaller components and analysing the behaviours of each of
those components separately. Each of these components is then analysed
independently. It is now feasible to take into consideration geometries, soil conditions,
and load situations that are more complex than they were previously. To summarise,
shear strength reduction analysis is a technique that may be utilised to determine the
extent to which particular loads are able to assist in the support of a slope. Estimating
the factor of safety may be accomplished in a straightforward manner by lowering the
shear strength of the soil until the slope gives way.

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The utilisation of statistical models and probabilistic analysis can be utilised in order
to complete the task of calculating the likelihood of slope collapse. The fact that the
input components, which include the characteristics of the soil and the parameters that
are defined by the loading scenario, are inherently unpredictable is something that these
models take into consideration.

In the first phases of analysis, methods that are based on experience and observation
are frequently utilised. These methods are known as empirical techniques. These
methods are frequently utilised in the process of doing preliminary analysis. Listed
below are two examples of processes that are included in this category: the Swedish
circle technique and the stability number method.

1. Robot Sensors

Sensors are devices for sensing and measuring geometric and physical
properties of robots and the surrounding environment

 Position, orientation, velocity, acceleration

 Distance, size
 Force, moment
 Temperature, luminance, weight

Desirable features of Sensors:

 The possession of a high level of accuracy is something that is anticipated

to be present. the degree to which the output of the device is comparable to
the value that is really being produced.
 Indicative of the sensor's high level of precision is the fact that it is
anticipated that the output that is measured will remain unchanged over the
course of time.
 There is a range of operation for them. Maintaining the sensor's accuracy
and precision across its entire operational range, which should be rather
large, is a requirement that this sensor must fulfil.
 Receptivity to the Act of Responding Must is able to react as rapidly as is
practically possible to any changes that take place in the variable that is
being monitored.

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  In addition, the amount of time and effort that is spent on the task should be
kept to a minimum. The calibration process should not be complicated.
Recalibrating on a frequent basis shouldn't be considered an absolute need.
 Dependence on a Third Party It is necessary to adhere to a high level of
reliability. Failure that occurs on a regular basis is no longer acceptable.
 Cost of operations and the degree to which operations are smooth The apparatus
should not only be cost-effective, but it should also be simple to set up, run, and
maintain. Furthermore, it should not require staff to have a high degree of
training in order to use it.

2. Range sensor:

There are some sensors that are known to be "ranging sensors," and in order for
them to pick up an object, it is not even necessary for the thing to be touched.
They make it possible for a robot to recognise a barrier before it ever comes
into touch with it, which is a big benefit. It is because of this that software is
able to differentiate between barriers of varying sizes and shapes, and it also
makes it feasible for software to increase its ability to avoid obstacles (in
comparison to touch-feedback systems). In addition to that, it reduces the
likelihood of becoming entangled in something.

In order for a sensor to be able to recognise limits that are situated at a vast
distance, it is necessary for the sensor to utilise a number of ways. There are
several various approaches that light-based ranging sensors take in order to
calculate the range of their sensors and identify any obstructions that may be
present. The approach that is considered to be the most fundamental when it
comes to estimating distance is the one that includes determining the intensity
of the light that is reflected off of a barrier. However, this may be considerably
impacted by the colour and reflectivity of the obstacle, in addition to other
sources of light. This is something that should be taken into consideration.

The use of a light beam that is angled and a number of detectors that are located
at a distance from the source of the light is one of the more popular ways. This
is demonstrated in the figure that is located on the right side of the page. Another
sensor that uses this technology is the Sharp sensor that is seen here. When
using this method, the colour and reflectivity of the item, in addition to the light
in the surrounding region, have less of an impact on the outcome.
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 3. Actuators

Actuation is the process of transforming energy into a form that can be

mechanically manipulated. The term "actuator" refers to a device that is capable
of doing this conversion. Whenever it comes to providing control to something,
the actuator is a component that is absolutely necessary. Movement of the
actuator is brought about by the messages that are transmitted from the
controller to the actuator. This is the reason why the control codes are created
to "trigger the actuator in response to an event."

This is the objective of the control codes. In a robot, the muscles that make up
the body are called actuators. The selection of actuators is based on the load,
and there is a wide variety of actuators available to choose from. It is possible
to establish a relationship between the term "load" and a variety of various
aspects, such as force, torque, operating speed, accuracy, precision, and power
consumption:

1. Electric Motors
2. Servomotors
3. Stepper motors
4. Direct-drive electric motors
5. Hydraulic actuators
6. Pneumatic actuators
7. Shape memory metal actuators
8. Magnetostrictive actuators.

By using electromechanical actuators, it is possible to convert the power that is

generated by an electrical source into motion action. The concept of magnetism
underpins their operational basis. These motors come in three different types:
stepper, DC, and AC. It is necessary for DC motors to receive input signals in
the form of voltage or direct current in order for them to function. AC motors
need either a voltage or an alternating current source in order to function
properly.

4. Robotic Controller

In the absence of a robotic controller, the ability of an industrial robot to

perform its functions would be drastically diminished. A computer system that

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 is known as the robot controller is coupled to the industrial robot arm in order
to provide the robotic arm the capacity to command its movement. This is done
in order to fulfil the purpose of the robot controller. The controller is responsible
for a number of duties, including the elimination of interference inside the
working area of the robot, as well as the robot arm and the end-effector. A
controller is an instrument that is required for the operation of any industrial
robot. It is an instrument that is absolutely necessary.

For the FANUC LR Mate 200ic, the R-30ia controller is utilised, whilst the R-
30ib controller is utilised for the FANUC LR Mate 200id controller. Both
controllers are utilised for the task at hand. It is usual practice to refer to the
controller that is housed within a robot as the "brains" of the robot they are
controlling. This is due to the fact that it disrupts the code that is being utilised
in the process of developing a certain artificial intelligence application. Before
the articulated robot can operate correctly and complete all of the phases of the
application cycle, the controller must first decrypt the code.

This makes it essential for the controller to decode the code. The teach pendant
that is situated on the controller is utilised all along the process of programming
the robot. Because the teach pendant is the primary mechanism through which
the robot is programmed, it is an essential component of the control system.
This is because the teach pendant is the primary mechanism. Users are able to
input programming instructions into this portable device through the use of
buttons, switches, or a touchscreen for input. It is the responsibility of a robot
operator to enter these orders by making use of the keyboard that is located on
the pendant. When the controller transmits the preset instructions that are
entered into the teach pendant, it is able to communicate with the central
processing unit (CPU) of the robot. This is performed through the use of the
teach pendant.

2.3 KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF ROBOTS

2.3.1 Kinematics

The subject of robotics known as "robot kinematics" explores the behaviour of the
structural components of robotic systems. These components are sometimes referred to
as kinematic chains owing to the fact that they possess a great deal of degrees of

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freedom. Among the first two of the Because of the importance that is put on geometry,
the connections of the robot are depicted as rigid bodies, and it is presumed that the
joints are only able to make translational and rotational movements.

Through the study of the relationship between the size and connectivity of kinematic
chains and the position, velocity, and acceleration of each link in the robotic
framework, the field of robotic kinematics is referred to as the study of robot
kinematics. The planning and control of movement, as well as the computation of
actuator forces and torques, are all aspects that are investigated in regard to this link.
The study of the interplay between mass, inertia, motion, and the forces and torques
that control these variables is the primary emphasis of the engineering discipline known
as robotics, which is a subfield of dynamics.

2.3.2 Robot dynamics

The forces that are applied to the mechanism of a robot are evaluated in relation to the
accelerations that they create during the process of robot dynamics. This is done in
order to evaluate the relationship between the two.

Taking into consideration the common practice of characterising robot mechanics as

rigid-body systems, the field of research known as robot dynamics focusses on the
application of rigid-body dynamics to human-controlled robots. There is another name
for robot dynamics, which is "robot dynamics simulation." Within the realm of robot
dynamics, there are two fundamental problems that are located at the forefront:

 Forward dynamics: Given the forces, work out the accelerations.

 Inverse dynamics: Given the accelerations, work out the forces.

Forward dynamics is sometimes referred to as "direct dynamics," and another term for
it is "dynamics." Both of these titles refer to the same concept. One of its primary
applications is in simulation. The use of inverse dynamics is a beneficial method that
is utilised by some forward-dynamics techniques. This technique is utilised when it
comes to the development of robot systems, the optimisation and regulation of robot
movements and forces online, and the planning of trajectories. Other issues that arise
in the dynamics of robots include:

Calculating the coefficients of the equation of motion.

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Inertia parameter identification estimating the inertia parameters of a robot mechanism
from measurements of its dynamic behavior.

Hybrid dynamics: Determine the unknown forces and accelerations by using the forces
at certain joints and the accelerations at other joints as inputs respectively. The
influence of a system's controls on the system's change-of-state may be explained by
the system's dynamics. It is possible to define the function f(xt, ut) - * xt as xt plus 1.

The dynamic state of the system may be represented, for instance, by the joint positions
and velocities that are given by the equation xt = (qt, q˙t). F is a smooth and arbitrary
function when considered in this context.

2.3.3 Dynamic Models

In addition to the fact that q, q, and text all have an effect on the coefficients of Eq(),
the dynamic model of the robot mechanism is another factor that should be taken into
consideration. The mechanism is broken down into its component pieces, which
include bodies, joints, and the parameters that define each of these elements. These
parts are then dismantled. To be more specific, the following are the elements that
constitute a dynamic model:

 A kinematic model of the robot mechanism, and

 A set of inertia parameters.

Generally speaking, a dynamic model will consist of 10 inertia characteristics for each
individual body body. Among these features are the mass of the body, the position of
the centre of mass, and six factors that pertain to rotational inertia. In order to determine
the inertia of a single rigid body, it is necessary to have these characteristics. One of
the drawbacks of using bodies in a mechanism is that it leads to a reduction in the
mobility of those bodies once the mechanism has been implemented. It is therefore
possible that some of their inertia values do not have an influence on the dynamic
behaviour of the system or that they are theoretically similar to other inertia parameters.
Both of these possibilities are in the realm of possibility.

Therefore, if one has to construct a model of the dynamics of a robot's mechanism

based on a kinematic model and specific observations of its behaviour, one method to
do so is to determine the values of the system's observable inertia parameters, which

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are referred to as base inertial parameters. This is one technique to developing such a
model. There are a few different ways to complete this assignment.

2.4 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS

The functioning of other subsystems is under the control of this control, which is
responsible for controlling such processes. All of the systems that are protected by it
need to have a comprehensive awareness of both the phases they are currently in and
the stages they will be in in the future. There are two types of loops that may be found
in a control system. First, there are open loops, and then there are closed loops. The use
of robotic systems within the framework of "Smart Manufacturing" has recently
witnessed an increase in favorability of the utilisation of these systems. One of the
industries that was among the first to make use of robots was the one that deals with
machine tools.

In the past, robots were outfitted with a mechanism that was referred to as a stiff-hand
mechanism. Within this mechanism, the SISO linear system was accountable for
operating each joint on an individual basis. Additionally, we had a Continuous-path
tracking system that was created exclusively for welding and spray painting, as well as
a Point-to-Point Control system that was designed specifically for material transfer and
other operations of a similar kind. Both of these systems contributed to our overall
efficiency. As a result of the development of vision systems, there has been a rise in
the utilisation of robots, and the technology that underpins presently available robot
control systems has seen considerable advancements.

Improving the capabilities and flexibility of the robot may be accomplished through
the implementation of a technique that involves adding layers to the control system. It
is absolutely necessary for humans and robots to work together in order to enhance the
effectiveness of robot systems. It is possible for autonomous mobile robots to do a
substantial number of tedious activities in real time due to their capabilities. The
industrial sector has been significantly impacted by the advent of modern robotic
control systems, which introduced a large amount of change.

The manufacturing industry has become more adaptable and easier to operate as a result
of these technologies, which has contributed to a rise in overall workforce productivity.
It is practically impossible to find an industrial controller that does not make use of PID
controllers in some form or another. It is possible to fine-tune the bulk of these

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controllers on-site by utilising these rules, and it also supports a number of tuning rules
that have been recommended in the literature that is relevant to the subject matter. On
top of that, a great number of controllers come with the potential to do online automated
tuning processes and operations.

There are many different kinds of improvised PID control systems that are utilised in
the industrial sector. Some examples of these systems include I-PD control and multi-
degrees of freedom PID respectively. A number of different approaches to intelligent
computing are included in the category of evolutionary computational techniques.
Some examples of these approaches are Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Particle Swarm
Optimisation (PSO), amongst others. With the use of these methodologies, we have
been able to find a wide range of solutions to problems that occur in a variety of control
systems.

2.4.1 Control system fundamentals

1. Open Loop

An open-circle control framework is one in which the yield does not have any
influence on the control activity. This describes a control framework that is
deemed to be open-circle. To put it another way, the output of an open-circle
control system is neither calculated nor supported in relation to the component
that is being controlled. It is because the system does not have a closed-loop
structure.

There are a number of severe drawbacks associated with this control system,
one of the most notable of which is that the controlled variable is extremely
sensitive to changes in the inputs that produce disruptions. For instance, a
washing machine is an example of a control system that is utilised in several
aspects of daily living. There are three cycles that are carried out by the washing
machine at regular intervals. These cycles are watering, washing, and flushing.
Quantifying yield, which is a phrase that refers to the degree to which the
clothing are clean, is not something that robots are capable of doing.

2. Closed Loop

When it comes to describing control systems that incorporate feedback, the

phrase "closed-loop control systems" is perhaps the most prevalent word that is
used. When everything is said and done, the phrases closed-loop control and
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 feedback control are interchangeable and may be used interchangeably. This
signal is received by the controller of a closed-loop control system with the
intention of stabilising the output of the system and minimising the actuation
error signal. The actuation error signal is the difference that is computed
between the input signal and the feedback signal. When it comes to closed-loop
control, the feedback control action is utilised on a consistent basis, which
contributes to a reduction in the quantity of system error.

According to the block diagram that was just presented, a closed-loop system
is one that makes use of the output of a plant in order to inform the actions of
at least one sensor and controller component. This is explained in more detail
in the next sentence. The sensor is in charge of providing data to the feedback
line, while the plant and the controller are responsible for ensuring that the
forward motion is maintained.

During the process of summing, the output of the plant is compared to the value
that was projected to be generated by the plant. The controller is able to detect
the difference between the two values when the value of the output is equal to
the value that was predicted. Once this difference has been determined, the
controller will then send a signal to the plant to start the plant.

3. Linear Systems

The definition of a linear system, on the other hand, is one that is characterised
by its adherence to the fundamental laws of superposition. According to this
rule, the output is the sum of the two responses that are produced by the control
system when two separate functions are executed alongside one another at the
same time. It is considerably simpler to determine the response of linear systems
to a large number of inputs if one considers a single input at a time and then
aggregates the outputs of those inputs.

This is because linear systems are characterised by their ability to respond to a

single input. The adoption of this strategy may result in the existence of
straightforward solutions to the linear differential equation. This, in turn, makes
it possible for more complex solutions to be generated from the simpler
solutions that were first found.

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2.4.2 Types of control systems

The following methods of control are presented here to control robots.

1. Control using PID

In order to manage a broad variety of complex real control challenges in the

most efficient manner possible, relative basic subordinate control, also known
as PID control, is taken into consideration. It is the responsibility of the three-
label convenience, which is comprised of the letters P, I, and D, to resolve
concerns that are brought forth by persistent states and transient reactions. The
level of automation has progressed to the point where the control system may
now be changed to give a variety of additional control layout options. In
addition, these controllers are able to provide the simplicity, flexibility,
relevance, and obvious value of the PID Controller.

The two-wheeled robot is the best candidate for the fluffy adaptive PID
controller because of its open-circle wobbly, non-straight, multi-yield structure.
This makes it the most ideal choice. As it made its way to its final purpose, this
adaptable robot was constructed with the primary intention of making
modification adjustments. In order to aim the trajectory of the pendulum, a
pendulum that has been customised is utilised. As a result of the inherent
instability that it possesses, the multipurpose robot frequently ends up falling
over when it is left alone in certain circumstances. It is able to accommodate a
wide range of tastes, because it takes up a very little amount of room, and
because it can traverse terrain with a great deal of ease.

2. Control using LQR

One method in modern control, which is known as a linear quadratic controller

(LQR), makes use of a state-space approach in order to investigate the sorts of
systems that are being discussed here. When it comes to control schemes, the
LQR method is the most efficient, and the MIMO outline approach is the one
that should be utilised.

The architect's cycle on post regions is utilised as a component of the overall

state input; nevertheless, when it comes to an expenditure function, the
components are emphasised instead of the cycle itself. In the process of
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 determining which control alternatives are the most effective, a straight
quadratic controller, which is sometimes referred to as a LQR, is a type of
controller that takes into account both the control information and the
circumstances of the dynamical framework. An optimum state critique
controller for a twin-rotor multi-information, multi-yield system has been
developed by our team.

3. Control using RIFD

Radio-frequency identification, sometimes known as RFID, is a technology that

makes it possible to enable wireless access to the control system. An RFID tag,
a reader that is able to read the tag, and a computer that is able to manage the
database are the three components that make up a radio frequency identification
(RFID) subsystem. The reader is able to pick up signals from the RFID tags,
and the computer makes use of these signals in order to determine whether or
not the data is genuine.

Fig 2.2 the reader and tag are the main components of an RFID system

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology makes it feasible to

implement a broad number of applications for wireless communication and
automated tracking. These applications had previously been impossible to
achieve. The vast history of radio frequency identification technology has
resulted in applications in the military and security sector that have successfully
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 integrated RFID systems in a number of complicated ways. These applications
have had a significant impact on the field. There is a great lot of excitement
regarding the potential of passive RFID systems in the market and this optimism
is mostly due to the fact that passive RFID systems are more cheap than active
ones. The components are permitted to access the processing subsystems by
means of RFID gates, which are utilised as necessary. The RFID station is
capable of more than just scanning for components; in addition, it is able to
continuously update the information that is shown on the tags, as well as the
settings for loading and unloading.

While the components are being moved through the conveyer system, the RFID
tags that are attached to the components and the station IDs both play a part in
the management and monitoring of the components. When the component is
ready, it is transported back onto the conveyers, and high-performance
industrial PCs (IPC) are in charge of conducting the activities at the substation.
This occurs at the moment in time when the component is ready.

Prior to the transmission of secondary instructions from the HML to the

information processing centre (IPC) of the linked station, the management of
order changes takes place. As a consequence of this, the IPCs are able to
ascertain the flow of the components by contrasting the information obtained
from the tags with the order modifications that are obtained through the HMI.

The option to evaluate whether the component should be handled at the station
that is already in existence or if it should be transferred to a new station is
provided to them as a result of this. In order to construct common pathways for
the conveyer systems, the RFID gate makes modifications to the RFID data.

These modifications are used to construct the common paths. It is for the
purpose of improving the management of component logistics that these
improvements are being made. Radio frequency identification, often known as
RFID, is a flexible technology that may be utilised for a wide range of
applications. Some of these applications include long-range contact
applications, storage management, and even scanning without a direct line of
sight. Because of its broad range of applications, it can be easily programmed.
The use of IPCs is beneficial when it comes to the organisation of RFID jobs.

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2.4.3 Control of robot manipulator

When attempting to solve the issue of controlling robot manipulators, it is very

necessary to take into account the dynamics of the actuators, the numerous uncertainties
that are brought about by the system, and the flexibility of the joints. However, we do
not have access to their time-varying constraints, which makes it possible for adaptive
control to be applied for these uncertainties.

The fact that these uncertainties change over time is a good aspect; however, we do not
have access to their constraints. According to what has been described, the dynamics
of the robot are exceedingly non-linear, which makes the process of design extremely
challenging or perhaps impossible. It is possible to validate the robust stability of a
closed-loop system by determining the control parameters through the utilisation of
variation limits. This approach is utilised in order to accomplish this validation. Robots
with flexible joints have controller designs that are significantly more intricate than
those of rigid robots.

This means that flexible joint robots have superior control performance in comparison
to rigid robots. Despite the fact that joint flexibility is sometimes seen as a performance
hurdle for manipulators, it has developed into a crucial component of robot dynamics
and control during the course of its evolution. Recently, there has been a significant
increase in the need for robots that are able to be remotely monitored and controlled.
This desire has been evident in the manipulator industry. Within the context of this
scenario, a human operator is situated in a remote place and is accountable for the
control of the robotic manipulators.

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 CHAPTER 3

ROBOT KINEMATICS AND MOTION PLANNING

3.1 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS

The kinematics equations of the kinematic chains that make up the robot are one of the
most essential instruments that are utilised when it comes to the study of robot
kinematics. The configuration of the robot system is immediately translated to the joint
parameters by use of these non-linear equations, which are directly transmitted to the
joint parameters. In addition to skeletal biomechanics and computer animation of
articulated figures, kinematics equations are not only useful but also extremely
beneficial. In addition, equations from the field of kinematics have applications in other
fields. Forward kinematics is able to determine the location of the end-effector by
employing the kinematic equations of the robot, provided that a set of joint
characteristics is also supplied.

This is the most important need for forward kinematics. A procedure that is known as
"inverse kinematics" is one in which the joint parameters that lead to a certain end-
effector position are calculated in the opposite direction. This is a process that is
referred to as "inverse kinematics." The amount of space that a robot is able to reach
without difficulty is referred to as its workspace. This workspace is determined by the
robot's size as well as the equations that control its kinematics. Serial manipulators and
parallel manipulators are the two basic categories that may be used to classify robot
configurations.

For every one of these categories, there is a corresponding set of kinematics equations.
There are many different kinds of systems that make use of certain kinematics
equations. Some examples of these systems are humanoid robots, hyper-redundant
systems, snake robots, and underwater mobile robots. Additional examples include
many sorts of robots.

In the process of forward kinematics, the computation of the chain's configuration and
the definition of the joint parameters are both included as components. For the purpose
of accomplishing this objective using serial manipulators, the forward kinematics
equations for the serial chain are utilised, and the joint values are directly replaced into

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the equations. When the joint parameters are replaced into the kinematics equations, it
is essential to find a solution to a set of polynomial constraints in order to determine
the set of end-effectors positions that are feasible for parallel manipulators. This is done
in order to ensure that the final product is as accurate as possible.

By employing inverse kinematics, we are able to determine the joint angles and the
positions of the end-effectors. This allows us to plan our movements more effectively.
In order to do this, it is necessary to find solutions to a number of polynomials that are
in turn formed from the kinematics equations. Because of this, there are a variety of
various chain topologies that may be realised for serial manipulators. Inverse
kinematics solutions may be applied to a conventional 6R serial manipulator in sixteen
distinct ways.

These solutions can be broken down into categories. The design of this type of
manipulator is intended to be a chain that is serial and has six joints that are revolute.
When applied to a polynomial of the sixteenth degree, these solutions serve as
examples of solutions. By specifying the position of the end-effectors, which will then
lead to formulae for the joint parameters, it is feasible to simplify the kinematics
equations for parallel manipulators. This will allow for the equations to be applied more
efficiently.

3.2 TRAJECTORY PLANNING AND MOTION CONTROL

There are a number of various processes involved in the process of developing and
managing the trajectory of a manipulator. Some of these steps include the following:
An evaluation and a conclusion are the next steps in the process, which begins with the
defining of the path and continues with the conclusion. Following this, it generates a
collection of linear time variant equations of motion in order to take into account
deviations from the ideal route, path velocities, acceleration, geometric limits, and
additional optimisation criteria.

This is done in order to ensure that the optimal solution is achieved. The next phase is
to identify the optimal joint motor torques and forces that will enable the trajectory to
be realised. After that, the next step is to create a control system that will be able to
handle any deviations that may arise. In terms of complete kinematics and kinetics, a
new theory is offered for the difficulties that were discussed before. This theory does
not take into account any of the factors that are currently in play.

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Trajectory generation, problem formulation

The aim of the trajectory generation: to generate inputs to the motion control system
this ensures that the planned trajectory is executed.

The user or the upper-level planner describes the desired trajectory by some parameters,
usually:

 Point-to-point transmission encompasses both the starting location and the final
destination.
 In addition, there are a limited number of destinations along the route (moving
between certain sites).
 Both the operational space and the joint space are viable options for carrying
out trajectory planning and generation. Both of these spaces are available.

Minimal requirements

Ability to vary the locations of the robot arm and its end effectors from the beginning
position to the finishing position via the use of mobility.

 To prevent doing things like exceeding the saturation limits of joint drives, it is
essential to take motion laws into consideration. This is because motion laws
are vital.
 excite the resonant modes that are projected to be present in the mechanical
structure. This motion-generation device planning approach, which results in
smooth trajectories, is now being used..

3.3 PATH PLANNING ALGORITHMS: DIJKSTRA, A*, AND RRT

In the field of unmanned vehicle technology, there is a significant issue that has to be
tackled as quickly as possible. This issue pertains to the route planning component of
the control or decision-making system for both boats and unmanned vehicles. It is
imperative that this issue be handled as soon as possible.

Within the context of the operation of the module that is accountable for route planning,
there exists a clear link between the benefits and drawbacks of driving fluency and the
functioning of the module. The rising use of intelligent vehicles, ships, and mobile
robots in a number of industries has led to the development of algorithms that are more
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efficient in terms of route planning. These algorithms have been developed by
researchers.

3.3.1 Basic concepts of path planning

At the present time, the majority of individuals who are a part of the academic
community find themselves in accord about the following definition of route planning:
One kind of route planning is known as global path planning, in which all significant
environmental characteristics are known, while the other type is known as local path
planning, in which some or all of the relevant environmental components are unknown.
The type of route planning that is used depends on the quantity of knowledge that is
available about the environment.

The degree of environmental information is directly proportional to the sort of route

planning that is being planned. Static planning, in which the environment does not
change, and dynamic planning, in which the obstacle goes through the environment
without altering course, are the two forms of planning. Static planning is the more
common type. Mobile robots can be equipped with three different types of motion
planning: homonomous motion planning, non-homonymous motion planning, and
route planning that takes into consideration both kinematics and dynamics limits. Each
of these types of motion planning is available for usage.

The answer to this issue is going to be determined by whether or not the dimension of
the system's attitude space is greater than the number of variables that can be controlled
inside the system. Global navigation planning and global route planning are two
phrases that are also used interchangeably to refer to global route planning. Some of
the terms that are currently being used to refer to local route planning include dynamic
path planning, real-time navigation planning, obstacle avoidance planning, and other
names. Local route planning is the process of planning a straightforward geometric
route from the point of origin to the point of destination, without taking into
consideration time series or vehicle dynamics.

Initially and most importantly, for the aim of identifying potential obstructions and
establishing the path of passage during the journey A technique known as Moving
Object Detection and Tracking, or MODAT for short, is required to be utilised in order
to track obstacles. This is necessary in order to avoid obstacles. By doing so, it would
be possible to circumvent the impediment. The last step in the procedure involves

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drawing a graphic that includes both the already existing collision risk maps of the
barriers as well as any potential collision risk maps.

In this specific field, there is a considerable need for additional developments, and the
alert threshold for potential risk has been established at one hundred milliseconds at the
present time. Utilising the available computational power, algorithms, and processors
in an efficient manner is a big challenge that must be overcome. The processing speed
of a smart automobile, which may be more than 30 teraflops per second, is the
component of the car that presents the greatest measure of difficulty.

 Algorithm Concept

The global path planning algorithms can be broadly classified into three
categories: the first category consists of the traditional, map-based algorithms
(such as Dijkstra and A* algorithms), the second category consists of the
intelligent, bionic-based algorithms (such as PSO, genetic, and reinforcement
learning), and the third category is the sampling-based algorithms (RRT).

 Dijkstra Algorithm.

In the year 1959, E.W. Dijkstra was the one who initially released the Dijkstra
computation algorithm. The greedy idea is utilised by the approach in order to
continuously visit the subnodes that have the maximum amount of components.
Following that, it employs the relaxation method in order to achieve the highest
possible level of effectiveness in the route selection process. Furthermore, in
order to address the issue of optimum route planning, the readable list is utilised
to store the ideal path.

This is the last but not the least of the solutions. In situations when there is a
relatively little amount of map data, the Dijkstra approach achieves superior
planning results that are sufficient for satisfying the criteria. The planning
output, on the other hand, is not sufficient and does not manage to fulfil the
needs for planning when there is a significant amount of map data volume.

Together with the reverse N-tree, we were able to successfully create a

downgradable priority queue. This was accomplished by merging the priority
queue. The Dijkstra algorithm, which is utilised for the purpose of determining

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 the shortest path, saw a substantial development as a consequence of this matter.
By suggesting a search approach that is known as range-limited selection
search, Zhang Yin and his colleagues were able to significantly enhance the
effectiveness of the search process that the algorithm uses, while
simultaneously reducing the search scope and search durations that the
algorithm uses.

 A * algorithm.

An enhancement, or upgrade, to the Dijkstra algorithm is the A* algorithm,

which is a heuristic search strategy. It was designed as an improvement to the
Dijkstra algorithm. The structure of the Dijkstra algorithm includes a heuristic
function, which is included into the search phase of the algorithm. In the realm
of heuristic search algorithms, the A* algorithm stands out as the prominent
example that is most frequently seen. Heuristic search is a method that involves
the construction of heuristic search rules throughout the process of searching
for something.

These principles are utilised in order to ascertain the distance that exists
between the present search site and the one that is chosen. Through the initial
step of directing the search in the direction of the location of interest, the
objective of this endeavour is to improve the efficiency of the search. The A*
approach is built on the following fundamental premise, which serves as its
foundation: for every node x, we add an estimate function f(x) and define it as
f(x)= g(x)+h(x). H(x) represents the shortest path that can be predicted from
node x to the destination, while g(x) represents the actual distance that exists
between the origin and node x.

Both of these distances are expressed by this notation. Alternately, the distance
between any two locations in the code can also be referred to as the distance
between any two other locations. The shape of H (x) may be chosen from 2
different distances: the one from Manhattan and the one from Euclidean space.
Both of these distances are distinct from one another. It is feasible to go either
of these distances.

Among the many improvements that were made to the A* algorithm, the
evaluation function was the most significant update. This is what differentiates

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 the A* algorithm from the Dijkstra algorithm as the superior algorithm when it
comes to investigating the next node. The heuristic feature of the A* algorithm
is what makes it superior. The speed at which searches are carried out as well
as the amount of time it takes to complete a search have both seen significant
improvements in recent years. Because it is more efficient than other
algorithms, the A* algorithm has been utilised in a broad range of settings. This
is because it effectively solves problems.

 RRT algorithm

Lavalle provided the service known as RRT, which is an acronym that stands
for Rapidly Exploring Random Trees. The modelling of the region that is going
to be used is not required for this procedure, which is one of the significant
advantages of using this method. It is able to investigate the unexplored terrain
to the fullest extent of its conceivable possibilities because of its large search
range and high coverage rate in the search space. This allows it to uncover the
most possible possibilities. On the other hand, another issue is that the method
has a relatively high calculation cost because of the intricacy of the method.

An extensive number of improvements to RRT have been proposed by

researchers in try to solve these difficulties. This is only one example of the
many different RRT algorithms that are available. Some of these algorithms
include Goal-Bias, Bi-RRT, RRT-Connect, Extend, Local-Tree-RRT,
Dynamic, and a great deal more. It is possible for the user to exert control over
the probability of the target point through the use of the goal-bias algorithm,
which utilises the target node as the sample point. Before proceeding with the
search, the Dynamic RRT approach suggests using pruning and merging
methods to get rid of faulty nodes. Methods such as these are utilised in order
to eradicate them.

3.4 COLLISION AVOIDANCE AND WORKSPACE ANALYSIS

A two-mode control system, which included both "safe" and "danger" modes, served
as the basis for the conventional approaches to preventing accidents that involved
motor vehicles. During the period of time in which there is a potential of collisions
along the path, the safe mode is active, and the danger mode is not specified. In the
event that there are no obstructions in the freedom environment, the safe mode will be

39 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House

implemented. In the realm of collision avoidance systems, the sensing and detecting
methods are the two components that are considered to be the most crucial. During the
process of sensing, the primary goal is to get important information about the
environment that is around the sensor. When compared to other types of cars, a
collision-avoidance vehicle is often distinguished by its capacity to concurrently
recognise and respond to dangers that were not previously detected.

A broad variety of sensors, including as radar, ADS-B, and vision sensors, can be
utilised in order to fulfil the task of sensing with precision. The first thing that an
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) performs when it finds an obstruction is to calculate
the likelihood of coming into contact with it and causing a collision. The worst-case
scenario, probabilistic, act-as-seen, trajectory, and distance estimations are some of the
collision detection approaches that may be utilised. There are many more ways that
should be considered.

For the objective of providing a safe path, it is vital to check that the manipulator's path
does not include any collisions and to make sure that it is able to skip over a variety of
obstacles. In the past, we have demonstrated that there is a significant disparity between
the perspective of the manipulator in Cartesian space and that of the manipulator in C-
space.

Fig 3.1 COLLISION AVOIDANCE

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

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In (a), a two-link planar manipulator and a rectangular obstacle marked in black in the
Cartesian space.

In (b), we can see the mapping of what joint combinations in the C-space for the
manipulator that make the arm collide with the obstacle marked in yellow.

There is a clear disparity between the various locations, each of which presents the
challenges in a manner that is distinctively different from the others. An additional item
that has to be demonstrated is an example of a two-link planar manipulator, and even
after that, the mapping becomes rather challenging. When compared to the number of
collisions that are even remotely possible, the number of collisions that may take place
with a manipulator that has six joints is far higher. As a consequence of this, it is more
practically feasible to utilise Cartesian space for the collision check rather than C-space
given the conditions.

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 CHAPTER 4

ROBOT PROGRAMMING AND CONTROL

4.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES FOR ROBOTICS

There is a wide range of programming languages that may be utilised when it comes to
the process of programming robots. There are many different programming languages
that may be used on personal computers. Some of these languages include, but are not
limited to, C#, Python, Java, C/C++, and many others. Embedded C, Wiring, which is
based on C++, and Embed are some of the programming languages that are utilised by
microcontrollers. Other languages include Embed.

Robots are typically programmed using computer programming languages such as

Python, C#, C/C++, and Java. These languages are some of the most popular choices.
Additionally, the corporation in question has its own proprietary programming
languages that are not available to the public. The programming style and collection of
proprietary codes that are used by each and every manufacturer of robots are
completely unique to that particular company. On the other hand, the fact that a
programmer is proficient with one brand of robots does not necessarily mean that they
are able to work with additional brands of robots.

1. C/C++

C++ and C are two of the greatest languages to use when it comes to the creation
of responsive robots. This is because both of these languages enable interaction
with low-level hardware, giving them an advantage over other languages.

When programmers make use of this general-purpose programming language,

they are able to gain access to a wide variety of libraries, engage in object-
oriented programming, and work together with frameworks in order to
accomplish the goal of generating high-performance and real-time responses in
robots.

Due to the fact that C++ is able to conduct and respond to complex algorithm
inputs, users are able to design controls, direct the motions of the robot, work
on internal networking and image processing, and construct sensory
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 intelligence, amongst a great deal of other important robot chores. The
language, on the other hand, is incredibly mature and highly effective, despite
the fact that its syntax and code are quite challenging. One of the most
significant advantages that C++ possesses in comparison to other programming
languages is the speed at which it processes information.

In the event that you are building a robot for a task in which memory
management is not an essential component, it is strongly suggested that you
utilise the programming language C++.

2. Python

Students that are interested in robots are increasingly interested in learning

Python, which has quickly become one of the most sought-after languages. The
quick surge in popularity of this language may be attributed, in part, to its user-
friendly syntax and its exceptional skills in machine learning. This language is
an excellent tool for artificial intelligence and image processing due to the fact
that it is object-oriented and has a well-written structure.

Python is a good programming language since it enables the building of

applications or functions to be accomplished in a relatively shorter amount of
time. In the event that you wish to conduct an analysis of the specific activities
of the recently constructed robot, you can easily incorporate them into your
assessment. In spite of the fact that Python is a good language for the
development of robotics since it minimises the amount of time that is necessary,
it is not perfect for the production of software and hardware level functions due
to the slower processing speeds that it possesses. The fact that it is an interpreted
language and does not require code assembly makes it feasible to perform
testing in real time. This is because of the fact that it cannot be assembled.

3. ROS

When a robot is programmed, the internal computer, system on a chip,

microcontroller, or programmable logic controller (PLC) of the robot is given
instructions to carry out a predetermined task. These instructions are given in
response to data that is received by the robot's sensors and instructions that are
sent by the robot's actuators. Robots have the potential to be utilised in a variety

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 of applications, such as pick-and-place operations, transportation from point A
to point B, and other applications.

KUKA and ABB are two examples of companies that create applications that
make use of SCADA systems and vendor-specific programming languages. The
industrial robot comes equipped with a teach pendant, which serves as the site
where the programming is carried out. ABB's industrial robots, which are
programmed in the RAPID programming language, make it possible to
automate additional robotic applications when used in conjunction with other
robotic applications.

In the field of robotic programming, some instances of intelligent creations

include the automation of repetitive activities, the development of applications
for robotic vision, the training of the robot to make choices on its own, and the
integration of controllers such as PID to move joints. These are only few of the
examples.

4.2 ROBOT OPERATING SYSTEM

To serve as a foundation for robotics and automation, the Robot Operating System
(ROS) is utilised by a large number of organisations and individuals from all over the
world that are involved in the field of technology. It is possible for those who are not
technically knowledgeable to start learning how to program robots in an easy method
with the assistance of this instrument.

In order to make the process of developing software for robots easier, the Robot
Operating System (ROS) provides a platform that is not only all-encompassing but also
open-source. ROS, which is more often known as an operating system, is really a suite
of middleware that provides the services that are typically offered by an operating
system. ROS is sometimes referred to as an operating system. A few examples of these
services include the administration of packages, the implementation of functionality
that is often utilised, the implementation of low-level device control, and the utilisation
of hardware abstraction.

4.2.1 History and Evolution of Robot Operating System (ROS)

ROS was first developed in 2007 by Willow Garage, a research lab and incubator that
specializes in robotics.
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Since its introduction in 2009 with ROS 1, the global robotics community has been
actively participating in the release of updates and improvements to ROS.

ROS 2 was published in 2018 with the purpose of addressing the shortcomings of ROS
1 and meeting the requirements of modern robotics applications. It is superior in terms
of performance, security, and the ability to operate in real time.

4.2.2 Key Features of Robot Operating System (ROS)

A complete collection of tools and libraries that make it easier to construct

complicated robotic systems is provided by the Robot Operating System (ROS).

Some of its key features include:

1. Modular Architecture:

Nodes - For the purpose of enclosing software components within a logical

framework, ROS makes use of nodes. A node is a process that is capable of
communicating with other nodes and doing computations. Nodes are sometimes
referred to as nodes.

Topics: By using topics, nodes are able to communicate with one another on
many matters. It is through certain buses, which are referred to as topics, that
messages are sent from one node to another.

Services: A synchronous communication method called as services is also

included in ROS, in addition to the topics that are available. Not only does this
technique exist in addition to topics, but it also enables nodes to make and
receive requests by itself.

2. Hardware Abstraction:

As a result of ROS's ability to mask the complexities of the underlying

hardware, developers may choose to instead concentrate on creating higher-
level software rather than developing higher-level software.

As a result of this, the process of moving programs to new hardware and robots
is finished with less bother than it would have been otherwise.

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 3. Library of Tools and Packages:

ROS comes with a vast library of packages that may be used to complete a wide
range of tasks. These packages can be used to conduct a wide variety of
operations. Simulation, visualisation, navigation, and perception are all
examples of some jobs that fall under this category. A significant factor that
contributes to the acceleration of the development process is the ease with
which these packages can be included and reused.

4. Simulation:

The ROS operating system is compatible with Gazebo, a robust robot simulator
that eliminates the requirement for actual hardware while enabling developers
to test and debug algorithms in situations that are as close to real life as possible.
The robotic operating system is compatible with the Gazebo technology.

5. Visualization:

With the help of a program known as RViz, it is possible to view the ROS
applications in three dimensions. Through the use of the graphical user
interface, one is able to investigate the model, the surroundings, and the sensor
data that the robot has gathered.

4.2.3 Applications of Robot Operating System (ROS)

The ROS operating system is utilised in a broad variety of applications, which cover a
variety of research domains and industry. Important applications include the following:

Industrial Automation: Robotic operating systems (ROS) are becoming increasingly

popular in the field of industrial automation, particularly for the purpose of controlling
automated guided vehicles (AGVs) and robotic arms. As a result of this, it may be
possible to construct and integrate extremely complicated automated processes with a
reduced amount of difficulty.

Healthcare Robotics: ROS is utilised in a wide range of medical equipment, including

but not limited to robots that provide assistance to those with disabilities, robots that
also do surgical procedures, and robots that provide assistance in rehabilitation. There
is a possibility that the quality of healthcare services might be improved with the aid of

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these robots, which are able to monitor patients, offer support during surgical
procedures, and supplement medication.

Agricultural Robotics: There are a broad range of agricultural jobs that may be
performed by robots that are controlled by ROS. Some examples of these chores
include planting, harvesting, and crop monitoring, to mention just a few. One of the
ways in which these robots assist to the elimination of labour shortages in the
agricultural sector is by increasing productivity and efficiency. This, in turn, serves to
reduce the negative effects that these shortages have on the environment.

Autonomous Vehicles: The study and development of real-time operating system

(ROS) technology is a crucial factor in the development of autonomous vehicles, which
include drones and automobiles that drive themselves. When the necessary capabilities
for sensing, localisation, mapping, planning, and control are made available, it becomes
possible for autonomous navigation to be carried out in situations that are complicated.

4.3 CONTROL ALGORITHMS

Robot control is a field of research that focusses on the challenge of figuring out how
to convince a robot to move in a certain direction, follow a particular trajectory, and
accomplish other performance goals. The theme of this research is the difficulty of
finding a way to do these things.

1. PID Control

The term "PID" refers to the three mathematical operations that are performed
on an inaccurate feedback signal in a closed-loop control system in order to
produce a factor that makes an effort to rectify the mistake. These operations
are carried out in order to give a factor that is able to remedy the error. An
explanation of how the three tuning parameters that make up the PID algorithm
may be understood in relation to time is provided in the following paragraphs:

The current errors are estimated by utilizing the P = proportional term.

An indicator of the total number of mistakes that have happened in the past is
that which is provided by the integral term, which is denoted by the letter I.
With the help of the derivative term (D), which is based on the present rate of
size fluctuation, it is possible to make predictions about mistakes that will occur
in the future.
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 Fig 4.1 PID Control

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

2. Adaptive Control

This chapter's objective is to present the theoretical foundations of a variety of

distinct adaptive robot control systems. A few of these approaches are described
below. The research that is being conducted in this specific area of robotics is
still in its early stages. Over the course of the past six years, there have been a
few individuals who have made significant efforts to find a solution to this
issue. Even though classical controllers are resistant to parametric and state
disturbances, there are circumstances in which they are unable to fulfil stability
restrictions.

This is the case even if they are resistant to these types of disturbances.
Following this, it is projected that this region would be among the most
intriguing in the not-too-distant future. This is because of the aforementioned
reason. It is for this reason that the adaptive control algorithm is superior than
the conventional control strategy that has been utilised in the past. In
comparison to rules that do not have adaptive properties, adaptive control
algorithms are frequently thought to have a significantly greater level of
numerical complexity.

The process of assessing whether or whether the system is stable as a whole is

not only more complex, but it is also more complicated. Adaptive controllers,
on the other hand, offer a greater variety of possibilities, particularly in
circumstances in which the robot is functioning in conditions that are not what
it was designed for. In instances in which the majority of the payload is not
decided upon in advance, it is true that this is the situation that occurs. On the
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 other hand, this does not imply that the design of adaptive controllers is the only
option that is potentially viable for robotics. On the other hand, we are of the
opinion that adaptive algorithms should only be utilised in circumstances where
typical classical controllers are unable to deliver the outputs that are required.

Within the realm of adaptive control theory, dominant schools of thought may
be broken down into two basic categories. First, there is something that is
referred to as Learning Model Adaptive Control, or LMAC more often. The
utilisation of online parameter estimation methodologies leads in the
enhancement of the plant model, and the outcomes are included into the
implementation of the feedback control approach.

There is a possibility that the well-known self-tuning control system will be

applied at this particular spot. The theory of adaptive control also includes a
second method that is known as Model Referenced Adaptive Control (MRAC).
This method is an additional feature of the theory. The process of fine-tuning
the closed-loop behaviour of a system involves adjusting the controller of the
system until it resembles a model that has been selected based on certain
criteria. This is done in order to achieve the desired behaviour of the system.

3. Robust control

The concept of "robust control" refers to a controller design process that lays
an emphasis on the dependability of the algorithm. The fundamental minimal
requirements that a control system must meet in order to be practically
applicable is one definition of robustness that is frequently shared by people. It
is assured that the controller will work properly once it has been developed
since the parameters of the controller do not change while the procedure is being
carried out. Because robust control systems are frequently developed based on
the worst-case scenario, it is quite unusual for them to fail to achieve optimal
performance under normal circumstances.

This is because the worst-case situation takes precedence in the design process.
Techniques of robust control are appropriate for you if you are familiar with the
dynamics of the process and are able to generate accurate predictions about the
variation ranges for uncertainties. If you are, then you are a good candidate for
using these techniques. In circumstances when there is a substantial amount of

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 fear over the dependability and stability of the system, they are also useful in
addressing the problem. Spacecraft and aeroplanes are two examples of systems
that are included in this category. Other examples include the controls of
spacecraft. There is the potential for the implementation of resilient control
methods for some control systems that are utilised in the process of process
control. When it comes to processes that are mission-critical and have vast
uncertainty ranges and minimal stability margins, this is especially true.

Fig 4.2 Robust control

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

4.4 REAL-TIME CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR ROBOTICS

A computer system that processes information is referred to as a "real-time system" if

it’s hardware and software components are able to respond to events within established
and predictable time limitations and carry out real-time application operations. This is
another way of saying that the system is able to process information. Systems that are
able to function in real time include items like automatic autos, systems that manage
air traffic, and systems that govern processes.

The control software known as Comau SMART 3-S is comprised of two separate
components that are unique from one another. It is the responsibility of the first
component to carry out the control algorithms in real time and to communicate directly
with the plant (robot). On the other hand, the second component acts as a user interface
for the real-time module. It is necessary for there to be a way by which the two groups
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may communicate with one another in order for them to be able to share information
with one another without any difficulty. It is also the responsibility of the C3G-9000
controller to generate an external interrupt signal on a regular basis. This signal is what
activates the real-time module and puts it into action.

A variant of real-time Linux known as RTAI has been chosen as the suitable option.
The robotic applications that have been created at LAR in the past have been able to
make use of this specific version with great success (Arduini et al., 2001; Macchelli et
al., 2001). With regard to this matter, a substantial amount of experimental work has
been carried out, which includes comparisons of the performance of control systems
that are based on RTAI Linux with the performance of other operating systems that are
available for commercial use, such as QNX (Melucci, 2000).

In order to accommodate the increasing complexity and level of sophistication of

activities of this sort, RCS has undergone a number of modifications as our
understanding of intelligent behaviour has grown. In the middle of the 1970s, Barbera
produced the first implementation that was specifically built for sensory-interactive
robots. This implementation was the first of its kind.

1. RCS-1

The RCS-1 placed a high premium on properly integrating sensory input with
instructions in order to reliably compute the right response to any given
combination of objectives and circumstances. This was done in order to ensure
that the most suitable response was computed.

It was the purpose of the application to send instructions to a robotic arm so that
it could carry out actions that included visual pursuit. This was accomplished
through the use of a structured light vision system. Two examples of biological
models that had an impact on RCS-1 are the Marr-Albus model and the
Cerebellar Model Arithmetic Computer (CMAC), which is a computer program
that displays the cerebellum. Both of these models might be considered
instances of biological models.

A hierarchical structure of state machines was used in the development of RCS-

1. This was due to the fact that CMAC is transformed into a state machine when
a portion of its outputs are handed back to the input. It is the responsibility of

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 the input command in a stimulus-response pattern, which is driven by feedback,
to pick a behaviour in an efficient manner at each subsequent level. As can be
seen in the image that is shown above, CMAC finally became the most
important component of the reference model for RCS-1.

For the purpose of establishing a hierarchy of acts that are identical to those that
Tinbergen and other persons have witnessed, a hierarchical structure of these
components was utilised. However, in contrast to Brooks' subsumption
architecture, which selects behaviours after the fact based on subsumption
objectives, RCS-1 selects behaviours before to the event based on instructions.
This is in contrast to Brooks' design, which selects behaviours after the fact.

2. RCS-2

In the early 1980s, the NIST Automated Manufacturing Research Facility

(AMRF) was responsible for the development of the later version of RCS,
which was designed for use in production control by the facility. An assortment
of people, including Barbera, Fitzgerald, Kent, and others, were among those
who contributed to the construction of it. This photograph depicts the
fundamental unit of RCS-2, which may be seen in the frame of the photograph.

In machines with finite states, the H function continues to carry out the
execution of the state tables that correspond to various states. One of the new
features that RCS-2 has to offer is the G function, which is home to a number
of different algorithms for the processing of sensory information. These
algorithms include, for instance, those for structured light and blob analysis.
Both of these are examples. For the purpose of defining the degrees of control
for the Servo, Coordinate Transform, E-Move, Task, Workstation, Cell, Shop,
and Facility applications, the RCS-2 software was utilised.

As a matter of fact, the only parts of the building that were built were the six
floors below the ground level. Two of the AMRF workstations were used to
carry out the entirety of the RCS-2 process, which consists of five phases. Both
the control system for the Army Field Material Handling Robot (FMR) and the
implementation of the semi-autonomous land vehicle project known as TMAP
were implemented by RCS-2. RCS-2 was also responsible for the execution of
the TMAP project.

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 3. RCS-3

The RCS-3 was first built for the Multiple Autonomous Undersea Vehicle
(MAUV) project that was being conducted by the NBS and DARPA. Since
then, it has been subjected to revisions in order to make it suitable for use by
the flight telerobotic service of the space station, which functions in accordance
with the NASA/NBS Standard Reference Model Telerobot Control System
Architecture (NASREM). The most important component of the RCS-3
standard is seen in this figure.

The operator interface and the World Model were two of the most important
new elements that were introduced with the release of Robotic Control System-
3. Through the use of the World Model, it is possible to develop both the
planning of activities and the processing of sensory input that is based on
models.

Following the conclusion that was presented earlier, the task decomposition
(TD) modules were fine-tuned in order to guarantee that each and every
subsystem had its very own job assigner, planner, and executor. There is a
degree of similarity between this and the command structure of Saridis, which
is composed of three layers.

4. RCS-4

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Robot Systems

Division has been working on the development of RCS-4 over the past few
decades. A demonstration of the fundamental component is presented below for
your perusal. The inclusion of an explicit depiction of the Value Judgement
(VJ) process is the most significant new element that RCS-4 brings to the table.

The VJ modules are responsible for supplying the RCS-4 control system with
the same types of functions as the limbic system is responsible for providing to
the organic brain through its functions. Within the VJ modules, it is possible to
evaluate the worth of many things, such as goods, materials, territory,
circumstances, events, and results. Within these modules, it is also possible to
compute the risk, reward, and cost associated with the activities that are
planned. Objects or areas that require attention, attack, defence, assistance, or

53 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House

 any other sort of action can be described by value state-variables. These
variables also have the potential to represent the context in which objectives are
implemented.

Value judgements, which are also sometimes referred to as evaluation

functions, are essential for any kind of education or preparation. Other names
for value judgements include evaluation functions. George Pugh has provided
further elaboration on the topic of the use of value judgements in intelligent
control systems. A more comprehensive development of the structure and
operation of VJ modules is offered by Albus (1991). This development is more
comprehensive than any other.

Additionally, the phrase "behaviour generation" (BG) is utilised in RCS-4, as opposed

to the word "task 5 decomposition" (TD), which was utilised in RCS-3. This is a
significant change from the latter. It is because of this development that the degree of
autonomy in decision-making is being brought to the forefront of individuals' minds.
The RCS-4 is designed to be utilised by autonomous vehicles that are operating in
hazardous environments, such as the ocean floor or faraway planets, or in highly
unstructured scenarios where high bandwidth communications are not the most
practical option.

Planets and the ocean floor are two examples of habitats that are considered to be harsh.
These applications require both the capability to make independent value judgements
and the possession of high-level perceptual talents in real time. Both of these abilities
are requirements. Despite this, RCS-3 will continue to be useful in applications that are
less demanding, including those in which the settings are more organised and the
transmission bandwidth to a human interface is less restricted. Some examples of these
applications include tele-robotics for activities that take place in settings that are either
near space or shallow underwater. Manufacturing and construction are some examples
of these applications. Within these systems, value judgements are frequently expressed
in an implicit manner through the use of job planning techniques or by the input of
operators. This kind of communication is common.

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 CHAPTER 5

AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND SYSTEMS

Automation, as it pertains to the field of technology, comprises everything that makes

it feasible for factories and systems to function in an automated manner. Machinery,
apparatus, and equipment are all examples of devices that fall within this category.
Other examples are equipment and machinery. As far as human engagement is
concerned, it is not very significant. Exemplifying the interdisciplinary approach that
is utilised within the engineering profession are the fields of mechanical engineering
and electrical engineering, respectively.

The goal of automating processes is to achieve the maximum possible degree of

efficiency while simultaneously accomplishing the creation of robots and plants that
are capable of carrying out operations with minimal intervention from humans. The
level of automation that may be accomplished is directly proportional to the level of
complexity of the systems that are now in operation with the organisation. The amount
of human interaction that is required to maintain control of the operation is directly
proportional to the level of automation that is used. If you want your systems to operate
more efficiently, you should focus on improving the functionality of the essential
components that comprise your system. This will allow your systems to work more
efficiently.

5.1 PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMATION

The developments described above have provided the three basic building blocks of
automation:

(1) A source of power to perform some action,

(2) Feedback controls, and
(3) Machine programming.

Almost without exception, an automated system will exhibit all these elements.

1. Power source

In order for an automated system to perform its functions in an appropriate

manner, it is essential for the system to be equipped with a power supply. This
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 is because the job that the system is supposed to perform is of a certain kind.
There are a huge variety of different sources of power that are employed in
current automated systems; still, electricity is by far the most frequent kind of
power.

Electrical power is the most versatile form of energy because it can be easily
converted into other forms of power, such as mechanical, hydraulic, and
pneumatic power, and it can be generated from a wide variety of sources,
including fossil fuels, hydroelectric dams, solar panels, and nuclear power. In
addition, it can be generated from a wide range of sources. In addition, batteries
that have a long lifespan and high performance have the potential to store
electrical energy.

The actions performed by automated systems are generally of two types:

1. Processing And
2. Transfer and positioning. In the first case, energy is applied to accomplish
some

The processing method that is used to a particular material. There are a number
of potential processes in the process, including metalworking, plastic molding,
electrical signal switching for communication systems, and data processing for
computerized information systems. In each and every one of these processes,
energy is transformed into a form that is more desired for the thing being
worked with (whether it be metal, plastic, electrical impulses, or data). The
second kind of action, known as transfer and placement, is often shown by
automated production systems that are designed to work on goods.

2. Feedback controls

Feedback controls are widely used in modern automated systems. A feedback

control system consists of five basic components:

1. Input,
2. Process being controlled,
3. Output,
4. Sensing elements, and
5. Controller and actuating devices.
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 It is the input, which is sometimes referred to as the reference value, that is
responsible for determining the output of the system. This specific value is the
output value that is desired for operation to take place. For the purpose of
continuing with the illustration of the heating system that was presented before,
the input is the temperature that is desired for the room. The heater (furnace,
etc.) is the process that is being brought under control in this particular instance.
It is feasible that the mechanism that applies power in other feedback systems
might be anything from a manufacturing operation to the rocket engines on a
space shuttle or even the engine in a car with cruise control. This is because the
mechanism responsible for applying power could be anything.

For the sake of this specific instance, the process variable that is being measured
and compared to the input, which is referred to as the output, is the temperature
of the temperature that is being monitored. Due to the fact that they are
accountable for monitoring the value of the output variable, the sensing
components, which are measuring devices, are of utmost significance to the
feedback loop. In the instance of the heating system, a bimetallic strip would
normally be utilised in order to achieve this objective in order to accomplish the
goal.

In order to construct the apparatus, two metal strips are connected along their
lengths in order to produce the apparatus using the apparatus. The strip bends
in a linear fashion in response to an increase in temperature because the two
metals, which have differing thermal expansion coefficients, cause the strip to
exhibit this behaviour. Because of the rise in temperature, this behaviour is a
result of the increasing temperature. Because of this, the bimetallic strip has the
ability to be sensitive to heat fluctuations. There is a wide variety of sensors
that are utilised in control systems with the purpose of providing automated
feedback.

3. Machine programming

When instructions are placed into the system, a series of tasks are programmed
into it so that it may carry them out automatically in line with the sequence of
tasks that have been programmed into it. The program details the activities that
the automated system is expected to carry out as well as the method in which
its components are expected to function in order to achieve the desired result.
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 There is a significant amount of variation in the content of the programs from
one system to another. Programming often consists of a limited set of operations
that are clearly stated and carried out in a continuous and sequential way, with
no variation between cycles. This is the case when it comes to really simple
systems. It is possible that the number of orders and the amount of information
that is contained inside each command will be significantly longer and more
extensive in systems that are becoming progressively advanced. In order to
adapt changes in the operating circumstances or variations in the raw materials,
the software makes it possible to modify the order of operations in systems that
are relatively advanced. This is something that can be done in order to
accommodate these changes.

It is the responsibility of the program to ascertain the sequence of values for the
inputs (set points) of the numerous feedback control loops that are a component
of an automated system that is associated with feedback control. A
programming instruction can be used to regulate the activity of the system. This
instruction can also be used to supply the set point for the feedback loop (also
known as the feedback loop set point). The function of the feedback loop, in its
most fundamental form, is to ascertain whether or not the action that was
anticipated has been carried out.

A controller for a robot is a good example to illustrate this point. It is possible

that the software may command the arm to go to a particular position, and the
feedback control system will decide whether or not the arm moved to the spot
in the appropriate manner. On the other hand, it is feasible to use a fundamental
open-loop technique in order to carry out some of the instructions that have
been expressed. This implies that there is no feedback loop to ensure that the
instruction has been carried out in the proper manner.

It is not necessary to offer feedback in situations when it is not absolutely

necessary to do so, such as when one is instructed to turn on an electrical switch.
When the raw materials that are utilised in a manufacturing process are subject
to variation, the automated system may require feedback control in order to alter
its regulated activities in order to take into account the variation. This is because
the raw materials are vulnerable to variation. It is necessary for the system to
have feedback in order for it to be able to maintain enough control over the
output quality of the process during the entirety of its operation.
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5.2 PROCESS CONTROL AND MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION

Manufacturing process controls are something that you will require in order to optimise
the efficiency, productivity, dependability, and safety of your operations. These
controls encompass all of the systems that are accountable for controlling the processes
that are involved in your manufacturing line. It will be possible for you to make
modifications as required with the assistance of these controls, and you will be able to
guarantee that activities will continue to work within the boundaries that have been
defined. However, a significant number of the industrial processes that are utilised in
the present day are extremely complex, which makes it particularly challenging, if not
impossible, for humans to exert control over them.

The automation of industrial process controls, which does not require excessively large
workforces, makes it simpler to keep things operating smoothly and to make ongoing
improvements. This is because automation eliminates the need for such big workforces.
You are possible to automate a substantial portion of your operations with the help of
process control systems that are at the cutting edge of technology. These systems
combine a number of different components into a single platform. Some of the
components that fall under this category include human-machine interfaces (HMI),
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), reporting, alerting, messaging, and
soft programmable logic controllers (PLCs).

Advantages of automating process control

1. Improve energy efficiency

Reducing the quantity of energy that is consumed is a fantastic method to save

money and help to the preservation of the environment, despite the fact that
industrial processes have a high energy demand. If the facility is outfitted with
process control systems, the management of the plant may have simple access
to operational data, such as the precise quantity of power that is consumed by
each piece of machinery during a specific time period.

This information may be easily accessible to the management as well. By

integrating this data with other production data and developing a knowledge of
the elements that drive energy consumption, it is possible to calculate the
appropriate quantities of energy consumption that should be consumed.

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 2. Cut costs, waste and errors

What you will be able to do with the same amount of human labour will increase
in proportion to the number of your procedures that you automate. Moreover, it
enables you to perform a multitude of jobs simultaneously, which is a
significant advantage. If you meticulously monitor and evaluate the resources
that you employ in the production of your items, you can discover that there are
opportunities to reduce the amount of waste that you make with your business.
Furthermore, automation lessens the chance of errors brought on by human
beings, which results in the elimination of expenditures related with resources
that are not used, returns that are not accepted, and payments for warranties.

3. Improve productivity and response time

When compared to the speed at which automated systems can take in data, carry
out analysis, and carry out other operations, you simply cannot compete with
them. You are able to carry out orders and analyse operations without having
to wait for personnel to arrive at the office in the morning since these
technologies are available around the clock. This allows you to save time. There
is a possibility that you will be able to increase the productivity and profitability
of your company by expediting the shipping of orders in a more timely manner.
The fact that you are able to swiftly examine data in order to decide which
components of your processes need to be modified in order to be adjusted
results in your procedures becoming more flexible.

4. Enhance product quality

It is feasible to develop a greater degree of quality control and minimise the

amount of mistakes that occur via the utilisation of automated process control,
both of which contribute to an improvement in the quality of the product. Both
of these outcomes might be achieved through the utilisation of this method. The
procedure of testing a product while it is still in the manufacturing process is
substantially simplified by the utilisation of automation, which will enable you
to spot issues at an earlier stage.

There is a reduction in the likelihood of human mistake being introduced into

your operations as you increase the amount of automation that you use. By

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 automating processes that are performed repeatedly, we may be able to decrease
the amount of errors that are caused by human intervention and get more
consistent outcomes. It is also feasible that process control systems will aid you
in identifying methods to optimise your processes, which will eventually lead
to an improvement in the quality of your goods. This type of improvement will
ultimately lead to customer satisfaction.

5.3 AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY LINES AND FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS (FMS)

The automation of assembly lines is an important technology that has been a key
contributor to the transformation of the manufacturing sector. The key objective is to
raise the level of productivity while simultaneously simplifying the manufacturing
process. Through the course of the last few years, it has evolved into an indispensable
part of the manufacturing process, making it possible for companies to satisfy the ever-
increasing need for products that are both fairly priced and of excellent quality.

When it comes to carrying out the various steps of the assembly process, automated
machinery in an assembly line may be utilised. The purpose of these systems is to
achieve the highest possible level of efficiency and simplify the manufacturing process
in order to achieve maximum productivity. This is accomplished through the utilisation
of cutting-edge automation technology such as telemetry, control systems, interfaces,
modules, feeders, AGVs (Automated Guided Vehicles), and collaborative robots.

An automated assembly line often consists of a conveyor belt or pallet that links a
number of different workstations to one another. This is one of the common
components of an automated assembly line. The raw materials or components that are
positioned at one end of the production line are located at the opposite end of the line
from the final products, which are located at the opposite end of the line. Whether it is
assembly, inspection, testing, or packing, each and every workstation is specifically
intended to perform a certain responsibility. It does not matter what the work at hand
is; this is always the case.

Control systems are responsible for monitoring production and controlling the
sequence of operations that are carried out on an automated assembly line. These
responsibilities fall under the control system's purview. Robots that are able to operate
in tandem with people, which are commonly referred to as "cobots," are advantageous

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for tasks that are very dangerous, repetitious, or precise. Because it is possible to spot
flaws in the final product through the utilisation of machine vision technology, this
helps to guarantee that the product is of a quality that is adequate.

5.3.1 Benefits of Assembly Line Automation

Improved Efficiency: The speed with which automated assembly lines are operated
results in an increase in throughput and a reduction in cycle time. As a direct result of
this, manufacturing costs have decreased, downtime has decreased, and output has
increased.

Quality Control: The use of contemporary technology, such as machine vision, is

included into automated assembly systems in order to check for defects and guarantee
that the final product is of a satisfactory quality. Consequently, this will result in an end
product that is of better quality and more consistent.

Flexibility: Manufacturers are able to swiftly adapt to shifting client needs and launch
new goods with minimum downtime when they use automated manufacturing lines that
can be designed to handle a variety of items.

Cost-Effective: When labor costs are reduced and efficiency is raised, automated
assembly lines result in lower production costs and higher profitability. This is because
of the increased efficiency.

5.3.2 Flexible Manufacturing Systems

When referring to a production system, the phrase "flexible manufacturing system"

refers to a system that is able to adapt to changes in both the kind of product and the
quantity of the product. The primary objective of the system is to achieve the highest
possible level of efficiency in order to provide assistance to businesses in reducing the
costs that are connected with their manufacturing processes. It is probable that the
procedure is an integral component of a make-to-order strategy that provides clients
with the ability to customise the items that they wish to purchase.

There is a chance that the system will consist of a network of processing stations that
are connected to one another and are outfitted with computer terminals. It is responsible
for managing the entirety of the product production process, which includes not only
loading functions but also the processing of data storage and everything in between. A
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manufacturing system that is able to readily adjust to changes in both the kind of
product and the quantity of that product is referred to as a flexible manufacturing
system (FMS). This type of manufacturing system is one form of manufacturing
system. Programming machines and computer systems to produce a wide variety of
diverse pieces is something that is not only possible but also possible. Certainly, this is
something that is attainable.

An organisation has the ability to reduce the costs of production by increasing the
efficiency of their operations through the utilisation of a factory management system
(FMS), which stands for flexible manufacturing system. Flexible manufacturing, which
is a vital component of the make-to-order approach, makes it possible to personalise
the items that clients demand. This ability is made possible by the fact that flexible
manufacturing is flexible. There exists a risk that the initial costs will be greater in
conjunction with the flexibility that is being offered. There is a possibility that the
specialised hardware that permits such customisation will be more expensive to obtain
and install in contrast to systems that are more conventional.

5.3.3 Benefits of flexible manufacturing system

1. Large variety of same products

Using a Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS), it is possible to mass create a

large variety of products that are similar to one another.

2. Profitable investment

The company invests a lot of money (capital) in machines. However, FMS

makes optimum use of these machines. Therefore, though costly, FMS is still a
profitable investment.

3. Requires limited inventory

FMS requires limited inventories compared to other production systems.

4. Low labour cost

In FMS, most of the work is done by automated machines and robots. There is
hardly any need of a manual work or some human intervention. Therefore, in
FMS, the labour cost becomes very low.

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 5. Flexible system

FMS is a very flexible system. This is because it can produce a large variety of
similar products. The quantity and design of production can also be changed
very quickly.

6. Speedy production

The products can be produced very quickly because the materials are loaded,
unloaded and transferred from one machine to another by robots.

5.4 MAJOR ELEMENTS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

The basic components of an FMS are: there are workstations, systems for material
processing and storage, a computer control system, and individuals who are responsible
for managing and operating the system.

1. Workstations

When it comes to an FMS, the processing or assembly equipment that is utilised

is contingent upon the kind of work that is carried out by the system. The most
common kinds of processing stations in a system that is intended for machining
activities are computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools. However, the
FMS principle may also be applied to a wide variety of other processes as well.
In a typical FMS, the following are the many kinds of workstations that may be
found.

2. Load/Unload Stations.

The FMS is physically connected to the rest of the facility through the
load/unload station, which acts as the channel through which this connection is
made. The system takes in raw work parts at this site, and finished components
are released from this place. Raw work parts are accepted by the system. It is
possible for human persons or automated handling systems to be responsible
for loading and unloading the containers.

The majority of FMSs continue to rely on human loading and unloading, despite
the fact that technological breakthroughs have been made. It is imperative that

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 the loading and unloading station be created with careful thought for the
purpose of ensuring the comfort and safety of the personnel. During the process
of raising enormous loads on the crane, the operator receives support from
mechanical cranes and other forms of handling equipment.

At the place of employment, it is essential to keep a certain degree of cleanliness

at all times. To remove chips and make certain that the mounting and locating
points are clean, it is typically necessary to make use of air hoses or other
cleaning facilities. This is the case in most cases. Installation of the station on
an open-grid platform that is positioned at a height that is somewhat higher than
the floor level is a usual technique. The cutting fluid and chips are able to fall
through the perforations and be recycled or disposed of at a later time as a result
of this.

3. Machining Stations

Because arc machining methods are the most popular use for CNC machine
tools, the majority of FMS workstations are CNC machine tools. This is because
arc machining techniques are quite straightforward. The CNC machining
centre, and more especially the horizontal rnachining centre, is the type of
machining centre that is utilised the majority of the time.

Computer numerical control (CNC), the capacity of distributed numerical

control (DNC), and the use of palletised work-parts are some of the
characteristics that CNC machining centres and the FMS share. Other
similarities include automated tool change and storage, the ability to employ
palletised work-parts,. Automatic pallet changers that are easily interfaceable
with the FMS component handling system may be purchased in combination
with machining centres. This is something that can be done.

4. Other Processing Stations

Additionally, the FMS method has been utilised in a variety of different

processing procedures, including those that are not associated with machining
specifically. For example, the operations that are involved in the manufacturing
of sheet metal are an example of a utilisation that makes use of this type of
utilisation. Among the workstations that are utilised for the processing of

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 materials are those that are designed to perform press-working operations.
These operations include punching, shearing, and other types of bending and
shaping.

In addition, technologies that may be customised are now being developed in

order to further automate the process of forging. In the past, forging was a
procedure that needed a substantial amount of manual labour. This was the
condition that existed. The workstations that are a part of the system are
primarily comprised of a heating furnace, a forging press, and a trimming
station. These are the key components that complete the system.

5. Assembly

Some FMSs may be utilised for a wide range of applications, one of which is
the assembling of employment opportunities. Now, in order to reduce the need
for human labour in the process of product assembly, which normally takes
place in batches, automated techniques that are both flexible and precise are
being created. This is being done in order to eliminate the need for human
labour. In order to achieve the highest possible level of automation, these
adaptive assembly systems frequently make use of industrial robots as their
automated workstations.

6. Other Stations and Equipment

One approach to introducing inspection into an FMS is to either create a station

that is exclusively dedicated to inspection or to include an inspection activity
into a processing workstation that is already in place. Both of these approaches
are viable options due to their respective advantages.

Some examples of technologies that might be utilised in the process of

evaluating failure mode sensors (FMSs) include machine vision, coordinate
measuring machines, and specific inspection probes that can be inserted into
the spindle of a machine tool. These are just a few ways that these technologies
could be utilised. The inspection process is of utmost significance in flexible
assembly systems since it is necessary to carry out inspections in order to
guarantee that components have been positioned at the workstations in the
appropriate arrangement.

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5.5 CASE STUDIES IN INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

The process that takes place when control structures and information developments are
utilised to reduce the quantity of human labour that is necessary in the production of
goods and experiences is referred to as automation. This phrase is used to define the
process. The level of industrialisation that is greater than mechanisation, which is the
level of industrialisation that came before computerisation, is called computerisation.

Despite the fact that mechanisation provided human managers with tools to aid them
with the fundamental components of their employment, motorisation greatly decreases
the need for human obvious and mental demands over the course of the work process.
Computerisation is expected to play an undoubtedly large role in the process of getting
incremental and incremental knowledge, as well as in the global economy.

This is something that is predicted to happen. A number of highly prominent sectors

that are not linked to accumulation have been significantly impacted by the use of
robotization, which has had a huge influence. Because of the rise of automated
telephone switchboards and mail answering systems, the majority of the jobs that were
formerly unavoidable for telephone executives have become outdated.

5.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Automation

The main advantages of automation are:

 Working in occupations that are physically demanding or repetitious, such as

those that humans are not designed to do.
 Taking the place of individuals who operate in dangerous environments (such
as fire, space, volcanoes, nuclear power plants, the ocean, and so on) and
engaging in activities that others are unable to do due to factors such as their
size, weight, speed, endurance, and so on.
 The possibility of improved economic circumstances: Automation has the
ability to improve economic conditions in the following areas: businesses,
societies, and the global economy.
 For instance, during the 20th century, nations such as Japan and Germany
witnessed increases in their national income as a consequence of automation.
Furthermore, when firms invest in automation, the technology pays for itself.

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5.5.2 The main disadvantages of automation are:

Now, let's talk about the boundaries of technical capabilities. Due to the limitations of
the technology that is now available, there are some tasks that cannot be automated.

the costs that are related with the creation of the product that are not mentioned. It is
possible that the money that is saved by automating a process is not always worth the
money that is spent on research and development. This is something that might happen
on different occasions.

There is a somewhat high price at the beginning. When compared to the unit cost of
the product, the initial investment that is required to automate a new facility or product
that is being introduced is a significant amount of money.

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 CHAPTER 6

CONTROL SYSTEMS IN ROBOTICS

6.1 OPEN-LOOP VS CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL

6.1.1. Open Loop

An open-circle control framework is one in which the yield does not have any influence
on the control activity. This describes a control framework that is deemed to be open-
circle. To put it another way, the output of an open-circle control system is neither
calculated nor supported in relation to the component that is being controlled. It is
because the system does not have a closed-loop structure.

There are a number of severe drawbacks associated with this control system, one of the
most notable of which is that the controlled variable is extremely sensitive to changes
in the inputs that produce disruptions. For instance, a washing machine is an example
of a control system that is utilised in several aspects of daily living. There are three
cycles that are carried out by the washing machine at regular intervals. These cycles
are watering, washing, and flushing. Quantifying yield, which is a phrase that refers to
the degree to which the clothing are clean, is not something that robots are capable of
doing.

6.1.2. Closed Loop

When it comes to describing control systems that incorporate feedback, the phrase
"closed-loop control systems" is perhaps the most prevalent word that is used. When
everything is said and done, the phrases closed-loop control and feedback control are
interchangeable and may be used interchangeably.

This signal is received by the controller of a closed-loop control system with the
intention of stabilising the output of the system and minimising the actuation error
signal. The actuation error signal is the difference that is computed between the input
signal and the feedback signal. When it comes to closed-loop control, the feedback
control action is utilised on a consistent basis, which contributes to a reduction in the
quantity of system error.

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 Figure 6.1 Closed Loop

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

According to the block diagram that was just presented, a closed-loop system is one
that makes use of the output of a plant in order to inform the actions of at least one
sensor and controller component. This is explained in more detail in the next sentence.
The sensor is in charge of providing data to the feedback line, while the plant and the
controller are responsible for ensuring that the forward motion is maintained. During
the process of summing, the output of the plant is compared to the value that was
projected to be generated by the plant. The controller is able to detect the difference
between the two values when the value of the output is equal to the value that was
predicted. Once this difference has been determined, the controller will then send a
signal to the plant to start the plant.

6.2 PID CONTROLLERS

A proportional–integral–derivative controller, also known as a three-term controller or

PID controller, is an example of a feedback-based control loop mechanism that is
frequently used to manage machines and processes that require continual management
and automatic modification. This type of controller is used in the management of these
types of machines and processes. The vast majority of its uses are found in industrial
control systems, in addition to a wide range of other applications in which it is essential
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to maintain constant control through modulation without the presence of human
engagement. The PID controller performs an automatic comparison between the value
of the system that is actually being implemented, which is also referred to as the process
variable or PV, and the value that is expected to be achieved, which is also referred to
as the setpoint or SP. These two values are referred to as the error value, which is
represented by the symbol. The error value is the difference between the two numbers.
e(t).

After then, it starts to automatically implement corrective actions in order to bring the
PV to the same value as the SP by using three distinct ways, which are as follows: A
proportional (P) component provides an output that is exactly proportional to the
quantity of the mistake in reaction to the current error value. This output is created in
response to the error value. The graphical depiction makes this clear to the listener.
This makes it possible to make adjustments quickly, based on the degree to which the
system is deviating from the setpoint that is necessary.

The integral (I) component, on the other hand, takes into consideration the cumulative
amount of mistakes that have happened in the past in order to resolve any residual
steady-state faults that continue to persist over time and erase any inconsistencies that
have remained. In conclusion, the derivative (D) component is accountable for
anticipating future mistakes by assessing the rate of change of the error. This is not the
least of its responsibilities. In particular, this serves to increase system stability and
prevent overshoot, which is particularly helpful in circumstances in which the system
is exposed to rapid changes.

When it comes to controlling actuators, the PID output signal has the capability of
directly controlling them via the use of voltage, current, or other modulation methods,
depending on the application. Automating processes while also reducing the likelihood
of mistakes brought on by human intervention is the goal of the PID controller. A
simple example of this would be the cruise control system that is seen in automobiles.
The speed of a vehicle will decrease as it comes into touch with a slope, for example,
if the power output of the engine is kept at the same level during the whole process.
The PID controller is responsible for making changes to the power output of the engine
in order to bring the vehicle back to the speed that was desired.

With little delay and overshoot, this is achieved in a way that is both efficient and
effective. The theoretical foundation of PID controllers may be traced back to the early
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1920s, when automated steering systems for ships were first introduced. This is the
historical period in which PID controllers were first developed. This concept was
eventually used in the industrial sector for the purpose of implementing automated
process control after some time had passed. Its first use was in pneumatic actuators, but
it gradually made its way into electronic controllers along its development. PID
controllers are used extensively in a wide variety of applications, including temperature
regulation, motor speed control, and industrial process management, to name just a few
of the numerous uses. These controllers are used in a wide range of applications that
need automated control that is accurate, steady, and optimised.

One of the characteristics that distinguishes the PID controller from other controllers is
its ability to apply accurate and optimal control by using the three control terms of
proportional, integral, and derivative influence on the controller output. This is the trait
that sets it apart from other options. The block diagram that can be seen on the right
side of the page illustrates the core ideas that are responsible for the creation and use
of these words. This displays a PID controller, which is able to do an error value
computation on a continuous basis e(t) as the difference between a desired setpoint SP
= r(t) and a measured process variable 𝑃𝑉 = 𝒴(𝑡): 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡) − 𝒴(𝑡), in addition to
the use of a correction that is founded on concepts that are proportional, integral, and
derivative.

By altering a control variable, such as the opening of a control valve, to a new value
that is determined by a weighted sum of the control terms, the controller makes an
attempt to decrease the amount of error that happens over the course of time. This is
accomplished by adjusting the control variable to a new value. The PID controller is
able to immediately generate a continuous control signal that is controlled by error, and
it does so without the requirement for discrete modulation.

According to this model:

The present value of the SP − PV error is directly related to the term P, indicating
a clear link between the two. As an instance, if the error is big, the control output will
be similarly significant since the gain factor "Kp" will be used. This is because the error
will be considerable. An error will be produced between the set point and the process
value if proportional control is used on its own rather than in conjunction with other
control methods. Specifically, this is because the controller requires an error in order
to generate the proportionate output response. This is the reason behind this. When the
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conditions of the process are determined to be in a steady state, equilibrium is reached,
and the SP-PV "offset" continues to be the same.

To create the I term, Term I takes into account the past values of the SP − PV error and
integrates them over a period of time. This process is carried out in order to generate
the I term. As an example, in the event that there is a residual SP − PV error after
the application of proportional control, the integral term strives to eliminate the residual
error by including a control impact that is dependent on the cumulative value of the
mistake made in the past. Following the repair of the error, the integral term will no
longer continue to rise after the correction has been made. This will result in the
proportionate impact becoming less important as the error decreases; however, the
growing integral effect will compensate for this constraint. As a consequence of this,
the proportional impact will become less significant.

From the current rate of this error, the term D provides the best accurate forecast of the
future trend of the SP − PV error. This estimation is obtained from the overall rate
of this error. It is commonly referred to as "anticipatory control" owing to the fact that
it is striving to effectively restrict the impact of the SP-PV error by exerting a control
influence that is formed by the rate of error change. This is the reason why it is
frequently referred to as "anticipatory control." When the shift happens at a quicker
pace, the influence of regulating or damping is felt more strongly than when it occurs
at a slower rate.

1. Tuning – In order to achieve a state of equilibrium between these effects, it is

possible to make adjustments to the loop in order to give the most effective
control function feasible. Due to the fact that the tuning constants for each
control application are reliant on the response characteristics of the physical
system that is external to the controller, it is necessary to compute these
constants. The letter "K" is used to represent these constants, and an illustration
of them can be seen below.

The behaviour of the measuring sensor, the final control device (such as a
control valve), any delays in the control signal, and the process itself are all
factors that play a part in determining these. It is often feasible to input
approximate values of constants at the beginning of the process, provided that
one is aware of the sort of application that is being used inside the process.
Nevertheless, these values are normally modified or tuned by introducing a
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 setpoint alteration and measuring the behaviour of the system. This is the
standard method.

2. Control action – Every single one of the terms is subject to a direct control
action, which is used by both the mathematical model and the real loop that was
shown before. It may be deduced from this that a rising positive error will lead
to an increasing positive control output correction at the same time. As a result
of the fact that the word "error" does not refer to the deviation from the setpoint
(actual-desired), but rather to the correction that is necessary (desired-actual),
this is the reason why this is the situation. In the case that it is necessary to carry
out corrective action inside a negative direction, the system is referred to as
reverse acting.

As an example, if the valve in the flow loop was opening at a rate of 100–0%
for a control output of 0–100%, this would be an indication that the action of
the controller needs to be reversed. For the purpose of satisfying certain process
control schemes and final control components, it is necessary to carry out this
action in the other direction. For instance, a valve that is used for the purpose
of chilling water is an example of this. Should the signal be lost, the fail-safe
alternative would be for the valve to expand to its maximum extent. This would
ensure that the signal is not lost. In order for the valve to open to its maximum
capacity, it is necessary for the controller output to be zero percent from the
beginning.

3. Control function

The overall control function is

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾 𝑒(𝑟)𝑑𝑟 + 𝐾 ,
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝐾 , 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 To indicate the coefficients for the proportional, integral,

and derivative components, respectively (often abbreviated as P, I, and D), all
of the coefficients are non-negative.

4. Standard form

In the standard form of the equation, 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 are respectively replaced by

𝐾 /𝑇 and 𝐾 𝑇 the advantage of this being that 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 due to the fact that

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 they represent an integration time and a derivative time, respectively, they have
some physical significance that can clearly be understood. 𝐾 𝑇 determines
how long the controller will tolerate the output being consistently above or
below the set point. 𝐾 /𝑇 the amount of time that the controller will allow the
output to remain continuously above or below the set point is determined by
this parameter.

1 𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝑒(𝑟)𝑑𝑟 + 𝑇 ,
𝑇 𝑑𝑡

where

𝑇 = is the integration time constant, and

𝑇 = is the derivative time constant.

5. Selective use of control terms

In spite of the fact that a PID controller makes use of three control terms, the
majority of applications need just one or two terms in order to provide the
amount of control that is sought. Setting the parameters that are not being used
to zero is one method that may be employed to accomplish this goal.

In situations when the other control actions are not being carried out, this
controller is referred to as a PI, PD, P, or I controller. In circumstances in which
derivative action would be susceptible to measurement noise, PI controllers are
used relatively often. Nevertheless, the integral term is often necessary for the
system to achieve the value that it has set as its aim. There is a widespread
perception that PI controllers are rather ubiquitous.

6. Applicability

It is not possible to achieve faultless control of the system or stability of its

control via the use of the PID algorithm (for further information, please refer to
the part that is located below under the heading "Limitations"). There is the
possibility that circumstances may emerge in which there are excessive delays.
For example, there may be occasions in which the measurement of the process
value is delayed, or there may be cases in which the control action does not
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 apply in a timely manner. Any time anything like this takes place, lead–lag
adjustment is required in order for the scenario to be effective. The response of
the controller may be defined by referring to its responsiveness to an error, the
degree to which the system overshoots a setpoint, and the degree to which any
system oscillation occurs. All of these criteria can be used to determine the
controller's reaction. The PID controller, on the other hand, is adaptable to a
broad variety of circumstances since it is based only on the response of the
process variable that is being monitored, as opposed to being dependent on
information or a model of the process that is being measured.

6.3 FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

A feedback system is a device that is used inside a robotic system for the aim of
monitoring a certain variable. This device is known as a feedback circuit. In general,
there are two basic forms of feedback that are accessible to individuals: positive
feedback and negative feedback. A characteristic of positive feedback systems is that
the response is conveyed in the same direction towards the stimulus. This is the defining
characteristic of these systems. The transmission of the response in a direction that is
opposite to the direction in which the stimuli travel is a characteristic that is
characteristic of negative feedback systems. Robots make use of feedback systems in
order to accomplish the task of providing outputs that are dictated by the input that is
received from a controller.

Throughout the whole of the operating process, the feedback systems are used in
combination with several drive systems, including pneumatic, hydraulic, and electric
drive systems. Suppose that during a cricket match, the batter hits a long shot, and then
the fielder chases after it in an effort to make a catch. Could this happen? In order to
guarantee that he will be able to successfully grasp the ball, he is continually monitoring
it and modifying both his speed and his body position. This is done in order to ensure
that he is able to. The fielder is able to acquire information by continually studying the
ball, and by putting that information to use, he is able to control the speed of his body
and the position it is in. Not only is the idea of feedback control particularly important
in the area of robotics, but it is also very important in other control systems.

6.3.1 Feedback Loop in Control System:

The phrase "feedback loop" is used to describe the process of getting feedback from an
action to the controller. This feedback loop is referred to within the framework of a

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control system. In order to facilitate communication between the field and the control
centre, the feedback loop is designed to transmit the information that it provides. It is
possible to differentiate between two separate types of feedback loops, which will
provide more insight.

However, the first one is an open feedback loop, in contrast to the other one, which is
a closed feedback loop. The incorporation of a feedback loop into the design of a
control system is an essential component to take into consideration. The discipline of
robotics makes extensive use of feedback control systems in a variety of applications.
In order for any robot actuator to function properly, the feedback control system serves
as the core basis.

Types of Loop in Control System:

1. Open Loop Control System:

When it comes to this kind of feedback system, the output is simply monitored
based on the signal that is introduced into the system. Since it does not produce
any feedback signals, the system must be modified manually in order to
function properly. Since this is the case, the alterations will have to be
performed manually. It has a basic function, in which the output is created when
a controller responds in accordance with the signal that is provided. This is how
it works. Robots that do not need servo motors are distinguished by their
inexpensive cost and relatively simple operation. Due to the fact that they use
this particular kind of feedback system, these robots are referred to as nonservo
robots.

2. Closed Loop Control System:

Within the parameters of this scenario, the feedback signal of the system is what
decides the output command of the system. The mistake was formed as a result
of the process of combining the feedback signal with the variable that was
meant to be the output of the system. Additionally, the error signal that is
generated by the control algorithm serves as the basis for the output command
that is generated. In the realm of industry, a continuous close loop control
system is often implemented with the assistance of a proportional–integral–
derivative controller, which is commonly referred to as a PID controller.

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 The process of collecting information, processing that feedback, and then
issuing a command to control action is referred to as a "feedback loop," and the
phrase "feedback loop" describes this process. Other names for this specific
kind of control system include the phrase "close loop control system" and
"closed loop control system."

6.3.2 Implementation of Feedback Control System in Robotics:

In order to get started, it is necessary to choose certain sensors for the robot. When it
comes to sensors, there is a wide range of options available to choose from. The active
sensors do not need a separate power source, and they are easily compatible with a
microcontroller board. Additionally, it is not essential to have their own power supply.
It is the duty of the sensor to make certain that the voltage level at which it operates is
equivalent to the voltage that is present at the input and output terminals of the
microprocessor. The voltage will normally be 5 volts across the board. In the event that
there is a differential in the voltage at which the sensor functions, it will not function
in the appropriate manner.

There are a number of sensors available, and each one is designed to perform a certain
purpose. Limit switches, RF type proxy sensors, and magnetic sensors are a few
examples of kinds of sensors that may be used for position sensing. Other sorts of
sensors include magnetic sensors. The light-dependent resister is still another excellent
choice for obstacle detection; nevertheless, it has a tendency to produce a great deal of
disturbance due to the lights that are present in the surrounding environment. It is
essential to have a solid understanding of robot actuators before starting the process of
designing software using them.

When it comes to actuators, direct current (DC) electric motors are often employed,
whilst stepper motors are utilised for specific precision control applications. If a direct
current (DC) motor is being used, it is essential that you do not forget to make use of a
DC motor driving circuit during the process. Specifically, this is due to the fact that the
high current might potentially cause your micro-controller board to malfunction.
Following the completion of the installation of your actuators and sensors, you will be
required to configure the sensor signal on the microcontroller board.

Establishing a connection between the actuator (motor) and the input terminal and
output terminal of the microcontroller board is an essential step required. When the

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sensor signal is positive, the code for the actuator should be put in your application,
and it should be activated or called anytime the signal is positive. Your bot may also
make use of a broad range of programming approaches and complex code, which is
another possibility. In the case that you choose to go with an autonomous bot, you will
not be able to employ a control system that is based on a closed loop. In the realm of
robotics, the idea of a closed-loop control system is a notion that is of the utmost
importance.

6.3.3 Components Used For Robot Actuation and Feedback:

Feedback Devices:

1. Position & Velocity Sensors:

When it comes to achieving the intended direction and position of the end
effector, a position sensor is a kind of feedback device that is used to identify
the exact movement of joints in order to accomplish this particular goal. In order
for a robot to correctly manage the speed at which the manipulator travels, it is
essential for the robot to be equipped with velocity sensors. Position sensors
make use of a variety of devices in order to perform the duty of sensing the
position. Some of the devices that are used by position sensors include
resolvers, potentiometers, and encoders.

On the other hand, velocity sensors include a direct current tachometer in order
to provide the quantity of speed that is necessary. Feedback devices are required
to be installed in each and every robot in order to achieve the goal of giving
exact control over the speed of the robot. The newly built sophisticated control
system is dependent on these devices to a very limited level in order to obtain
better performance of the robot manipulator in certain tasks, such as
deceleration and acceleration. This is done within the context of achieving
better performance.

2. Actuators and Power Transmission Systems:

In order to carry out control activities, a controller makes use of actuators and
power transmission networks. This is done in order to accomplish the function
of the controller. The result of this is that these devices contribute to the creation
of power, which is then used to move the robot arm. Actuators are used in order
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 to provide power to the joints of the robot. This is performed with the aid of
power transmission systems, providing the necessary power to the joints.

As a result of the fact that the actuators will be connected to the robot joints
themselves, it is likely that the power transmission systems will not be required
in some situations. The process of actuator installation will include the use of a
variety of devices, including pneumatic, hydraulic, and electric actuators,
among others. Gears, screws, and pulleys are the components that are used by
power transmission systems in order to carry out this job. Gears are the most
common among these components.

6.3.4 Reasons for Using Feedback System in Robotics:

1. Constant Force

When force-torque sensors were first developed, they were intended for use in
applications such as grinding, polishing, and other application areas that
included the removal of material. Because it is difficult to automate these
applications in terms of position, the robot needs some kind of force feedback
indication so that it can assess whether it is applying an excessive amount of
force to the component or if it is only just barely touching it.

This allows the robot to make an informed decision. The incorporation of a

force feedback loop into your programming will make it possible for you to
easily automate these applications and get a consistent output in your
manufacturing process. Due to the specific nature of this situation, you will
once again be compelled to make use of an external device rather than the
integrated solution that was provided by the manufacturer of the robot.

2. Object Location

It is true that vision systems are an efficient approach for identifying or

quantifying components; nevertheless, you should be aware that it is also
possible to search for and identify components using an FT sensor. This is
something that you should be aware of. Establishing the height at which they
are positioned is an altogether different entity from the process of finding them
along the X-Y plane, which is one thing.

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 In order to do this work utilising vision, it is required to use a three-dimensional
vision system. It is not essential to keep a track of the items that are included
inside a pile of things; rather, you need to look for the pile each and every time.
This is because the pile of things is the only thing that constitutes the pile. The
''free mode'' of a force sensor is yet another way that may be used to make
advantage of the searching capabilities of the sensor.

It is quite probable that this specific parameter is the one that is

underappreciated, underestimated, and used the least in the area of FT sensors.
By switching to either the "free mode" or the "zero gravity" mode, you will be
able to "liberate" the axes that are attached to your robot. Since this is the case,
the robot will be able to improve its compliance. For example, if you want to
tighten a component that is in a chuck that is made for a CNC machine, you
may release two axes to make it possible for the part to align correctly within
the chuck, while at the same time maintaining a solid hold on the part while it
is in the air.

This will allow you to tighten the component. Consequently, the chuck will be
able to centre your component, and it will not place any more pressure on the
axis of your robot as a consequence of this. Unfortunately, I do not have any
examples of this, and to tell you the truth, it is something that is pretty difficult
to visualise. I apologise for the inconvenience.

When it comes to the use of force sensors for the purpose of localising a
component, you should trust me when I state that it is an efficient method. For
the purpose of responding to your enquiries, we would appreciate it if you could
write to us in the comment box if you need further information about this
specific component.

3. Repeatable Force

In the event that you are contemplating the utilisation of a robot for the purpose
of completing assembly tasks, it is essential that you ensure that the robot in
question is capable of repeatedly carrying out the same action. On the other
hand, one of the difficulties associated with automating assembly tasks is that
they need the operator to display force sensing skills. This is one of the reasons
why automation is difficult to achieve. An FT sensor makes it possible to feel

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 the external force that is applied during the process of assembly. This may be
done by allowing the user to perceive the force.

If you watch the video that is given below, you will see that it is vital to apply
the same amount of stress (a very little amount) on both the battery and the
cover of the mobile phone. This is something that you will notice while
watching the video. Because the components are fragile, it is extremely difficult
to fit them together without causing any harm to the other components. This is
because the components are already fragile. It is for this reason that a low force
threshold is set in order to prevent the components from being misaligned and
from being damaged.

4. Weighing Stuff

The method that is used to do this has nothing to do with the colour of the goods
that are being decorated. In point of fact, the question is answered by the weight
of the object. A larger amount of weight is possessed by the orange pucks in
comparison to the blue pucks. It is possible for the sensor to differentiate
between the weights of each puck and then arrange them in the proper order of
their respective weights. In my opinion, this is a really creative idea, and it has
the potential to be used in order to distinguish between products that are
comparable yet unique.

On the other hand, in the actual world, the most useful thing is to be aware of
whether or not you have the proper item in your gripper, or whether or not you
have lost or dropped an object. This is the most advantageous thing. If you are
going through the production process, this might be of tremendous benefit to
you. With the use of a force torque sensor, this is something that can be
accomplished with relative ease.

5. Hand Guiding

In spite of the fact that the vast majority of the collaborative robots that are now
on the market will make use of their built-in FT sensors in order to carry out
hand directing, there are certain models of industrial robots that do not even
own this sort of sensor. Taking all of this into consideration, the incorporation
of an FT sensor into your robot arm would be very advantageous. An additional
benefit is that you will be able to show your robot what it ought to be doing in
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 order to teach it what you want it to accomplish. This will allow you to teach it
what you want it to do. You will be able to teach your robot linear trajectories
thanks to the use of an FT sensor. Additionally, you will be able to teach it the
starting and ending positions.

This method is very identical to the one that is used in Kinetiq Teaching. As
can be seen, force feedback is very significant and has the potential to be used
in a substantial number of different applications. There are a great many diverse
things that it may be used to. It is essential that you do an analysis of your
process in order to ascertain whether or not force sensors might be used in lieu
of vision systems. When it comes to force sensors, the majority of the time, they
are easier to integrate and do not need the aid of an integrator; you can probably
place it on your own. Furthermore, they do not require this assistance. The
bundle that we have put together for you includes Universal Robots, our FT
Sensor, and Grippers. All of these components are included in the box.

6.4 ADAPTIVE AND ROBUST CONTROL

6.4.1 Adaptive

This chapter's objective is to provide the theoretical foundations of a variety of distinct

adaptive robot control systems. A few of these approaches are described below. The
research that is being conducted in this specific area of robotics is still in its early stages.
Over the course of the last six years, there have been a few individuals who have made
significant efforts to find a solution to this issue. Even though classical controllers are
resistant to parametric and state disturbances, there are circumstances in which they are
unable to fulfil stability constraints. This is the case even if they are resistant to these
types of disturbances. Following this, it is projected that this region would be among
the most intriguing in the not-too-distant future. This is because of the aforementioned
reason.

It is for this reason that the adaptive control algorithm is superior than the conventional
control strategy that has been used in the past. In comparison to rules that do not have
adaptive properties, adaptive control algorithms are often thought to have a much
greater level of numerical complexity. The process of assessing whether or whether the
system is stable as a whole is not only more complex, but it is also more complicated.
Adaptive controllers, on the other hand, provide a greater variety of possibilities,

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particularly in circumstances in which the robot is functioning in conditions that are
not what it was designed for.

In instances in which the majority of the payload is not decided upon in advance, it is
true that this is the scenario that occurs. On the other hand, this does not imply that the
design of adaptive controllers is the only option that is potentially viable for robotics.
On the other hand, we are of the view that adaptive algorithms should only be used in
circumstances when typical classical controllers are unable to provide the outputs that
are required. Within the realm of adaptive control theory, dominant schools of thought
may be broken down into two basic categories. First, there is something that is referred
to as Learning Model Adaptive Control, or LMAC more often.

The use of online parameter estimation methodologies leads in the enhancement of the
plant model, and the outcomes are included into the implementation of the feedback
control approach. There is a possibility that the well-known self-tuning control system
will be applied at this specific spot. The theory of adaptive control also includes a
second method that is known as Model Referenced Adaptive Control (MRAC). This
method is an additional feature of the theory. The process of fine-tuning the closed-
loop behaviour of a system involves adjusting the controller of the system until it
resembles a model that has been chosen based on certain criteria. This is done in order
to achieve the desired behaviour of the system.

6.4.2 Robust control

The concept of "robust control" refers to a controller design process that lays an
emphasis on the dependability of the algorithm. The fundamental minimum criteria that
a control system must meet in order to be practically applicable is one definition of
robustness that is often shared by people. It is assured that the controller will work
properly after it has been developed since the parameters of the controller do not change
while the procedure is being carried out.

Because robust control systems are often developed based on the worst-case scenario,
it is quite unusual for them to fail to achieve optimum performance under normal
conditions. This is because the worst-case situation takes precedence in the design
process. Techniques of robust control are appropriate for you if you are acquainted with
the dynamics of the process and are able to generate accurate predictions about the
variation ranges for uncertainties. If you are, then you are a good candidate for using

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these techniques. In circumstances when there is a substantial amount of fear over the
dependability and stability of the system, they are also useful in addressing the problem.
Spacecraft and aeroplanes are two examples of systems that are included in this
category. Other examples include the controls of spacecraft. There is the potential for
the implementation of resilient control methods for some control systems that are used
in the process of process control. When it comes to processes that are mission-critical
and have vast uncertainty ranges and minimal stability margins, this is particularly true.

Fig 6.2 Robust control

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

6.5 CONTROL OF MANIPULATORS AND MOBILE ROBOTS

One of the most fundamental components of robotics engineering is the control of

manipulators and mobile robots. This is one of the things that makes up the discipline.
These systems are able to carry out the operations that are required with precision,
efficiency, and adaptability thanks to this control function, which assures that they are
able to operate.

Manipulators, which are often articulated robotic arms, and mobile robots, which are
robots that are capable of mobility, need complicated control systems in order to
explore their surroundings, interact with things, and respond dynamically to inputs
from the outside world.

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6.5.1 Control of Robotic Manipulators

Examples of the sorts of operations that are often carried out by robotic manipulators
in industrial and scientific settings include welding, assembling, and material handling.
These are only few of the tasks that are done by robotic manipulators. The control of
these systems is primarily concerned with ensuring that the end-effector, which is the
tool or hand that is positioned at the tip of the arm, follows a certain trajectory in space,
both in terms of its location and its orientation. This is the case in both directions.
Generally speaking, control strategies for manipulators may be divided down into the
following components:

Joint Space Control: controls the position and velocity of each joint in the robot.
focusses on regulating its position. When the trajectory is described in terms of joint
angles rather than the location of the end-effector, this technique is helpful because it
allows for more precise movement.

Task Space (Operational Space) Control: Controls the motion of the end-effector
directly in Cartesian coordinates and deals with the problem of regulating it. To do this,
it is often necessary to solve the inverse kinematics and dynamics in order to ascertain
the joint-level instructions that will result in the appropriate end-effector motion
occurring.

Feedback Control: In order to rectify deviations from the expected trajectories,

methods such as PID control (which stands for proportional-integral-derivative control)
are often used. Techniques that are more sophisticated, such as calculated torque
control and adaptive control, take into consideration the dynamic changes and
uncertainties that are present in the representation of the robot.

Force and Impedance Control: In the context of applications that include interaction
with the surrounding environment, they are of the utmost importance. Not only do they
control the location of the robot, but they also control the force that it applies. This
guarantees that the task is carried out in a way that is not only safe but also efficient.

6.5.2 Control of Mobile Robots

Mobility robots are used in a broad variety of applications, some of which include
autonomous vehicles, service robots, and planetary exploration, amongst others. Their
mobility allows them to adapt to a wide range of circumstances. In order to operate
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mobile robots, it is necessary to perform a number of functions, including the
management of movement, the planning of routes, navigation, and the protection
against obstacles.

Kinematic Control: Is concerned with the design of routes and the management of the
speed of wheels or tracks in order to create the movement patterns that are desired. This
is especially important to keep in mind for mobile platforms that include differential
drive, omnidirectional drive, and skid steer operations.

Dynamic Control: Extends beyond the realm of kinematics to include the effects of
inertia, friction, and forces from the outside world. In order to navigate rough terrain
or at high speeds, it is very necessary.

Localization and Mapping: When mobile robots are attempting to localise themselves
within a map of their surroundings, they make use of sensors such as LiDAR, GPS, and
cameras. The technology known as Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (SLAM)
is an important method that enables mobile robots to construct maps and ascertain their
position in settings that are unfamiliar to them.

Motion Planning and Navigation: Based on the present location of the robot, these
algorithms determine collision-free pathways and trajectories that lead to the desired
destination. These pathways need to be tracked by control systems while also adjusting
to the dynamic changes that occur in the environment.

Autonomous Control: A higher-level decision-making process is required in order to

enable mobile robots to function independently, adapt to changes, and improve their
performance over time. This process is performed via the use of artificial intelligence
and machine learning.

It is common practice for manipulators to be installed on movable bases in sophisticated

robotic applications (for instance, robotic arms on autonomous cars). Consequently, the
deployment of integrated control approaches that coordinate the manipulation as well
as the mobility of the manipulator is required in order to accomplish this outcome.

A hybrid approach that takes into account the dynamics and limitations of both the
manipulator and the mobile platform is necessary in order to completely integrate these
two systems. This strategy must take into account both variables. Mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, control theory, and computer science are all
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components of the multidisciplinary field of control, which includes manipulators and
mobile robots. Control is a subject that embraces all of these types of technologies.
When they are managed more efficiently, robots are able to perform accurately and
consistently, responding to conditions that are both complicated and dynamic. This is
especially true when the settings are complex. There are indications that robotic control
systems are exhibiting signs of becoming more intelligent, competent, and self-
sufficient as a consequence of ongoing improvements in sensor technology, artificial
intelligence, and real-time computing.

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 CHAPTER 7

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS AND MICROCONTROLLERS IN

ROBOTICS

7.1 MICROCONTROLLERS AND MICROPROCESSORS

In modern robotics, microcontrollers and microprocessors are components that are

absolutely necessary. It is because of this that they are regarded to be fundamental
components, since they are the "brains" of robotic systems. Additionally, they are
responsible for processing the data that is required for robots to carry out their tasks in
an autonomous or semi-autonomous way. This is in addition to the fact that they play
a significant role in the control of sensors, actuators, and communication interfaces.

7.1.1 Microcontrollers in Robotics

Microcontrollers are tiny integrated circuits that were designed largely for the purpose
of being included into embedded systems. The word "microcontroller" refers to these
systems. In many cases, the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and ROM),
and input/output (I/O) ports are all included into a single chip simultaneously. The
discipline of robotics makes extensive use of microcontrollers for a wide range of
operations that need real-time control and the ability to react to commands.

Key roles of microcontrollers in robotics include:

 Sensor Interfacing: Using built-in analog-to-digital converters (ADCs),

microcontrollers are able to read data from a variety of sensors, such as infrared,
ultrasonic, temperature, and gyroscopes, and transform analogue signals into
digital form.

 Actuator Control: They use pulse-width modulation (PWM) or digital outputs

to create control signals for actuators like motors, servos, and relays. These
signals are used to control the acting devices.

 Real-Time Decision Making: Microcontrollers are capable of handling low-

level control loops with rapid reaction times. Some examples of these loops
include maintaining balance and managing wheel speeds.
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  Energy Efficiency: Because of their low power consumption, microcontrollers
are very well-suited for use in battery-powered mobile robots and tiny
autonomous systems.

 Embedded Programming: Microcontrollers may be programmed using

languages such as C/C++ or assembly, which enables developers to design
individualised control logic for certain robotic applications.

In the field of robotics, some of the most widely used microcontrollers are the Arduino
(based on the AVR), the ARM Cortex-M series, and the PIC microcontrollers.

7.1.2 Microprocessors in Robotics

Microprocessors, in contrast to microcontrollers, often only have a central processing

unit (CPU) and are reliant on additional components in order to function. These
components include random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and
input/output controllers. Because of their higher power, microprocessors are a more
acceptable alternative than microcontrollers when it comes to computing operations
that are tough to do.

Roles of microprocessors in robotics:

High-Level Processing: Image processing, machine learning, and sophisticated route

planning are all examples of tasks that need a large amount of computer resources.
Microprocessors are used in robotics for these tasks.

Operating System Support: These devices are capable of running full-scale operating
systems like as Linux and ROS, which enables them to perform multitasking, modular
development, and communication with other devices and the internet.

Data Management and Networking: Microprocessors are able to manage the

processing of huge datasets, provide support for communication via Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth, and connect with cloud platforms for Internet of Things-based robotics.

Integration with Microcontrollers: Additionally, microcontrollers are often used in

conjunction with microprocessors in the construction of complex robotic systems. In
these kinds of systems, the microprocessor is in charge of making high-level decisions

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and providing user interfaces, while the microcontroller is in charge of controlling the
system in real time and establishing connections with the hardware.

Microprocessors such as Intel x86 processors, ARM Cortex-A series, and boards such
as the Raspberry Pi, which are capable of running a full Linux operating system and
instruments such as OpenCV for vision-based activities, are some examples of
microprocessors that are utilised in robotics. In the field of robotics, microcontrollers
and microprocessors perform duties that are separate from one another, but they also
complement one another to some degree.

On the other hand, microprocessors are able to carry out activities that are both complex
and data-intensive, but microcontrollers are most successful when used in real-time
control applications that need a significant amount of power. When designing a robotic
system, it is common practice to include both functionality and performance. This is
done with the intention of striking a balance between performance, power efficiency,
and functional capabilities.

As the area of robotics continues to grow with the advent of artificial intelligence, the
internet of things, and machine learning, the synergy between microcontrollers and
microprocessors is becoming increasingly crucial for the creation of intelligent and
autonomous robots. This is because of the fact that microcontrollers and
microprocessors enable each other to work together.

7.2 ARDUINO, RASPBERRY PI, AND OTHER PLATFORMS

1. ARDUINO

Arduino is a hardware and software environment that is open-source, cross-

platform, and fairly basic. Because of this, it is designed to make the
construction of interactive projects easier. It might be an electrical board that
includes a microcontroller, which is effectively a computer on a chip.

In addition to a development environment that enables one to write, build, and

eventually download code into the microcontroller, it could also be an
electrical board. The Arduino boards were designed with the purpose of easing
the process of interfacing with an electrical system for its supporters as well
as its audiences, who include beginners, enthusiasts, and students. This was
the objective behind the development of the Arduino boards.
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 Advantages of Arduino

 User Friendly: Because the Arduino IDE is so simple to use, even

someone who has never used a computer before will have no trouble picking
it up.
 Above all: Arduino is a free and open-source platform that has a sizable
community that offers a vast assortment of tutorials, libraries, and other
resources.
 Variety of shields: A wide number of shields are available, each of which
may enhance the capabilities of an Arduino, allowing it to do tasks such as
wireless communication, motor control, and even Internet access.
 Economical: The majority of other microcontrollers and development
boards are costlier than Arduino boards, which are much more affordable.
 Platform Independent: This software is compatible with Windows, Mac
OS X, and Linux operating systems.

Disadvantages of Arduino

 Limited Computational Power: Due to the fact that the processing and
memory capacity of the Arduino boards are really fairly restricted, it is not
possible to utilise them for higher tasks, such as an operating system that is
capable of functioning via heavy calculation.
 Absence of Multitasking: As a result of their core architecture, Arduino
boards are incapable of managing several jobs at the same time since they
are primarily intended for single-task execution.
 Connectivity is limited: The base model of an Arduino does not have all
of its functionality, such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi, despite the fact that shields
may unquestionably expand the available connective connectivity options.

2. RASPBERRY PI

An small, tiny, and low-cost gadget known as a single-board computer was

developed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation. This foundation is responsible for
the development of the device. On the other hand, Raspberry Pi is a computer
that is completely functioning and comes with an operating system that is
already loaded on it. Linux is the operating system that predominates among
Raspberry Pi variations. All of the tasks that would normally be performed on
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 a conventional desktop computer are managed by it. It is capable of doing all
of these tasks. It has the ability to engage in activities such as accessing the
internet, viewing movies, and operating software programs.

Advantages of Raspberry Pi

 Full-Fledged Computer: The Raspberry Pi is designed to operate on a

full-fledged operating system, which is capable of performing tasks similar
to those of a desktop computer, including the ability to multitask.
 Versatile: This demonstrates that the Raspberry Pi may be used for a
diverse variety of applications, ranging from straightforward endeavours
such as home automation to intricate applications in the fields of artificial
intelligence and machine learning.
 Extensive Connectivity: Because Raspberry Pi is equipped with a wide
variety of connection options, including HDMI, USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and
Bluetooth, it is an excellent choice for projects that include networked
components.
 Strong Community Support: In addition to Arduino, the Raspberry Pi is
also built on a community that is far larger than that of Arduino. This
community has extremely active forums, tutorials, and resources.
 GPIO Pins: In contrast to Arduino inputs, the Raspberry Pi comes
equipped with General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) Pins, which provide
for the possibility of establishing a connection with electrical components.
This functionality is far more advanced.

Disadvantages of Raspberry Pi

 Complexity: It is necessary to have some familiarity with operating

systems and potentially command-line interfaces in order to set up and
operate the Raspberry Pi, which is a little more challenging than using
Arduino.
 High Power Consumption: In comparison to an Arduino, the Raspberry
Pi has a considerable amount of power consumption, which may provide a
challenge for projects that are powered by batteries.
 Cost: When compared to Arduino boards, Raspberry Pi is quite
inexpensive; but, when it comes to the design of the SD cards, power

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 supply, and enclosures, it becomes rather pricey. Excessive Work for a Few
Simple Projects: Raspberry Pi may be overdone and unneeded for electrical
projects that are rather straightforward, which is why Arduino is a much
more suitable alternative.

3. ESP32 / ESP8266

Ideal for Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled robotic applications; Microcontroller

boards that come equipped with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth built in. Micro Python
together with the Arduino IDE are supported.

4. BeagleBone Black

More powerful than Raspberry Pi for applications that need real-time

processing. PRUs, which stand for programmable real-time units, are available
for low-latency operations, and Linux is supported.

5. Jetson Nano (by NVIDIA)

Deep learning models for real-time object identification and face recognition
are supported by this platform, which is centred on artificial intelligence and
has GPU acceleration. Used in autonomous drones, surveillance robots, and
intelligent assistants, among other applications.

6. STM32 Boards

ARM Cortex-M microcontrollers are the foundation of this system, which is

renowned for its low power consumption and real-time performance. This
system is used in precision robotic control systems and industrial automation.

7.3 SENSOR INTERFACING AND SIGNAL PROCESSING

When it comes to robotic systems, the connecting of sensors and the processing of data
are both vital components. The presence of these components gives robots the capacity
to understand their environment and to interact with them in an intelligent manner.
Signal processing is the process of changing raw data into information that may be
utilised for decision-making and control. Sensors are the "sensory organs" of robots,
and signal processing is the process of transforming raw data into information. The

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combination of all of these skills produces the foundation upon which robotic systems
are able to perceive and adapt to their environments.

7.3.1 Sensor Interfacing in Robotics

The act of attaching sensors to a microcontroller or central processing unit (CPU) in

order to allow robots to receive data from their surroundings is referred to as "sensor
interfacing" in the area of robotics. There are a large range of sensors that are used
widely in robotic applications all over the globe. Some examples of these sensors
include ultrasonic detectors, infrared sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, cameras,
and sensors that measure temperature or gas. When these sensors detect certain physical
characteristics, such as distance, light, motion, or heat, they subsequently translate
those qualities into numerical signals.

Examples of such attributes are distance, light, motion, and heat. In order for these
signals to be handled in the appropriate manner, they must first be interfaced with a
controller in the appropriate manner. Pin layouts and pin configurations may vary
widely depending on whether the output is analogue or digital. This is because the two
types of outputs are used differently. When it comes to the processing of data, analogue
sensors provide a constant voltage range and need the use of analog-to-digital
converters, also known as ADCs.

While digital sensors, on the other hand, provide binary data that can be read directly
by the microcontroller, analogue sensors do not. Serial protocols such as I2C, SPI, and
UART are three examples of protocols that are often used by modern sensors in order
to communicate with one another. In addition to facilitating more reliable data
transport, these protocols make it possible for several devices to connect to one another
with fewer connections. Sensor interfacing, which is the initial step in the process of
perception for intelligent robots, is responsible for ensuring that the flow of data from
the physical world into the robotic system is accurate. This is accomplished by ensuring
that the sensors are properly calibrated.

7.3.2 Signal Processing in Robotics

When it comes to robotics, signal processing refers to the process of assessing and
refining the data that is received from sensors in order to extract usable information
that can be used to guide the behaviour of the vehicle. This information may then be

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utilised to influence the behaviour of the vehicle. Especially in environments that are
fluid and continually changing, raw sensor data is often noisy, inaccurate, or
fluctuating.

This is especially true in such environments. By using signal processing techniques like
as filtering, amplification, smoothing, and calibration, it is possible to improve the
quality of the signal and make the data suitable for robotic decision-making. This may
be achieved. As an instance, low-pass filters may be used to eliminate high-frequency
noise, and techniques like moving averages or Kalman filters can be utilised to stabilise
the values that are fluctuating from motion sensors. Both of these techniques are
examples of approaches that can be utilised. Digital signal processing (DSP) enables
the use of more complex processes, such as Fourier Transforms, for the purpose of
assessing vibrations or frequency content produced from audio or motion data. This is
specifically for the purpose of studying vibrations.

When it comes to applications such as image processing in vision-based robotics, signal

processing is an essential tool. For the purpose of identifying objects, detecting motion,
or recognising patterns, the data that is collected from cameras is filtered, enhanced,
and interpreted in this context. An further vital component that relies heavily on signal
processing for accurate and reliable predictions of position and orientation is sensor
fusion. This process includes combining the information obtained from many sensors,
such as accelerometers and gyroscopes, in order to get the desired results. The purpose
of signal processing is to act as a bridge between the raw sensor inputs and the
intelligent responses of robotic systems. This is the overarching role of signal
processing.

7.4 REAL-TIME SYSTEMS

When it comes to modern robotics, embedded systems and microcontrollers are two
components that stand out as particularly important. Additionally, they serve as the
technological backbone that enables robots to carry out actions that are intelligent,
precise, and independent of human intervention. The term "embedded system" refers
to a specialised computer system that is designed to carry out one or a few particular
functions, and it may or may not have real-time processing restrictions.

Embedded systems, on the other hand, are built to maximise efficiency, speed, and
durability while keeping a tiny and energy-efficient packaging. This is in contrast to

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general-purpose computers, which are meant to do a variety of computational tasks. In
order for a robot to be able to control its sensors, actuators, motors, displays, and
communication modules, embedded systems are included into both the hardware and
software of the robot. In the field of robotics, this behaviour is carried out. The robot is
able to engage dynamically with its surroundings by using these technologies, which
enable it to perceive inputs, understand data, and create acceptable outputs, often while
adhering to rigorous time limitations. This allows the robot to interact with its
surroundings in a continuous manner.

A central processing unit (CPU) core, memory (RAM and flash), and programmable
input/output (I/O) peripherals are all components that are included in the
microcontroller, which is a miniature integrated circuit that can be programmed. Within
the realm of robotics, it serves as the primary component of the vast majority of
embedded systems. Because of their quick response time, predictability, and conduct
that is predictable, microcontrollers are ideal for real-time control applications. They
arrived with the goal of being utilised in embedded applications, since they were built
specifically for such applications and were distributed with that intention.

The ATmega328, which is used in Arduino boards, the ARM Cortex-M series, which
is used in STM32, and the PIC microcontrollers are all examples of popular
microcontrollers that are used in robotics. Other examples include the AVR series,
which contains the ATmega328. The execution of control algorithms, the reading of
sensor data such as distance, temperature, or acceleration, and the control of outputs
such as motor speed or robotic arm position are all duties that fall within the purview
of these processors. Incorporating microcontrollers into robots of varying sizes, from
simple line-following robots to sophisticated industrial robotic arms, is a common
practice. The reason for this is because microcontrollers are generally affordable, don't
consume a lot of power, and are relatively small in size.

There is a subclass of embedded systems known as real-time systems. These systems

are separated from other embedded systems by the fact that timing is a crucial
component. In order for a real-time system to be able to process inputs and produce
outputs within the allotted time period, it is required for the system to have a deadline,
which is a time constraint that is both rigorous and predictable. Due to the fact that any
delay in reply might potentially result in the malfunction or failure of the system, the
capability to respond in real time is a key component in the research area of robotics.

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In the case of a mobile robot, for example, in order for it to manoeuvre about a room,
the input from its sensors has to be processed promptly in order to recognise and avoid
obstacles. Even the smallest delay, such as a fraction of a second, might result in a
collision. Real-time processing is necessary in order to ensure both safety and accuracy
in robotic surgery and automated manufacturing. In a similar vein, precision and
timeliness are non-negotiable requirements in each of these fields. Real-Time
Operating Systems (RTOS) like as FreeRTOS, VxWorks, and QNX, in addition to
more straightforward cooperative multitasking frameworks, are used by a plethora of
robotic applications in order to achieve this objective. Using this real-time operating
system, it is possible to prioritise and schedule actions in accordance with the amount
of urgency and importance they possess.

Real-time operating systems (RTOS) make it feasible to multitask by coordinating the

execution of several processes at the same time. This ensures that time-sensitive
operations are completed on time. Multitasking is made possible by RTOS. An example
of this would be a robot that is capable of doing many tasks at the same time, such as
the collection of sensor data, the control of motors, the planning of pathways, and
wireless communication. The real-time operating system (RTOS) ensures that certain
processes, such as the detection of obstacles or the overriding of emergency stop
procedures, are given a higher priority and have a much faster access to processing
resources. On the other hand, procedures that fall into the category of being less urgent,
such as checking the battery or recording data, could be carried out with a lower level
of responsibility.

This kind of work scheduling is vital for ensuring that both safety and performance are
maintained in robotic systems, particularly those that operate in environments that are
dynamic and unpredictable. This is especially true for automated systems. Embedded
systems and microcontrollers, together with enhanced sensors and actuators, have made
it feasible for robots to perform complex tasks such as object recognition, pathfinding,
gesture detection, and adaptive behaviour. This is made possible by the integration of
these components. An embedded system is responsible for controlling a variety of
capabilities, including real-time data processing, decision-making algorithms, and
precise actuator control.

These capabilities are supported by the embedded system. Embedded systems are
required in order to have these capabilities operational. The function of
microcontrollers is expanding beyond simple control as the area of robotics continues
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to evolve. These microcontrollers now incorporate features such as machine learning
inference, wireless networking, and cloud-based integration. It is because of the
increasing processing capability and connection of the embedded platforms that are
already available that this is now achievable.

Real-time robotic systems are built on embedded systems and microcontrollers, which
are essential components. These systems form the core of the infrastructure. In addition
to being able to perceive their environment, make rapid decisions, and carry out exact
actions, robots are also able to adhere to severe time limits. This is all possible due of
the skills that they possess. They are highly suited for a wide number of robotic
applications because to their compact size, great efficiency, and cheap cost. These
applications include anything from instructional kits and drones to industrial
automation and medical robotics.

It is anticipated that the capabilities of embedded systems in robotics will continue to

increase as a result of the continued development of both hardware and software
technologies. In the end, this will lead to the creation of robots that are not only more
intelligent, responsive, and self-sufficient, but also capable of functioning well in
scenarios that are intended to be realistic of the actual world.

7.5 PROGRAMMING EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded computers are specialist computer systems that are designed to carry out
particular tasks inside larger mechanical or electrical systems. These computers are
embedded in bigger systems in order to fulfil their intended purpose. Within the field
of robotics, embedded systems are often referred to as the "brain" of the robot. These
individuals are accountable for the integration of sensor data, the regulation of
actuators, and the maintenance of communication interfaces in order to carry out
activities in real time.

These systems are very important to robots because they allow them to do a wide range
of tasks, including as operating independently, controlling their movements, making
decisions, and interacting with their environment. Microcontrollers, sensors, actuators,
power supplies, and communication interfaces are the fundamental components that
are necessary for the overall construction of these systems. These individuals work
together to ensure that the robot is able to carry out the tasks that have been assigned
to it.

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It is generally agreed that the microcontroller or microprocessor, which functions as
the central processing unit, is the component that is regarded to be the most essential
component of an embedded robotic system. Arduino, Raspberry Pi, ARM Cortex-M,
and ESP32 processors are just a few examples of the kinds of devices that are often
used in artificial intelligence and robotic systems. It is possible for these
microcontrollers to communicate with a wide range of sensors, including ultrasonic
sensors, cameras, and gyroscopes, in order to collect data about the world that is around
them.

In addition, they establish connections with actuators, which might be motors or servos,
in order to carry out operations like as movement or manipulation. It is guaranteed that
the robot will be able to work independently for extended periods of time thanks to the
power supply, which often takes the form of a battery or an external source.
Communication interfaces such as UART, I2C, and SPI, in addition to wireless
technologies like as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, allow the robot to establish connections with
other devices or systems, both internally and outside. This is made possible by the
robot's ability to form connections.

Integration between these software components and hardware components is

absolutely important for the functioning of the robot. This is a need that cannot be
avoided. managing the hardware and ensuring that the robot is able to carry out the
duties for which it was built while adhering to real-time limits are the responsibilities
of the software, which is often written in languages such as C, C++, or Python. Software
is ultimately responsible for managing the hardware. A Real-Time Operating System,
often known as an RTOS, is a kind of operating system that may be used to manage
activities and schedules for more complex systems.

When it comes to robotics, the process of programming embedded systems often

necessitates the use of certain programming languages and tools that are tailored to the
constraints and requirements of the hardware. The programming languages C and C++
are the ones that are used the most often due to the fact that they are efficient, provide
greater control over hardware, and high performance. Assembly language may be used
in situations where low-level control is necessary for timing or optimisation. These
situations are not the only ones that call for low-level control.

Furthermore, higher-level languages like as Python are often used, particularly when
using platforms such as Raspberry Pi, which have a bigger capacity for processing and
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are thus more accessible. A significant number of development environments,
including as the Arduino Integrated creation Environment (IDE), Keil µVision for
ARM-based microcontrollers, and Platform IO, are used widely in the process of
creating embedded systems. In addition, the Robot Operating System (ROS) has a
comprehensive middleware architecture that provides libraries and tools for the
purpose of integrating numerous components of a robotic system. This design
facilitates the integration of many components. Communication, perception, and
control are the components that make up these components.

Real-time control is a crucial component of the programming of embedded systems in

robotics. This is due to the fact that robots often have to carry out tasks while being
constrained by tight temporal limits. To provide just one example, one of the most
common jobs in the area of robotics is the regulation of motors via the use of
information from sensors. It is necessary for the software to execute control algorithms,
such as Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) loops, within prescribed time
limitations in order for it to be able to do this task. Interrupts and timers are the most
essential methods that are used to ensure timely replies to external events in embedded
systems. These strategies are used to guarantee that the system behaves in a timely
manner.

Interrupts make it possible for the system to immediately react to changes, such as
readings from sensors connected to the system. Timers, on the other hand, may be used
for the purpose of scheduling processes at regular intervals. Embedded programming
in robotics also includes the inclusion of components for sensors, which is another
crucial component. The use of sensors is essential for robots because they allow them
to grasp and engage with their environment. These techniques of sensor fusion are used
in order to enhance the capabilities of the decision-making process that the robot is
capable of. These methods include the data collected by a large number of sensors,
which ultimately results in information that is more accurate and reliable.

In many cases, the incorporation of data from accelerometers and gyroscopes is

performed via the use of techniques such as complementing filters or Kalman filters.
This approach ensures that the robot has a complete understanding of its position and
orientation since it is performed in this manner. Embedded systems, which are used in
the area of robotics, also face challenges that are linked with power management.
Considering that a significant number of robots are powered by a restricted quantity of
battery power, energy efficiency is of the highest significance. When robots are not
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being actively utilised, they often convert to low-power modes or disable peripherals
that are not needed in order to save energy. This is done in order to improve their overall
performance. It is also crucial to exert control over the power consumption of actuators,
sensors, and communication modules in order to increase the life of the battery. This is
especially important in mobile robots such as drones or autonomous vehicles, where
the battery life may be significantly extended.

In order for a variety of robotics applications to function properly, using an embedded

system is absolutely necessary. Embedded programming is used by autonomous mobile
robots, for instance, in order to continuously gather data from sensors, move about in
their surroundings by using algorithms for route planning, and make decisions in real
time. Because they rely on embedded systems to provide precise control and interaction
with objects, robotic arms, which are widely employed in the industrial and medical
sectors, are reliant on these systems. In a way that is analogous, unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) and drones make use of embedded systems in order to govern flight,
maintain the aircraft's stability, and communicate with ground stations.

When it comes to robotics, the programming of embedded systems has its fair share of
challenges, despite the fact that these systems have a wide variety of applications as a
result of their versatility. In particular, when it comes to the processing of sensor data
and the control of actuators, one of the most critical issues is ensuring that the system
is able to fulfil real-time limits. This is one of the most major challenges. In addition,
embedded systems often operate with limited memory and computational capability,
which may have the effect of preventing the complexity of the algorithms that are used
from being completely fulfilled.

Controlling the flow of energy is still another significant challenge, especially for
mobile robots that are fuelled by batteries in order to carry out their operations. Because
robots are becoming more networked and autonomous, there is a growing concern
about the safety of these machines. Because of this, it is necessary to put in place robust
communication protocols in order to provide protection from cyber assaults.

Embedded systems in the area of robotics are going to be blessed with an incredible
variety of possibilities in the years to come. An increasing number of people are getting
interested in the idea of artificial intelligence (AI) at the edge. This is a reference to the
practice of robots running artificial intelligence models directly on embedded devices
for the aim of making choices locally, without relying on their processing being done
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on the cloud. It is projected that the integration of robotics into the Internet of Things
(IoT) would result in a considerable improvement in the capacity of robots to interact
with other systems and share data with them. Furthermore, it is projected that
autonomous robotic swarms, which consist of groups of robots working together to do
challenging tasks, would become more prevalent in the near future. The adoption of
sophisticated embedded systems that are able to control the complex interactions that
take place between several robots will be required in order to accommodate these
advancements.

Embedded systems, which are a fundamental component of the operation of modern

robots, provide the control, decision-making, and interface capabilities that are required
for autonomous operations. These capabilities are necessary for autonomous
operations. There will be a rise in the need for embedded systems that are more
powerful, efficient, and trustworthy as the advancement of robotics continues to make
advances ahead. It is essential to have a good grasp of the principles of embedded
programming in order to develop the next generation of intelligent robotic systems.
This encompasses everything from the design of hardware to the production of real-
time software. Having this understanding is essential.

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 CHAPTER 8

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING IN

ROBOTICS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have emerged as

transformational forces in the fast expanding landscape of technology, affecting a wide
variety of sectors. AI and ML are both related to the field of artificial intelligence. The
discipline of robotics, which has traditionally depended on rule-based automation, is
now experiencing a revolution that is being driven by intelligent systems that are
capable of observation, learning, and decision-making. This is one of the most
interesting and significant uses of these technologies.

The field of robotics, which was originally limited to doing repetitive activities in
controlled contexts like manufacturing, has extended into more complex, dynamic, and
unstructured situations that occur in the real world. The integration of artificial
intelligence and machine learning has made this growth feasible. These two
technologies allow robots to learn from data, adapt to new circumstances, and improve
their performance over time without requiring them to be explicitly reprogrammed. The
use of artificial intelligence (AI) provides robots with cognitive skills such as visual
perception, natural language processing, and problem-solving.

Machine learning (ML) techniques enable robots to independently analyse enormous

amounts of data and recognise patterns in order to make choices. Intelligent robotics is
gradually becoming a part of daily life, and its applications range from autonomous
cars and drone navigation to healthcare robots, industrial automation, and domestic
assistance. Techniques such as deep learning, reinforcement learning, and probabilistic
models are increasingly routinely used to enhance the functions of robotic systems.

These functionalities include object identification, motion planning, grasping, and

interaction between humans and robots. This confluence of artificial intelligence and
machine learning not only improves the capabilities of current robotic systems, but it
also radically alters what robots are capable of doing. Robots are now capable of
gaining knowledge via experience, working together with people, functioning in

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circumstances that are unpredictable, and even displaying certain aspects of emotional
intelligence. As a consequence of this, artificial intelligence and machine learning are
not only tools in the field of robotics; rather, they constitute the basis upon which the
next generation of intelligent, adaptable, and automatic robots is being constructed.

The purpose of this Chapter (or chapter/article) is to investigate the fundamental ideas,
significant developments, obstacles, and potential future trends that are associated with
the confluence of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and robotics. It investigates
the ways in which artificial intelligence and machine learning are allowing new
capabilities in robotic systems, as well as the implications of this for the future of
human-robot cooperation and intelligent automation.

Fig 8.1: AI and Robotics

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

8.2 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

AI is a subfield of computer science and engineering that focusses on making

computers operate in a manner that is similar to that of humans. The use of
programming languages and specialised technologies enables robots to behave in a
manner similar to that of humans. In today's world, artificial intelligence (AI) is the
most prevalent and indispensable component of our lives.

Without AI, our lives would be incomplete, since nearly 77% of people are wholly
dependent on AI and technology. AI can be found all around us in a variety of

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disciplines, such as autonomous driving. Cars, playing thinking games (Chess),
painting, medical imaging, and other activities are offered. CT scans, x-rays, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), and other imaging techniques are examples of AI tools used
in medical imaging. AI plays a significant part in the epidemic caused by COVID-19.
The intelligent application known as "Aarogya setu" is used during the pandemic to
assess unusual symptoms and notify other individuals to stay away from the
contaminated region known as the red zone.

This is done in order to prevent the spread of the pandemic. Artificial intelligence,
sometimes known as AI, is a subfield of computer science that focusses on the
development of computers that are capable of carrying out activities that would
ordinarily need the intellect of a human being. These activities might be as basic as
recognising patterns in data or as sophisticated as driving a vehicle or playing a game.
They can vary from easier to more difficult situations. Generally speaking, artificial
intelligence may be broken down into two primary categories:

Narrow or Weak AI: Voice recognition, picture categorisation, and recommendation

systems are all examples of the kinds of activities that may be accomplished by using
this sort of artificial intelligence. Machine learning and other learning algorithms are
used by these systems in order to learn and enhance their performance. These systems
are trained on vast volumes of data.

General or Strong AI: The goal of this sort of artificial intelligence is to develop
computers that are capable of doing every intellectual work that a human being is
capable of. Due to the fact that presently available artificial intelligence systems are
restricted to certain tasks and do not possess the flexibility and adaptability of human
intellect, this is currently mostly a theoretical idea.

Artificial intelligence has a wide range of applicable fields, including healthcare,

finance, transportation, and entertainment, among others. Chatbots that are driven by
artificial intelligence, for instance, may assist consumers with simple queries, while
image recognition that is powered by AI can be used to identify illnesses based on
medical photos. There are, however, ethical problems that are raised by artificial
intelligence. These concerns include the possibility of bias in decision-making and the
effect on employment as computers become more capable of completing activities that
were previously performed by people.

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8.3 ROBOTICS

Robotics is the branch of artificial intelligence that makes it possible to build an

automated system that can perform several functions and can be reprogrammed. The
multi-functional capabilities of this technology allow it to take the role of human
humans in a variety of contexts, including operating in space, working underwater for
extended periods of time, and randomly developing plans that are helpful to armed
forces.

Robots are used in a variety of businesses and manufacturing facilities for the purpose
of constructing items (such as automobiles, machineries, and hardware systems) and
controlling mechanical and technical labour. It offers the workers the opportunity to
execute hazardous jobs that are impossible for a typical person to accomplish. Because
COVID-19 is a touch-related illness, it was very risky for medical professionals to treat
patients during the pandemic. As a result, a great number of medical professionals were
infected with COVID-19 via their contact with patients. In this scenario, robots played
a significant role. The doctor was in charge of the robots, and they were responsible for
diagnosing patients.

Robots can be work as: -

Automatic machine sweeper, Space Exploration, Under water, In Military, Security,

Entertainment

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 Fig 8.2 Types of Robots

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

Fig 8.3. Diagram of Industrial and Service Robots

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

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8.3.1 Components of Robots:

Figure 8.4 Components of Robots

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

 Actuators
 Electric Motors
 Pneumatic Air Muscles
 Sensors
 Piezo motors &Ultrasonic motors
 Muscle Wires
 Power Supply

1. Actuators: Actuators are devices that are used for the movement of robot
machines with the purpose of acting on their surroundings. A power source is
used by the actuators in order to facilitate the transformation of the control
signal into a physical movement, also known as a mechanical movement.

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 Figure 8.5

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

2. Electric Motors: One kind of equipment that is capable of converting electrical

energy into mechanical energy in a circular motion is known as an electric
motor. AC motors and DC motors are the two kinds of electric motors that are
available. AC motors are mostly used due to their adaptability in terms of speed
control and their low power consumption, whilst DC motors are primarily
utilised due to their lower initial cost of power units in comparison to AC
motors.
3. Pneumatic Air Muscles: Air Muscles are a kind of soft blow device that may
be used by robots in the same capacity as a muscle. The muscle is made up of
the bladder that is located inside of it. When the bladder is under pressure, the
geometry of the lattice acts as a connection consisting of scissors.

Fig 8.6: Diagram of Pneumatic Air Muscles

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 Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

4. Sensors: In order to detect the occurrence of physical events that result in the
production of an output signal, the sensor is a device, machine, and module. In
a nutshell, the sensor is responsible for revealing the facts and changes that
occur in the surrounding environment. It then transmits this information to a
different electric module processor, which then uses the information to carry
out a different duty.

For Example: Temperature sensor, Light sensor, Ultrasonic sensors etc.

Fig 8.7: Fingerprint Sensor

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

5. Piezo motors: To put the directed force on the facing plate in order to receive
the electric signals, piezoelectric motors, ultrasonic motors, and piezoelectric
motors are the types of motors that are now in use. Both ultrasonic and piezo
motors assist the robot in moving in the direction that has been determined.
6. Muscle Wires: Nitinol, a nickel-titanium alloy with a thin architecture, is the
material that has been used to manufacture muscle wires. When a certain
quantity of electric current and heat is supplied to muscle wires, the growth of
the muscle wires is enhanced. The ability to contract is shown by them when
5% of an electric current pass through them.
7. Power Supply: The power supply is the electronic device that is used to convert
electric current to electric power. The main function of this device is to convert
electric power into a load.

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8.3.2 Applications of Robotics

Robotics may be used in a variety of different industries. The following are some of
the most significant and notable applications:

 Robotics in Defence
 Robotics in Medical
 Robotics in Entertainment
 Robotics in Mining Industry
 Robotics in Industrial sectors

1. Robotics in Defence:

Robotics has been playing an increasingly vital role in the military industry for
a number of years now, with applications ranging from bomb disposal and
combat assistance to reconnaissance and surveillance. One of the most
significant benefits of using robots in the military industry is that it is possible
to give them the ability to carry out jobs that would be hazardous or challenging
for humans to carry out. It is possible, for instance, to utilise robots to examine
potentially dangerous sites, such as buildings that have been polluted by
chemical or biological weapons, without putting the lives of troops in danger.

Another benefit of using robotics in the defence sector is that it is possible to

raise the level of effectiveness and efficiency of military operations via the use
of these machines. As an instance, drones may be used for reconnaissance and
surveillance, delivering data in real time to commanders, which can then be
utilised to make judgements that are based on accurate information.

2. Robotics in Medical:

With applications ranging from surgery and rehabilitation to diagnostics and

medication administration, robotics has been making major advancements in
the area of medical. These applications include a wide range of applications.
The use of robotics in the medical field has the potential to increase the accuracy
of medical treatments, decrease the amount of time needed for patients to
recuperate, and improve patient outcomes. The capability of robots in the
medical field to conduct minimally invasive surgery is one of the most

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 significant benefits of this technology. The use of robotic surgical equipment
allows for the creation of tiny incisions, which helps to reduce the amount of
stress and scarring that is involved with conventional open surgery.
Additionally, these devices give surgeons with increased dexterity and
accuracy, which enables them to do motions that are more exact and accurate
when operations are being performed.

3. Robotics in Entertainment: There are many different parts of engineering,

computer science, and artificial intelligence that are included in the topic of
robotics, which is a multidisciplinary field. Various forms of entertainment,
such as interactive performances, games, and experiences, are among the ways
in which entertainment robots are intended to keep people entertained.

These robots are outfitted with sensors, actuators, and sophisticated software
algorithms, which enables them to interact with people in a number of different
ways. Among the many uses of robots in the entertainment industry are the
following:

 Theme parks and attractions

 Movies and TV shows
 Live Performance.
 Gamming.
 Personal entertainment.

4. Robotics in Mining Industry:

Robotics has brought about a revolution in the mining business by delivering

novel solutions to the issues that miners are challenged with. Mining is a
hazardous and complicated activity that calls for a substantial amount of the
resources and labour of the workforce. Robotics has made it possible for mining
businesses to enhance their safety, efficiency, and production while
simultaneously lowering their costs and their effect on the environment. The
mining sector has a number of uses for robots, some of which are listed below:

5. Robotics in Industrial sectors:

The use of robotics has had a significant influence on a variety of industrial

sectors, bringing about a revolution in the manner in which activities are carried

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 out and enhancing overall productivity and efficiency. The employment of
robots in industrial settings allows for the automation of jobs that are both
physically demanding and repetitive, which ultimately results in increased
accuracy, speed, and safety. Manufacturing is one of the most significant
applications of robots in the industrial sector.

In order to carry out operations that are repetitive in nature, such as welding,
painting, and material handling, robots are often used in assembly lines.
Consistent quality and high production rates are guaranteed by working without
becoming tired over an extended period of time. Industrial robots, which are
outfitted with sensors and sophisticated vision systems, are able to carry out
complicated activities such as product inspection and sorting, while also
contributing to the improvement of quality control procedures. When it comes
to logistics and storage, robots is also having a significant influence in yet
another sector. An increase in operational efficiency is achieved by the use of
autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) for the purpose of moving items throughout
warehouses.

This eliminates the need for human work. The ability to explore complicated
settings, pick up and transfer goods, and maximise storage space are all
capabilities that these robots possess. It is possible for robots to operate
alongside human workers in the logistics industry, which makes it possible to
streamline procedures, speed up order fulfilment, reduce delivery times, and
save costs. In hazardous areas, such as the oil and gas sector and nuclear power
plants, robotics also plays a vital part in the process of completing tasks.

When working in dangerous or inaccessible environments, robots may be used

for inspection, maintenance, and repair, respectively. The ability to withstand
severe temperatures, radiation, and poisons helps to ensure the safety of
personnel while they are conducting essential activities.

8.4 MACHINE LEARNING IN ROBOTICS

Robots are able to gain information, adapt to changing settings, and make intelligent
judgements thanks to machine learning, which is an essential component of robotics.
Through the use of algorithms and statistical models, machine learning makes it
possible for robots to acquire knowledge from enormous volumes of data and derive

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patterns and insights into the data. Through this process of learning, robots are able to
recognise things, comprehend speech, traverse complicated terrain, and carry out a
wide range of jobs in a precise and efficient manner. It is possible for robots to improve
their behaviour, optimise their performance, become more adaptive, and overcome
problems that they face in the real world if they get constant feedback and development.

a) Data-driven learning: Machine learning enables robots to learn from large

datasets, recognize patterns, classify objects, and understand their environment.
b) Object detection: Machine learning algorithms such as convolutional neural
networks (CNNs) help robots identify and classify objects and interact more
effectively with their environment.
c) Speech and Natural Language Processing: Machine learning techniques such
as deep learning and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) enable robots to
understand and respond to human speech, facilitating natural language dialogue
and communication.
d) Autonomous navigation: With the help of machine learning, robots can
analyse sensor data and learn maps of their surroundings to navigate
autonomously, avoid obstacles, and optimize routes.
e) Reinforcement learning: Machine learning algorithms such as Q-learning and
deep reinforcement learning allow robots to learn optimal behaviours through
trial and error, improving their decision-making ability in complex and dynamic
environments.
f) Adaptive control: Developing adaptive control systems for robots using
machine learning algorithms can adapt robot behaviour to changing conditions
and requirements.

8.5 ROBOTICS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Both robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) are subfields of computer science that
collaborate to develop intelligent robots that are capable of carrying out choices and
performing tasks. In contrast to artificial intelligence, which focusses on the creation
of intelligent algorithms and systems that can imitate human intellect, robotics is
concerned with the design, development, and deployment of actual robots.

When combined, they offer automation and intelligence to a broad range of sectors as
well as to people's everyday life generally. In the field of robotics, robots are
constructed such that they may engage with the real environment. Sensors are
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responsible for observing its surroundings, actuators are responsible for carrying out
actions, and algorithms are responsible for processing information. The incorporation
of artificial intelligence (AI) methods such as machine learning and computer vision
into robots gives them the ability to learn from data, recognise things, and make choices
based on that information. This will make it possible for robots to carry out complicated
operations like manufacturing and logistics, as well as medical and exploratory work,
without human intervention.

By providing them with superior computational capabilities, the ability to make

decisions based on data, and the capacity to learn from experience, artificial
intelligence (AI) empowers robots. Robots are able to examine large data sets at
lightning speed, recognise patterns, and make accurate predictions thanks to artificial
intelligence (AI). There is no need to worry about becoming exhausted or failing at
activities that need you to perform repeated motions. Artificial intelligence algorithms
make it possible for robots to acquire new abilities, adapt to changing settings, and
enhance their performance over time. On the other hand, human intelligence has
distinctive characteristics such as the capacity to comprehend emotions, the ability to
negotiate complicated social relationships, and creative thinking.

People have the ability to comprehend abstract ideas, think critically, and come up with
innovative solutions to challenges. But integrating human experience with AI
technology will unlock the full potential of intelligent systems to be collaborative and
impactful in domains as varied as healthcare, transportation, and exploration. Artificial
intelligence will boost the skills of robots, but it will open the true potential of
intelligent systems. We can nurture a future in which people and robots work together
in a synergistic manner to solve complicated problems and generate new possibilities
by leveraging the power of both artificial intelligence and human intellect. This will
allow us to find a solution.

Artificial intelligence (AI) improves robots in a variety of ways; nonetheless, it is

essential to keep in mind that AI does not make robots "smarter" than humans. Robots
are able to do activities such as data processing, pattern recognition, and multitasking
with more efficiency, precision, and computing power than humans are capable of. This
is made possible by artificial intelligence algorithms. AI-powered robots are able to
handle massive volumes of data in a short period of time, carry out activities that are
repetitive with accuracy, and modify their behaviour depending on the information they
learn from the data. On the other hand, artificial intelligence is not yet capable of
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achieving some attributes that are present in human intelligence. These include general
intelligence, creativity, emotional intelligence, and situational awareness.

Artificial intelligence makes it possible for robots to do specific activities very well;
nevertheless, the combination of AI with human intellect is what produces the most
effective and significant outcomes. An artificial intelligence system has the potential
to make robots look more intelligent than humans in some activities by capitalising on
their capacity to collect and analyse huge volumes of data more rapidly and correctly
than humans can. The following are some of the ways that artificial intelligence might
help make robots smarter than humans in some particular areas:

Pattern recognition: Robots may be trained to recognise patterns in data that may be
difficult for humans to perceive, such as small changes in a patient's vital signs or
variations in market prices. For example, artificial intelligence can be used to educate
robots to recognise certain patterns.

Complex decision-making: With the ability to absorb large quantities of data and
analyse various potential outcomes, artificial intelligence can assist robots in making
complicated choices in real time. This is especially helpful in fields such as healthcare
and finance, where choices may have substantial repercussions from a variety of
perspectives.

Precision and accuracy: Robots have the capability to be taught to carry out activities
with a great degree of precision and accuracy. For instance, robots may be capable of
assembling microscopic components or conducting delicate procedures. AI has the
ability to assist robots in adjusting their actions based on real-time input, which will
guarantee that they carry out these jobs with the highest possible level of precision.

Adaptability: It is possible to program robots to alter their motions in reaction to

changes in the environment or to adapt to changes in a patient's condition. This can be
done by adjusting their movements in response to the changes in the environment.
Using artificial intelligence, robots may enhance their capacity to learn from past
experiences and adapt to new circumstances.

8.5.1 Role of AI/ML in robotics

Robotics has arisen as a fundamental component of contemporary technological

progress, fostering the transformation of many sectors via the automation of jobs, the
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enhancement of accuracy, and the performance of operations that are beyond the
capabilities of humans. In the past, robots were restricted to predetermined
surroundings that were pre-programmed with instructions, and their degrees of
adaptation and autonomy were severely restricted. On the other hand, the introduction
of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) has brought about a
significant change in this terrain.

These technologies have made it possible for robots to detect, learn, and make
judgements in uncertain and dynamic environments. The term "artificial intelligence"
(AI) refers to the process of having robots simulate human intellect processes such as
learning, reasoning, and self-correction. A subfield of artificial intelligence, machine
learning is comprised of techniques that enable computer systems to acquire knowledge
from data and improve their performance over time without the need for explicit
programming. These technologies, when included into robotic systems, make it
possible for robots to engage in intelligent behaviour. This enables robots to move
beyond doing tasks that are repetitive and to demonstrate cognitive skills such as
pattern recognition, comprehension of natural language, and autonomous navigation.

Breakthroughs in a variety of domains have been made possible by the incorporation

of AI and ML into robots. Smart robots have the ability to identify abnormalities,
improve processes, and operate in conjunction with people (also known as cobots) in
the industrial industry. Within the realm of healthcare, artificial intelligence-driven
surgical robots provide assistance with precise operations, while rehabilitation robots
modify treatment depending on the reactions of patients. Robotics that are powered by
artificial intelligence are used by autonomous cars for sensing, planning, and decision-
making in real time. Artificial intelligence is used by service robots to improve
customer engagement and personalise services.

These applications demonstrate that artificial intelligence and machine learning are not
only an accessory but rather a key enabler of superior robotic capabilities. Furthermore,
the scope of robot learning has been increased thanks to the development of
reinforcement learning, deep learning, and neural networks. These advancements have
made it possible for robots to learn via trial and error and to function in contexts that
are becoming increasingly complex. Sensor fusion methods, which are driven by
artificial intelligence, assist robots in interpreting data from several sources, hence
improving their capacity to react to changes in real time. The field of cloud robotics,
which encourages collective intelligence among networked robotic systems, is another
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area that is undergoing development. In this field, robots make use of distributed
artificial intelligence models and big data analytics. Despite these advancements, the
incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning into robotics also presents
a number of obstacles.

These challenges include concerns over data quality, ethical implications, cognitive
constraints, and safety issues. Despite this, continued research and innovation continue
to push the limits of what robots are capable of doing when they are given the ability
to be controlled by intelligent technologies. This article provides a complete knowledge
of how intelligent algorithms are changing the capabilities of current robotic systems
by delving into the fundamental principles, technical developments, real-world
applications, and future trends at the confluence of artificial intelligence, machine
learning, and robotics.

Fig 8.8 Relationship amongst AI, ML, DL and robotics.

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

8.5.2 Machine Learning (ML)

The term "artificial intelligence" (AI) refers to the process of imitating human intellect
in computers. This gives robots the ability to carry out activities that would normally
need human cognition, such as thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Artificial intelligence (AI) comprises a wide variety of technologies, such as natural
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language processing, computer vision, and expert systems, which enable computers to
comprehend data, learn from experience, and adapt to new inputs. One subfield of
artificial intelligence (AI) is known as machine learning (ML), and its primary
objective is to build methods that allow computers to learn from data and improve their
performance over time without being explicitly programmed. Robots are able to
recognise patterns, make predictions, and optimise their behaviours based on their
previous experiences thanks to machine learning approaches such as supervised
learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning.

8.5.3 Role of AI and ML in Modern Robotics

Artificial intelligence and machine learning are very important in the field of
contemporary robotics because they improve automation, decision-making, and
adaptability. The use of these technologies enables robots to carry out difficult jobs
with minimum assistance from humans, hence enhancing the efficiency and precision
of a variety of sectors worldwide. Artificial intelligence-driven robots in manufacturing
help to improve assembly lines and quality control. Surgical procedures and patient
care are both aided by robotic devices in the healthcare industry.

The navigation and identification of obstacles in autonomous cars are both handled by
artificial intelligence, while service robots provide individualised support in residential
and commercial settings. Robots are able to continually learn from their surroundings,
adapt to changing situations, and enhance their functioning over time when they are
equipped with artificial intelligence and machine learning. This convergence of
technology is driving breakthroughs in robotics, opening the way for systems that are
more intelligent and autonomous, which in turn boosts productivity and leads to the
transformation of industries.

8.5.4 Key Components of AI and ML in Robotics

A. Perception & Sensing

Robotics that are driven by artificial intelligence need perception and sensing
as basic components in order to enable robots to interact with their
surroundings. In order to gather information about their surroundings, robots
depend on a wide variety of sensors, such as cameras, LiDAR, ultrasonic
sensors, and infrared detectors. In order to recognise objects, identify

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 impediments, and understand spatial connections, this information is processed
via computer vision and sensor fusion algorithms that are powered by artificial
intelligence. The developments that have taken place in the field of deep
learning have made it possible for robots to recognise patterns, monitor
motions, and react dynamically to changes in real time.

B. Decision Making & Planning

Robots are able to analyse data and make choices based on real-time input
thanks to artificial intelligence (AI). Rule-based logic, probabilistic models, and
reinforcement learning are some examples of the types of algorithms that are
used by decision-making systems. These algorithms are used to assess various
alternative actions and determine the appropriate course of action.

Path planning, motion control, and job execution are all dependent on decision
frameworks that are controlled by artificial intelligence. This ensures that robots
are able to traverse complicated surroundings effectively. Industrial robots and
self-driving automobiles are two examples of autonomous systems that make
use of artificial intelligence to perform tasks such as obstacle avoidance,
trajectory optimisation, and multi-agent cooperation.

8.5.5 Applications of AI and ML in Robotics

A. Industrial Automation

Industrial automation has been drastically revolutionised by artificial

intelligence and machine learning, which have improved efficiency, accuracy,
and production. In the manufacturing industry, robots driven by artificial
intelligence are used for a variety of operations, including assembling, welding,
packing, and quality inspection. It is possible to do predictive maintenance with
the help of machine learning algorithms, which in turn reduces downtime and
improves operational efficiency.

Collaborative robots, also known as cobots, are designed to operate alongside

human operators, allowing them to adapt to changes in workflows and ensure
that production processes are both safe and efficient. Automation that is
powered by artificial intelligence also improves supply chain management by

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 streamlining operations and predicting demand via the analysis of massive
datasets.

B. Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous vehicles, including self-driving cars, drones, and delivery robots,

rely heavily on AI and ML to navigate and make real-time decisions. These
systems use computer vision, LiDAR, and radar to perceive their environment,
detect obstacles, and recognize traffic signals. Machine learning algorithms
help autonomous vehicles predict pedestrian movements, optimize routes, and
enhance driving safety. Reinforcement learning further improves decision-
making by allowing vehicles to learn from past experiences and adapt to new
driving conditions. AI in transportation is revolutionizing mobility, reducing
accidents, and improving traffic efficiency.

C. Healthcare & Assistive Robotics

By enhancing both patient care and medical processes, artificial intelligence-

driven robotics is making important contributions to the healthcare industry.
Artificial intelligence is used by surgical robots, such as the Da Vinci system,
to perform minimally invasive and precise procedures. Systems that are driven
by machine learning analyse medical pictures, identify illnesses, and provide
assistance to medical professionals in making correct diagnosis.

Individuals who are old or handicapped may benefit from the assistance of
assistive robots, which provide them companionship and support with their
movement. Rehabilitation robots driven by artificial intelligence improve
physical treatment by adjusting to the requirements of the patient and tracking
their development. Health care is undergoing a transformation as a result of
these advancements, which are enhancing accuracy, accessibility, and
efficiency.

D. Service & Humanoid Robots

Retail, hospitality, and customer service are just some of the businesses that are
progressively incorporating humanoid and service robots into their everyday
operations. Customers are able to connect with chat bots and robotic assistants
powered by artificial intelligence, who provide personalised suggestions and
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 offer support. Check-ins, meal delivery, and concierge services are all carried
out by robots in the hotel industry.

Enhanced human-robot interactions may be achieved in a variety of situations,

including homes, schools, and workplaces, via the use of social robots that are
equipped with natural language processing and face recognition capabilities. As
a result of their ability to demonstrate improvements in artificial intelligence-
driven communication, humanoid robots like Sophia and Pepper are very useful
in the fields of education and caregiving.

8.6 PATH PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING

Path planning and decision making are essential components of autonomous robotic
systems. These components enable robots to traverse complicated environments, avoid
obstacles, and accomplish tasks in a manner that is both efficient and safe. Self-driving
automobiles, mobile robots, industrial automation, and service robotics are just some
of the applications that might benefit greatly from these capabilities. Historically, path
planning was accomplished by the use of deterministic algorithms, which calculated
the most efficient routes by using predetermined maps and stringent restrictions. On
the other hand, similar strategies often have their limitations in contexts that are either
partly understood, uncertain, or dynamic.

Robots today have the ability to learn from their experiences, observe their
surroundings in real time, and make judgements that are aware of the environment in
which they are operating thanks to the combination of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and
Machine Learning (ML). Heuristic search, probabilistic roadmaps, and sampling-based
algorithms are some of the strategies that are included into AI-driven route planning.
These techniques enable robots to build trajectories that are viable and free of collisions
from occurring. Machine learning, in particular reinforcement learning and deep
learning, significantly increases these skills by allowing robots to modify their
navigation techniques depending on input from the environment and their previous
performance.

In the process of decision making, artificial intelligence approaches assist robots in

evaluating different action choices, evaluating risks, and selecting the most appropriate
actions based on requirements, restrictions, and uncertainties. Especially important in
dynamic environments, where the robot must respond to moving objects, shifting

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terrain, or the presence of humans, this is an essential component. In order to guarantee
that deliveries are made in a timely manner and without incident, for example, a
delivery robot that is traversing a busy metropolitan area must continually make
judgements about speed, direction, and route improvements.

In this section, we delve into the theoretical foundations, algorithms, and real-world
implementations of path planning and decision making in robotics. We also highlight
how artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques are transforming robots
from reactive machines into intelligent agents that are capable of autonomous operation
and real-time reasoning.

8.7 CLASSICAL PATH PLANNING ALGORITHMS

The underlying bedrock of robotic navigation is comprised of classical route planning

algorithms. These algorithms provide predictable and structured techniques for
calculating optimum or near-optimal pathways from a starting position to a target while
avoiding obstacles. These algorithms carry out their operations largely on geometric or
graph-based representations of the environment. They are particularly successful in
situations that are static and know everything about them. When it came to making
judgements about navigation, robotic systems mainly depended on these rule-based
procedures prior to the incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Some of the mathematical assurances that classical algorithms provide about

performance include completeness (the capacity to locate a route if one exists) and
optimality (the ability to find the path that is either the shortest or the path with the
lowest cost). They continue to be used in a significant manner in the present day,
especially in circumstances where predictability, transparency, and real-time
performance are of utmost importance. There are a number of classical algorithms that
have gained widespread acceptance, including Dijkstra's algorithm, A* (A-star),
Breadth-First Search (BFS), Depth-First Search (DFS), Rapidly-exploring Random
Trees (RRTs), and Probabilistic Roadmaps (PRMs).

The amount of time required for calculation, the amount of memory that is required,
and the degree to which it is suitable for high-dimensional or dynamic situations are all
aspects that are distinct to each of these. A fundamental introduction to the fundamental
ideas, methods, and applications of classical route planning algorithms is provided in
this section. In addition to this, it lays the foundations for understanding how these

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deterministic techniques built the foundation for more sophisticated and adaptive
approaches that are enabled by artificial intelligence and machine learning.

8.8 COMPUTER VISION AND OBJECT RECOGNITION

The limits of traditional route planning algorithms, such as their dependence on static
maps and predetermined rules, have grown more evident as the number of settings in
which robots operate has increased rapidly. These environments are more dynamic,
unpredictable, and complicated. Adaptive, data-driven route planning has been made
possible by the use of machine learning (ML), which has emerged as a transformational
way to handle these difficulties. Machine learning, in contrast to more conventional
approaches, gives robots the ability to learn from their experiences, generalise across
tasks, and make navigation choices that are sensitive to context in real time.

The use of machine learning to the process of path planning enables robots to
dynamically analyse sensor data, anticipate changes in the surrounding environment,
and pick best paths with little interaction from humans. This flexibility is especially
useful in contexts that are not organised or in situations where there is a lack of
comprehensive knowledge about the surroundings. It is possible to train machine
learning models using vast datasets that have been gathered from past navigational
experiences, simulations, or demonstrations. This gives the models the capacity to
efficiently deal with unpredictability and noise.

Adaptive path planning makes use of several key machine learning paradigms,
including supervised learning, which is utilised for terrain classification and obstacle
detection; reinforcement learning (RL), in which robots learn optimal navigation
policies through trial-and-error interactions; and imitation learning, which makes use
of expert demonstrations to teach robots how to navigate effectively. In order to further
improve the capability of robots to learn navigation tactics in high-dimensional
landscapes that are complicated, advanced approaches like as deep learning, graph
neural networks, and meta-learning have been used.

This section examines the ways in which machine learning methods are altering route
planning in robotics. It provides a detailed description of the methodology, benefits
over traditional approaches, and real-world implementations of these techniques.
Within the context of the development of intelligent and autonomous robotic systems,
it also sheds insight on the rising synergy that exists between perception, learning, and
decision-making.
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8.9 DECISION-MAKING UNDER UNCERTAINTY

In settings that are representative of the actual world, robotic systems commonly face
uncertainty. This uncertainty may be attributed to a variety of factors, including
insufficient information, noisy sensors, unanticipated interactions, and dynamic
changes in the environment. When it comes to allowing autonomous robots to function
in a reliable, safe, and intelligent manner, particularly in surroundings that are complex
and unstructured, it is thus essential to have the ability to make decisions effectively
under ambiguity. The presence of uncertainty may manifest itself in a number of
different ways.

For example, a robot might not have complete vision of its surroundings, its sensors
can produce data that is ambiguous or noisy, or it might be unclear how the environment
will react to the actions that it takes. In situations like these, deterministic methods to
decision-making are not up to the task. In its place, probabilistic and learning-based
frameworks are necessary in order to enable robots to reason under uncertainty,
evaluate risks, and choose behaviours that either maximise predicted value or minimise
prospective costs.

Among the most important frameworks for dealing with uncertainty are Markov
Decision Processes (MDPs), in which the outcomes are probabilistically dependent on
both the current state and the action that is selected, and Partially Observable Markov
Decision Processes (POMDPs), which extend MDPs to situations in which the state of
the system cannot be observed in its entirety. By using these models, robots are able to
keep a "belief state," which is a probability distribution across the many conceivable
states, and make judgements that are resilient despite the presence of ambiguity. In
addition, recent developments in Bayesian methodologies, probabilistic inference, and
reinforcement learning have made it possible for robots to learn and modify their
decision-making procedures based on their interactions with the surrounding
surrounding environment.

These methods have been shown to be successful in high-stakes applications such as

autonomous driving, robotic surgery, drone navigation, and human-robot cooperation.
These are all areas in which failure due to uncertainty may have severe repercussions.
The purpose of this section is to investigate the theoretical underpinnings and practical
applications of decision-making under uncertainty in robotics. The focus is on how
artificial intelligence and machine learning enable robots to make intelligent decisions
despite the presence of ambiguity and risk.
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8.10 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING IN ROBOTIC APPLICATIONS

One of the most powerful and flexible techniques in the area of robotics is known as
reinforcement learning (RL), which enables autonomous agents to learn optimum
behaviours via interaction with their environment. RL has emerged as one of the most
powerful and adaptable methodologies. Different from supervised learning, which is
based on labelled datasets, reinforcement learning is based on the concept of trial-and-
error learning. This is a learning process in which an agent investigates, makes actions,
gets feedback in the form of rewards or penalties, and progressively changes its policy
in order to maximise its success over the long run.

Real-time programming (RL) offers a paradigm for solving complicated control

challenges in robotic applications, which are situations in which explicit programming
of every potential scenario would be unfeasible. Robotics enables robots to adapt to
dynamic surroundings, manage uncertainty, and create complex tactics that grow
through experience. This allows robots to do anything from bipedal walking and
autonomous navigation to manipulating robotic arms. An agent, which is the robot, an
environment, which is either the real world or a simulation of it, actions, which are
motor instructions, states, which are sensor readings or internal representations, and a
reward signal, which assesses the quality of actions made throughout the RL process
are all components of the process.

A policy, or a mapping from states to actions, that maximises cumulative reward is

something that the agent picks up over the course of time. Robots are now able to
comprehend high-dimensional inputs such as pictures, depth maps, or point clouds for
the first time thanks to recent developments in Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL),
which integrate neural networks with reinforcement learning. Several notable
algorithms, including Q-learning, Deep Q-Networks (DQN), Policy Gradient Methods,
and Actor-Critic Architectures, have been effectively applied to robotic domains,
including but not limited to: Using autonomous navigation in settings that are either
crowded or dynamic

The ability to manipulate and grip objects with dexterity Autonomous movement and
regulation of balance by robots Collaborative efforts among several agents of
competition Interactions between humans and robots and continuous learning This part
provides an introduction to the fundamentals of reinforcement learning and discusses
its relevance in robotic systems. It demonstrates how RL allows continual
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improvement, learning from errors, and autonomous decision-making in applications
that are based in the real world.

8.11 NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING IN HUMAN-ROBOT

INTERACTION

It is becoming more necessary for humans and robots to be able to communicate in a

way that is both natural and intuitive as the use of robots becomes more widespread in
everyday life. Natural Language Processing (NLP), a branch of artificial intelligence,
plays a vital role in allowing robots to comprehend, interpret, and synthesise human
language. This makes interaction more fluid, efficient, and human-centric. NLP is a
subfield of AI. Robots are able to interpret spoken or written language, answer
correctly, and even participate in discussion thanks to natural language processing
(NLP), which is used in Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

It is essential for robots to have this skill when they are deployed in areas such as
homes, hospitals, retail, education, and customer service, where users may not have
prior experience or technical understanding with robotic systems. By using natural
language processing (NLP), humans are able to command robots by utilising language
that is commonly used, ask questions, get spoken replies, and participate in
conversations in order to explain tasks or communicate information. Among the most
important aspects of NLP in HRI are: The process of converting spoken words into text
for subsequent processing is referred to as speech recognition. For the purpose of
determining the user's objective and extracting pertinent information from the input,
intent recognition and semantic parsing are two techniques.

The management of multi-turn talks in order to preserve coherence and context is

referred to as dialogue management. Natural language generation (NLG) refers to the
process of composing replies that are suitable and human-like. Multimodal integration
refers to the process of enhancing comprehension by combining words with elements
such as gestures, facial expressions, or visual inputs. The performance of natural
language processing (NLP) systems on robotic platforms has been greatly enhanced as
a result of advancements in deep learning, particularly with transformer-based models
(for example, BERT and GPT).

By using these models, robots are able to significantly improve their comprehension of
the intricacies of human language, such as context, mood, and ambiguity. In the context

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of human-robot interaction (HRI), this section provides an introduction to the principles
of natural language processing (NLP), investigates the technologies that enable it, and
explains how it improves the usability, accessibility, and efficiency of robotic systems
that are meant to operate alongside humans.

Fig 8.9 Systematic Literature Review on the Applications of Robots and Natural
Language Processing

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

Since the year 1956, artificial intelligence has been recognised as an essential
component in a variety of scientific disciplines, including but not limited to science,
engineering, management, economics, and medical sciences, as well as in certain kinds
of enterprises. On the other hand, artificial intelligence is becoming more widespread
in today's world. owing to the expansion of the amount of data and algorithms, in
addition to the introduction of contemporary technology in the most significant areas
of study and domains of life. There is the possibility that the applications of natural
language programming will be restricted to fields.

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 CHAPTER 9

AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND INDUSTRY 4.0

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, there have been a number of significant
alterations that have occurred in the landscape of manufacturing and industrial
production throughout the course of time. At the moment, we are living in the age of
Industry 4.0, which is sometimes referred to as the fourth industrial revolution. Industry
4.0 is a revolution that focusses on the digital transformation of industries via the
integration of sophisticated automation technologies and cyber-physical systems. This
is in contrast to earlier revolutions that were driven by mechanisation, electrification,
or computerisation.

One of the most important aspects of Industry 4.0 is the notion of the smart factory,
which refers to the process of enhancing physical production processes by
incorporating sensors, embedded computers, and networked communication networks
together. These make it possible for people, robots, and other systems to exchange data
in real time, which results in a manufacturing environment that is extremely adaptable,
efficient, and flexible and versatile. Robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet
of Things (IoT), big data analytics, and cloud computing are examples of automation
technologies that are at the core of this change.

As a result of the requirement for enhanced efficiency, customisation, and agility in

response to quickly changing market needs and worldwide competitiveness, the
adoption of Industry 4.0 is being pushed by this need. Using automation technology,
predictive maintenance can be performed, downtime can be minimised, resource
utilisation can be optimised, and product quality can be improved. In addition to this,
digital integration makes it possible to manage supply chains in a smooth manner and
improved decision-making via the use of data-driven insights. With that being said, the
shift to Industry 4.0 also presents a number of important hurdles.

Among them are the dangers to cybersecurity that are brought about by greater
connectivity, the need for skilled workforce adaption, the incorporation of old systems,
and the establishment of standardised frameworks for interoperability. Within the

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context of contemporary industrial ecosystems, this introduction provides an overview
of the essential components of Industry 4.0 and automation technologies. It also lays
the groundwork for a more in-depth investigation of the effect, problems, and future
directions of these technologies.

Fig 9.1 Industry 4.0 in Automation – Bannari Amman Institute of Technology

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

9.2 INDUSTRY 4.0 IN AUTOMATION

Industry 4.0 has emerged as a revolutionary force in the ever-evolving environment of

technology. It is redefining the way industries work and pushing the frontiers of
automation more than ever before. This fourth industrial revolution is characterised by
the incorporation of data analytics, smart technologies, and the Internet of Things (IoT)
into production processes. This results in the creation of an ecosystem that is more
linked and efficient. Within the scope of this blog, we will investigate the fundamental
aspects of Industry 4.0 and investigate the influence that it has on automation.

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9.2.1 Understanding Industry 4.0

The Fourth Industrial Revolution, also known as Industry 4.0, is a paradigm change in
manufacturing and automation. It is also often referred to as the Fourth Industrial
Revolution. Specifically, it is characterised by the combination of digital technology
with physical systems, which ultimately results in an environment that is more
intelligent and linked. Among the fundamental elements that make up Industry 4.0 are:

1. Internet of Things (IoT): Connecting machines and gadgets in order to collect

and share data in real time is one of the most important roles that the Internet of
Things plays in Industry 4.0. The aforementioned connection makes it possible
to improve the monitoring, control, and optimisation of the production
processes.
2. Big Data and Analytics: In order to analyse the vast volumes of data that are
produced by Internet of Things devices, sophisticated analytics techniques are
used. This strategy, which is driven by data, offers significant insights that may
be used for optimising processes, making decisions, and doing predictive
maintenance.
3. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): In order to improve
automation systems and make them more intelligent and adaptable, artificial
intelligence and machine learning algorithms are used. Using these
technologies, machines are able to gain knowledge from their experiences,
which allows them to improve their performance over time.
4. Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS): Through the integration of the digital and
physical worlds, CPS establishes a mutually beneficial link between real-world
machines and the digital environment. As a result of this integration,
communication, coordination, and decision-making capacity across the
industrial ecosystem are improved.

9.2.2 Impact on Automation

1. Enhanced Efficiency: Industry 4.0 fosters automation systems that are not only
capable of executing tasks but can also adapt to dynamic conditions. This
adaptability results in increased efficiency, reduced downtime and enhanced
overall productivity.
2. Predictive Maintenance: The integration of IoT and analytics enables
predictive maintenance, allowing organizations to anticipate equipment failures
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 before they occur. This proactive approach minimizes downtime and extends
the lifespan of machinery.
3. Customization and Flexibility: Industry 4.0 facilitates the creation of more
flexible and customizable production processes. Automation systems can be
easily reconfigured to accommodate changes in product design or
manufacturing requirements, providing a competitive edge in today’s fast-
paced market.
4. Quality Improvement: Advanced analytics and real-time monitoring
contribute to improved product quality. Automation systems can quickly detect
and rectify defects, ensuring that the final products meet the highest standards.
5. Supply Chain Optimization: Industry 4.0 extends its impact beyond the
factory floor to optimize the entire supply chain. Real-time data exchange
enables better coordination between suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors,
reducing lead times and improving overall efficiency.

9.2.3 Advancements in Industry 4.0 automation

1. 5G Connectivity and Low-Latency Communication:

The incorporation of 5G connection is one of the important breakthroughs that

have been made throughout Industry 4.0.

This ultra-fast and low-latency communication network makes it possible for

devices to exchange data in real time, which in turn enables automation systems
to make decisions more quickly. The increased speed and dependability of 5G
help to the development of industrial processes that are both more responsive
and efficient.

2. Robotics and Cobots (Collaborative Robots):

Automation is not the only thing that the most recent generation of robots can
do. Robots that are meant to work alongside people, often known as
collaborative robots or cobots, are intended to improve both productivity and
safety on the manufacturing floor.

Because these robots are able to adjust to changes in their surroundings and
operate in seamless collaboration with human workers, they have opened up
new opportunities for production that is both flexible and dynamic.
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 3. Blockchain for Supply Chain Transparency:

By assuring openness and traceability across the supply chain, blockchain

technology has made advancements in the fourth industrial revolution
(Industrie 4.0). It offers a ledger that is both irreversible and decentralised, and
it records transactions that take place across the supply chain.

This helps to reduce the likelihood of fraudulent activity and ensures that items
are genuine. When it comes to industries where quality control and traceability
are of the utmost importance, this is very convenient.

4. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR):

Our ability to design, train, and operate in industrial settings is being

revolutionised by augmented and virtual reality. When augmented reality (AR)
is used, digital information is superimposed over the real environment, which
helps with chores such as troubleshooting and maintenance.

Virtual reality (VR), on the other hand, provides immersive training simulations
and virtual walkthroughs of complicated procedures, which improves the
effectiveness of training and reduces the number of mistakes that occur.

5. Edge AI and Edge Computing:

Edge artificial intelligence delivers capabilities of artificial intelligence to the

edge of the network. This enables automation systems to make crucial choices
without depending entirely on cloud-based processing. In manufacturing
operations, this results in a reduction in latency, an improvement in real-time
responsiveness, and an enhancement of the production machines' autonomy.

6. Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing:

There are now new opportunities available in product design and prototype as
a result of the development of additive manufacturing and three-dimensional
printing. Through the use of these technologies, Industry 4.0 is able to generate
components that are intricate, individualised, and on demand. This helps to cut
down on waste and accelerate the product development cycle.

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 7. Digital Thread Integration:

The idea of a digital thread refers to the process of ensuring that data flows
without interruption across the whole product lifetime. In order to facilitate
improved cooperation and decision-making, a digital thread guarantees that
information is accessible and consistent across all phases, beginning with the
design and manufacturing stages and continuing through maintenance and end-
of-life disposal.

9.3 CONCEPTS OF AUTOMATION

In the context of industry, the term "automation" refers to the use of control systems,
namely computers or robots, as well as information technology, in order to manage
various processes and machines with little involvement from humans. It has quickly
become an essential component of contemporary manufacturing and industrial
processes, making it possible to achieve higher levels of productivity, uniformity, and
safety. Automation is a basic idea that includes replacing or complementing manual
jobs with automated systems that are capable of doing activities that are repetitive,
precise, or dangerous in a more reliable and quicker manner than people.

This move not only increases production but also decreases the amount of human error
and the expenses associated with operations. There is a vast variety of technologies and
applications that fall under the umbrella of automation. These include anything from
simple mechanical devices to intricate, intelligent systems that are connected with
sensors, actuators, and software algorithms. Among the fundamental concepts of
automation are feedback control, the integration of sensors, the monitoring of
processes, and decision-making that is based on data collected in real time.

As industries have progressed, the notions of automation have progressed from fixed,
pre-programmed machines to adaptive systems that are able to learn and optimise
performance via the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning. This
advancement has opened the way for the creation of smart factories and Industry 4.0,
both of which are characterised by the importance of automation in integrating and
orchestrating a variety of processes in order to achieve the highest possible levels of
efficiency and adaptability. The purpose of this introduction is to provide a basis for
understanding how the technologies that are being discussed here impact the present
industrial environment by offering an overview of the fundamental ideas of automation.

135 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House

 Fig 9.2 What is Automation? Definition, Types, Example & Future

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

1. Fixed Automation

In the industrial industry, this technique includes the use of machines to carry
out operations that are repetitive. It finds widespread use in production settings
that involve significant volumes of work and in which the processes are
predictable and do not undergo frequent changes. One of the most notable
drawbacks, however, is that it lacks flexibility, since it requires extensive
retooling in order to make modifications to the process or the output. Take, for
instance: Examples of this include assembly lines for automobiles, in which
each machine is devoted to a specific activity, such as welding or painting,
which results in great efficiency and low costs per unit.

2. Programmable Automation

Programmable automation is used in situations when production demands and

requirements change, necessitating the reprogramming or adjustment of
machines to accommodate various jobs. The batch manufacturing process, in
which the volume of each product is modest and customisation is required, is a

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 good application for this sort of production. Take, for instance: For instance,
there are CNC machines, which stand for computer numerical control
machines. These machines may be programmed to cut, shape, or engrave a
variety of materials depending on the particular instructions that are provided.

3. Flexible Automation

Flexible automation allows equipment to switch between different tasks with

minimal reprogramming or setup changes, making it suitable for environments
where product variability is high. This type of automation enhances
productivity by reducing downtime and enabling quick adaptation to new
product designs or changes in production requirements. Example: It's
commonly used in industries like automotive manufacturing, where robotic
arms can be programmed to perform multiple tasks such as assembling,
welding, and painting.

4. Software Automation

Automation of software is the use of software programs for the purpose of

automating actions that would otherwise be carried out manually on a computer
setting. In the context of business processes, the use of tools like as macros,
scripts, and specialised software like Zapier or Microsoft Power Automate may
drastically cut down on the number of mistakes that are caused by humans, save
time, and enhance efficiency.

As an example, this may include the automation of processes, data input, the
creation of documents, or the management of letters.

5. Robotic Process Automation (RPA)

In the back office, operations such as login into programs, inputting data,
processing transactions, or creating reports may be performed with the
assistance of software robots that replicate human actions on computers.
Examples of jobs that are advantageous include those that are rule-based,
repetitive, and do not involve human judgement. These activities include the
processing of invoices, the administration of payroll, and contacts with
customer support people.

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 6. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Automation

Makes use of artificial intelligence technologies such as machine learning and

natural language processing in order to carry out difficult activities that would
normally need the intellect of a human being. In addition to being able to
manage complicated decision-making, this form of automation can also analyse
vast databases and communicate with clients using chatbots driven by artificial
intelligence.

Examples include personalised suggestions in online shopping and predictive

maintenance in manufacturing, where artificial intelligence is used to anticipate
the breakdown of equipment before it really occurs.

9.4 REAL-LIFE EXAMPLES OF AUTOMATION

1. Automation in Manufacturing

For example, robots and machines are used in the manufacturing industry to do
repetitive operations like assembling, painting, and packing items.
Manufacturing is one of the most automated industries. As a result of
automation, production rates have significantly increased while mistakes have
decreased. It is anticipated that the global market for industrial robots would
reach $209 billion by the year 2025, as stated in a research conducted by the
International Federation of Robotics (IFR). Furthermore, there are already more
than 3 million robots in operation in companies all over the globe.

The manufacture of electric automobiles at Tesla's Gigafactory is a real-world

illustration of how automation is substantially incorporated into the
manufacturing process involving electric vehicles. Across the manufacturing
floor, robots are responsible for assembling the automobiles, applying paint,
and even transporting parts. As a result, both the efficiency of production and
the expenses of manufacturing have grown.

2. Automation in Production

Automation helps businesses in areas such as food manufacturing to enhance

their productivity and maintain uniformity in their operations. Various
procedures, including mixing, cooking, packing, and labelling, are controlled
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 by automated systems. In the food manufacturing industry, automation has the
potential to enhance productivity by 25-30%, according to an analysis by
McKinsey.

In the factories of Nestlé, for example, automated technologies are utilised to

handle everything from the processing of components to the packaging of
finished goods. This ensures that there is little human error and maximum
productivity. Through the use of this degree of automation, they are able to
create more than one billion food items yearly across all of their sites throughout
the world.

3. Automation in Healthcare

The improvement of diagnoses, the simplification of patient care, and the

enhancement of data management are all examples of how automation is
altering healthcare. Through the use of robotic surgery, which is one of the most
sophisticated instances of automation in the healthcare industry, surgeons are
able to conduct intricate surgeries with pinpoint accuracy.

The worldwide market for surgical robots is expected to develop at a compound

annual growth rate (CAGR) of 17.6% from 2021 to 2028, as stated by Fortune
Business Insights. This growth is estimated to reach $17.88 billion by the year
2028. To provide one example, Da Vinci Surgical Systems is commonly used
for minimally invasive operations. These systems enable medical professionals
to undertake delicate treatments with the aid of robotic technology. This
technique shortens the amount of time it takes for patients to recuperate and
lowers the likelihood of problems occurring.

4. Automation in Banking and Finance

The use of robotic process automation (RPA) to perform operations like as data
input, account administration, and transaction processing is an example of why
automation is becoming more prevalent in the banking industry. The use of
automation by financial institutions may result in a 20–25% reduction in
operating expenses, as stated by Deloitte.

The employment of chatbots by financial institutions such as Bank of America

is a well-known example. Erica, a virtual assistant powered by artificial
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 intelligence, is used by Bank of America to assist clients with accomplishing
activities such as checking their accounts, arranging payments, and obtaining
financial advice. Back-office procedures may also be streamlined with the help
of RPA, which reduces the amount of human labour required and minimises
mistakes in data processing.

5. Automation in Retail Business

Automated systems are being used by retailers in order to improve the overall
shopping experience and to simplify inventory management. Automation,
which includes self-checkout kiosks and automated warehouses, contributes to
the reduction of operating costs and the improvement of consumer happiness.
The worldwide market for retail automation is anticipated to reach $23.58
billion by the year 2026, as stated by Research and Markets.

A classic example of this is the automated warehouses that Amazon utilises,

where Kiva robots are responsible for moving and sorting merchandise on their
own. Because of this automation, Amazon is able to process and send orders
more quickly, which leads to a reduction in delivery times and an improvement
in efficiency.

6. Automation in Computers

The automation of computer activities, such as software testing, data

processing, and system maintenance, is the primary emphasis of automation in
the field of computers. Automation of software testing, for instance, has the
potential to dramatically cut down on the amount of time required for manual
testing. Gartner predicts that by the year 2024, seventy-five percent of major
businesses will have developed and deployed at least four automation
technologies.

One example is the usage of continuous integration and continuous delivery

pipelines in software development. These pipelines include the use of
automated tools such as Jenkins or GitLab to test and release code
automatically. As a result, development cycles have been cut down, software
quality has been enhanced, and the amount of time it takes to bring new
products to market has fallen.

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 7. Automation in Agriculture

The use of automation in agriculture is becoming more prevalent as a means of

raising productivity, optimising resource utilisation, and enhancing agricultural
yields. The processes of planting, watering, fertilising, and harvesting crops are
all carried out by automated devices. According to Markets and Markets, the
worldwide market for agricultural robots is anticipated to accelerate at a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 29.5%, going from $5.4 billion in
2020 to $20.3 billion by 2025.

For instance, John Deere's autonomous tractors are outfitted with sensors,
global positioning system (GPS), and artificial intelligence (AI) to carry out
activities like as ploughing and sowing without the need for human interaction.
Farmers are able to save time and labour while also maintaining accuracy in
crop management thanks to this.

8. Automation in PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers)

To regulate equipment and processes, programmable logic controllers (PLC)

automation is extensively utilised in a variety of sectors, including oil and gas,
manufacturing, and power plants. To guarantee that everything runs well, PLCs
are absolutely necessary for monitoring both inputs and outputs. It is anticipated
by Allied Market Research that the worldwide market for PLCs will reach
$15.23 billion by the year 2027, expanding at a compound annual growth rate
of 5.3% from the year 2020 to the year 2027.

A major example of this may be seen in the oil refining business, where
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are used to optimise the refining
process by controlling the flow of oil, regulating pressure, and monitoring
temperatures. This contributes to the maintenance of both safety and efficiency
in settings where the involvement of humans is less than significant.

9.5 PLCS AND SCADA SYSTEMS

PLCs, which stand for programmable logic controllers, and SCADA systems, which
stand for supervisory control and data acquisition, are two of the most important
components in the automation and control of industrial processes. The purpose of
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) is to function as dependable digital computers
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that are meant to monitor inputs from sensors and regulate outputs to actuators. This
allows for accurate control of equipment and processes in real time. In the industrial,
energy, and infrastructure industries, they are used extensively for a broad variety of
functions, ranging from simple on/off control to intricate process automation activities.
SCADA systems, on the other hand, provide centralised monitoring and control of
large-scale industrial activities, which are often dispersed over extensive geographic
regions.

They are able to visualise process parameters, gather data in real time from PLCs and
other devices, and provide operators with the ability to observe, analyse, and act as
required. For the purpose of enabling effective administration of utilities, industrial
plants, water treatment facilities, and other facilities, SCADA combines both hardware
and software components via its integration. In contemporary industrial automation,
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) systems are the backbone of the system.

They provide improved operational efficiency, safety, and decision-making by

acquiring and controlling data in real time. The purpose of this introduction is to
investigate their functions, responsibilities, and relevance within the larger framework
of the automation technologies that are associated with Industry 4.0.

Fig 9.3 The Difference between PLC and SCADA in Industrial Automation

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)
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These specialised industrial computers are known as Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs), and their primary purpose is to control and automate a wide range of processes
and machines. After receiving input signals from sensors and other field devices, they
are programmed to carry out instructions depending on those inputs. The basic
programmable logic controller (PLC) is made up of a central processing unit (CPU)
that is responsible for carrying out the control program, input/output modules that are
used to link sensors and actuators, and a programming device that is used to write and
upload the control logic.

Individual equipment, devices, or processes may be controlled at a localised level using

programmable logic controllers (PLCs). In order to operate actuators, motors, or other
pieces of equipment, they are able to accept input signals, carry out logic that has been
programmed, and create output signals. For instance, a programmable logic controller
(PLC) system may be used to monitor and operate a particular assembly line in a
manufacturing facility. This would guarantee that each step of the process is carried
out in an accurate and effective manner.

On the other hand, Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are
all-encompassing software solutions constructed with the purpose of monitoring and
controlling large-scale industrial processes and activities. Through the use of a
centralised human-machine interface (HMI), SCADA systems are able to gather real-
time data from a wide variety of field devices, including programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), remote terminal units (RTUs), and sensors. This data is then
presented to operators.

System Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems provide a greater degree of
monitoring and control over a whole system or facility, in contrast to programmable
logic controllers (PLCs), which are intended to handle specific devices or processes. It
is possible for operators to monitor and control various processes concurrently, as well
as to make choices based on accurate information and to optimise overall operations
thanks to their role as a central system.

9.5.1 Primary Difference Between PLCs and SCADA

The major distinction between a programmable logic controller (PLC) and a

supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system is the capability and scope
of operation that each system has. In contrast to SCADA systems, which are intended

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to offer supervisory control and data collecting capabilities across a wider range of
processes and equipment, programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are designed to
regulate and execute activities that are specific to a specific location. By directly
regulating individual devices, equipment, or processes based on their pre-programmed
logic, programmable logic controllers (PLCs) work at a more granular level.

Actuators, motors, and other pieces of machinery are controlled by the output signals
that they make after receiving input signals from sensors or other field devices,
processing this data via their control software, and then generating output signals. In
order to provide a full view and control over an entire industrial process or facility,
SCADA systems function at a higher level than other types of surveillance systems.

They combine data from a number of different PLCs, sensors, and other field devices,
which enables operators to monitor and operate the whole system from a single place.
Statistical Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are intended to gather,
analyse, and display real-time data from a variety of sources. This information enables
decision-making and process optimisation based on the data.

9.5.2 How do PLCs and SCADA Systems Integrate?

It is common for PLCs and SCADA systems to collaborate in contemporary industrial

automation systems, despite the fact that their functions are unique from one another.
It is common practice to include programmable logic controllers (PLCs) into SCADA
systems as data sources and control points. This integration facilitates the flow of data
and communication between the two components. PLCs are responsible for carrying
out localised control logic and transmitting data to the SCADA system. The SCADA
system then analyses the data and displays it to operators accordingly.

It is also possible for SCADA systems to deliver instructions and setpoints to PLCs,
which enables remote control of industrial processes and provides opportunities for
optimisation. Using the SCADA system, operators are able to monitor and control
processes from a central location while PLCs are responsible for the actual control and
execution of particular activities or equipment. This integration makes it possible for
operators to monitor and control operations. The programmable logic controllers
(PLCs) are responsible for the low-level control and automation duties, while the
SCADA system offers a greater visibility and management capabilities.

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9.5.3 Applications of PLCs and SCADA in Various Industries

PLCs and SCADA systems are used extensively in a broad range of sectors, including
those in which industrial automation and control systems are vital for ensuring that
activities are carried out in an effective and dependable manner. Applications that are
often used include:

1. Manufacturing and production facilities: Assembly lines, robotic systems,

and production machines are all under the supervision of programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), while SCADA systems monitor and optimise the whole
manufacturing process. This allows for modifications and quality control to be
made in real time.
2. Building automation systems: In contrast to SCADA systems, which monitor
and manage energy consumption, building performance, and environmental
conditions, programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are responsible for
controlling heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, lighting,
and other building systems.
3. Water and wastewater treatment plants: SCADA systems monitor water
quality, flow rates, and overall plant operations to ensure compliance with
environmental standards. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are
responsible for controlling pumps, valves, and treatment processes within the
plant.
4. Oil and gas industry: SCADA systems monitor water quality, flow rates, and
overall plant operations to ensure compliance with environmental standards.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are responsible for controlling pumps,
valves, and treatment processes within the plant.
5. Power generation and distribution: SCADA systems monitor and regulate
the whole power grid, ensuring that energy distribution is both dependable and
efficient. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are responsible for controlling
generators, turbines, and substations.

9.5.4 Advantages of Using PLCs and SCADA Systems

Within the realm of industrial automation, the use of PLCs and SCADA systems
provides a multitude of benefits, including:

1. Improved efficiency and productivity: Efficiency, consistency, and

productivity are all increased by the automation of processes and the reduction
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 of human interventions, which ultimately leads to cost savings and increased
output.
2. Enhanced data collection and analysis: SCADA systems are able to gather
and store huge volumes of data from a variety of sources, which enables them
to do thorough analysis, identify trends, and make educated decisions for the
purpose of optimising operational processes and performing predictive
maintenance.
3. Remote monitoring and control capabilities: Supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) systems enable operators to monitor and manage
industrial processes from a central location. This reduces the need for humans
to be present at the location, and it also enables fast interventions in the event
of problems or crises.
4. Increased safety and compliance: Automated systems help ensure consistent
adherence to safety protocols and industry regulations, minimizing the risk of
human errors and potential accidents.
5. Scalability and flexibility: PLCs and SCADA systems can be easily expanded
or reconfigured to accommodate changing process requirements or facility
expansions, providing long-term flexibility and adaptability.

9.6 SMART SENSORS AND IOT IN AUTOMATION

Real-time data gathering, intelligent decision-making, and seamless networking across

industrial systems have all been made possible by the introduction of smart sensors and
the Internet of Things (IoT), which have significantly contributed to the revolution in
automation. Intelligent sensors are distinguished from conventional sensors by the
incorporation of integrated processing capabilities. These characteristics enable smart
sensors to filter, analyse, and communicate data by their own initiative. This improves
the performance of automated processes in terms of their accuracy, responsiveness, and
functionality.

These intelligent sensors and other devices are linked to one another via networks by
the Internet of Things technology, which results in the creation of an interconnected
ecosystem in which machines, equipment, and systems interact and cooperate without
the need for human involvement. When it comes to industrial automation, this
connection makes continuous monitoring, predictive maintenance, and adaptive control
possible. As a result, production efficiency is maximised, and downtime is minimised.
Through the integration of intelligent sensors with the Internet of Things (IoT),
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sophisticated analytics and cloud computing are supported, which enables scalable
automation solutions that are driven by data.

The transformation of traditional manufacturing into operations that are intelligent,

adaptable, and highly efficient is the cornerstone of Industry 4.0, which is formed by
these four key components. Smart sensors and Internet of Things technologies are
redefining automation, spurring innovation, and unlocking new potentials in industrial
contexts. This introduction gives an overview of how these technologies are doing these
things.

9.6.1 Sensors In IOT

The Internet of Things (IoT) is one of the most talked about subjects in the realm of
technology. At this point in time, everything is linked to Internet connectivity. This
period of time is often referred to as the age of modernisation and the fourth industrial
revolution. The Internet of Things has been an essential component in the introduction
of new technologies.

The term "sensor" refers to a device that can detect changes in its adjacent environment.
In and of itself, a sensor is a pointless piece of equipment; nevertheless, when it is
included into an electrical system, it may perform a significant function. Sensors are
used to monitor a variety of phenomena, including temperature, pressure, and others.
Three characteristics are always the foundation of a successful sensor:

 It is sensitive to measurable phenomenon.

 It is not sensitive to other physical phenomenon.
 It does not change the recorded values during measurement.

Despite the fact that sensors have been in use for a considerable amount of time, they
have reached a whole new level of development with the introduction of the Internet of
Things. Using a wide variety of sensors, Internet of Things systems are able to operate
and offer a wide variety of data and insight. It does this by collecting data and sharing
it with the whole network of different devices that are linked to it. It is only via the
accumulation of all of this data that gadgets are able to function independently. In
accordance with the many characteristics that they possess, sensors may be categorised
into a variety of distinct categories. In the realm of sensors, some of the most frequent
classifications include:

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 1. Direct Sensors: These sensors are known as direct sensors because they are
able to turn non-electrical inputs into electrical outputs via a series of
intermediary processes.
2. Indirect Sensors: Those sensors that are considered to be indirect are those that
contain many conversion steps in order to translate the signals that are being
monitored into an electrical signal.
3. Active & Passive Sensors: During the process of monitoring an environment,
passive sensors do not need or require an external source of power, but active
sensors require such an electrical supply in order to function proper.
4. Analog & Digital Sensors: Analogue sensors are responsible for the generation
of continuous signals, while digital sensors are responsible for the production
of discrete signals. We categorised the various sensors according to the field in
which they are used, such as the medical area, the industrial sector, and so on.

Figure 9.4 Internet of Things Taxonomy with Sensors and Smart Applications

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)
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 Table 9.1 Sensors in Healthcare with Functionality

Health Sensors
SrName Description Specs
Accuracy:0.5˚at 25˚C
Temperature It is used to measure an object's or person's body
1 Range:−55˚to +150˚C
Sensor temperature.
Voltage:4to30 volts
NTC
Surface temperature is commonly measured Outstanding stability over time;
2 The rmistor
with this type of temperature sensor. flow/reflow soldering is feasible
Sensor
Medical pressure sensors are used to regulate the Shelf Life: 5 years
Medical
3 supply of oxygen to patients as well as the Pressure:-50 to300 mmHg
Pressure Sensor
pressure level in the oxygen tank. Calibration:97.5to102.5 mmHg
Heart rate It is the sensor that measures the patient's Biometric Pulse Rate Voltage
4
Sensor heartbeat rate. Detection: +3.3V to 5V
Voltage:1.65V to5.5Vdc.
Body position The patient's location is measured using a triple-
5 Temperature:-40˚Cto85˚C
sensor axis accelerometer.
Actuation: Monopolar
It is the sensor that assists the user or patient in Range:20-600 mg/dL
Gluco meter
6 determining the approximate blood glucose Precision: up to4%
sensor
levels. TestTime:5s
Range:±1.5mV
It is the sensor that measures the heart's electrical
7 ECG sensor CMRR:110dB
activity.
Consumption:~4mA

9.7 SMART APPLICATIONS IN IOT

1. Sensors in Smart Healthcare

Figure 9.5 Sensors in Smart Healthcare

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 Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

Analogue sensors are responsible for the generation of continuous signals,

while digital sensors are responsible for the production of discrete signals. We
categorised the various sensors according to the field in which they are used,
such as the medical area, the industrial sector, and so on.

2. Sensors in Smart Agriculture

In addition, agriculture is an important industry. The majority of the world's

population is dependent on agriculture in some way, either directly or indirectly.
Agricultural operations have undergone a complete transformation ever since
the introduction of sensors in this industry. Agriculture has become more
intelligent as a result of the sensors. We are able to enhance the quality of the
produce by using sensors.

Figure 9.6 Sensors in Smart Agriculture

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)
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 Through the use of cutting-edge sensors and the Internet of Things (IoT) in
mechanical operations, threshers, and harvesters, we are able to enhance both
the number and quality of our crops. The growth of crops may be monitored
with the use of sensors. Agriculture has been linked to the internet via the use
of wireless sensors.

3. Sensors in Smart Environment

Some years back, thinking of smart homes seemed an imagination or a dream

that can never be achieved but, with introduction of different sensors in
environmental sector, this dream came true. Smart homes are now truth. By
using different sensors and IoT we can turn our normal home into a smart home.
We can control home appliances and electrical devices using latest technologies
like Infrared, Gesture, Human Motion and Voice recognition.

Figure 9.7 Sensors in Smart Environment

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)
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 4. Sensors in Smart Industries

In the process of a nation's economic development, industries play a significant

role. Sensors have played a significant factor in the transformation that has
taken place in the many sectors since their development. Every sector has
progressed by embracing automation in its operations, which, in the past,
needed laborious human labour and a significant amount of time to do a work.
The Internet of Things, on the other hand, has made it possible for these very
important and difficult procedures and duties to be carried out automatically by
sensor-based devices and automated technologies in a very short amount of time
and with very little effort. In this regard, the most prominent examples of these
sectors are autos and smart phones.

Figure 9.8 Sensors in Smart Industry

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

9.8 IOT ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES

1. Wireless Sensor Network

A wireless sensor network is made up of devices that have a variety of sensors

attached to them to form the network. These are used for the purpose of
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 monitoring the environmental and physical conditions that are present in the
location. Additional components that make up a wireless sensor network
include a number of nodes, routers, and coordinators. Moreover, serval sensors
are connected to the end nodes of the network. The router's primary function is
to facilitate the passage of data packets from end nodes through to the
coordinator. It is also a gateway that links the wireless sensor network (WSN)
to the internet, and it is responsible for collecting data from all of the nodes.
Some of the wireless sensor networks (WSNs) that are used in Internet of
Things (IoT) systems are as follows:

 Smart Grid uses WSN for monitoring the grid at various points.
 Surveillance system uses WSN for collecting surveillance data.

In the Internet of Things (IoT), communication protocols serve as the system's

skeleton. In addition, they make network connection possible. The
communication protocols allow for the flow of data between devices that are
connected to a network. It is common practice to characterise several aspects of
a single connection using the number of protocols. Various protocols are used
in the Internet of Things (IoT). Only a few of them are:

 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) Protocol

 Constrained Application Protocol (COAP)
 Advance Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP)

2. Big Data Analytics

We are able to transform enormous amounts of data into information that is

valuable via the process of collecting, organising, and analysing the data.
Through the use of big data analytics, organisations are able to comprehend the
information that is located inside the vast quantity of data. Furthermore, this
may also assist them in better comprehending the data, which is essential for
the improvement of corporate operations. A great number of instances of big
data are produced by Internet of Things systems. Here are some of them for
your perusal:

 Data generated by sensors in IOT system e.g. Earthquake Monitoring

System.
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  Data generated by IoT system for location or vehicle tracking e.g. Global
Positioning System (GPS)

3. Embedded Systems

The term "embedded system" refers to the integration of software and hardware
that is incorporated into the system itself. When embedded systems are built
separately, they are sometimes incorporated as sub-components of larger
systems. Other times, they are done individually. The majority of embedded
systems are used in real-time computing systems, which include the
transmission of sensed data to the cloud for further processing. The most recent
embedded systems are built using microcontrollers that are at the cutting edge
of technology. The automobile sector, industrial, agricultural, medical, and
educational fields all make use of them.

4. Cloud Computing

The ability to access computer resources such as storage, software, or

infrastructure via the use of the internet rather than through a conventional
computer system is what is meant by the term "cloud computing." There are
three different models available.

 Software-as-a-service (SaaS)
 Platform-as-a-service (PaaS)
 Infrastructure-as-a-services (IaaS)

They are important to IoT because they allow any user with a browser or
internet connection to transform smart objects as an actionable intelligence.

9.9 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The term "artificial intelligence" (AI) refers to the capacity of a computer system to
make decisions and carry out tasks in an intelligent manner by making decisions on its
own based on the dataset or training that it has been provided with. To give digital
computers the ability to think for themselves, they are taught using datasets. An vital
component of Internet of Things (IoT) systems and development, artificial intelligence
(AI) enables exceptional features and operations that provide a competitive advantage
in corporate performance. Artificial intelligence and the internet of things are the
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technologies of the future. Cyber-Physical Systems, often known as CPS, are a new
generation of intelligent systems that combine computing, networking, and physical
processes in a very close manner.

Embedded computers and networks are used in these systems to monitor and regulate
the physical processes that are taking place. These systems often include feedback
loops in which the calculations are affected by the physical processes and vice versa.
Because of this interaction in both directions, CPS is able to make choices on its own,
adjust to new circumstances, and function well within surroundings that are both
complex and dynamic. CPS play a vital role in the concept of Industry 4.0, which aims
to facilitate the development of intelligent factories that are equipped with networked
equipment, storage systems, and production facilities all working together.

A high degree of automation, flexibility, and self-optimization is achieved throughout

manufacturing and industrial activities as a result of these systems' capacity to interact
and cooperate in real time with one another as well as with people. There are a broad
variety of applications for CPS that extend beyond the realm of manufacturing. Some
examples of these applications include transportation systems (for example,
autonomous cars), energy grids (for example, smart grids), healthcare (for example,
remote monitoring), and aircraft (for example, fly-by-wire systems). Real-time control,
predictive maintenance, and operational optimisation are all made possible by CPS in
the field of industrial automation. This is accomplished via the integration of sensors,
actuators, controllers, and intelligent software.

It is one of the most important characteristics of CPS that they are able to combine the
digital world with the physical world. This allows them to create a synergistic
environment in which the physical activities are improved and directed by computer
intelligence. This not only enhances performance and reliability, but it also makes it
possible to develop systems that are extremely adaptable, aware of their context, and
resilient. Additionally, the implementation of CPS presents a number of obstacles, such
as the complexity of the system, the existence of security vulnerabilities, the presence
of interoperability concerns, and the need for thorough verification and validation.

Addressing these problems is very necessary in order to fully use the promise of CPS
in applications that are both industrial and social in nature. This introduction offers the
groundwork for understanding the role that Cyber-Physical Systems have played in the
development of contemporary automation and the revolutionary influence that they
have had across a variety of industries.
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 Fig 9.9 What are Cyber-Physical Systems

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

9.9.1 Robotics Distributed

When it comes to distributed robotics, CPS is used, as proven by MIT via the utilisation
of a distributed robot gardening system. Distributed sensing, manipulation, navigation,
and wireless networking are some of the methods that are used by a collection of robots
in order to tend to a tomato garden.

1. Manufacturing

The majority of the time, Cyber-Physical Systems are used in the manufacturing
sector for the purpose of self-monitoring production procedures and operations.
The manufacturing process is significantly improved by the information that is
transmitted between machines, business systems, supply chains, suppliers, and
customers from all parties involved.

The term for this procedure is "intelligent manufacturing." As a consequence,

this leads to an increase in product security and traceability, as well as an
improvement in visibility and management of the supply chain.

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 2. Distribution of Water

In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of automation in water
distribution systems. as a result of frameworks such as the CPS. Pipelines,
wells, pumps, tanks, and reservoirs are the components that make up water
distribution systems. These systems are responsible for delivering water to our
homes. The systems make use of numerous devices in order to monitor the
various activities that are carried out by the water distribution system. It is
possible, for instance, to employ a sensor in order to determine the amount of
water that has overflowed from a pressure pipe or tank. In addition to this, the
systems are equipped with programmable control circuitry that can activate
valves automatically.

Hackers are able to get remote access to information and do major damage using
this technology, despite the fact that it enhances the efficiency of water delivery.
In order to implement this strategy, two tools will be utilised: a "Attack Model"
and a "Toolbox."

The Attack Model provides a description of the many ways in which an

adversary may compromise the system. On the other hand, the toolbox makes
use of MATLAB, which is a well-known piece of software in the engineering
and computer industries, in order to extract information from the attack model.
The toolbox is built on Epanet.

The movement of water through systems may be described more accurately

with the use of a standardised piece of software known as an Epanet. Together
with the toolbox, the Epanet is responsible for monitoring the system's physical
as well as its cyber condition for any potential threats. This makes it easier to
identify any external changes that an attacker may have done or attempted to
make.

3. Smart Greenhouses

When it comes to agriculture, Cyber-Physical Systems play a vital role in

facilitating the elimination of hunger and the stimulation of increased output.
The flexible features of the system, such as temperature, light intensity,
watering, and humidity, are the primary emphasis of the system. It is the

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 intention of these settings to react to certain computer programs in order to
foster progress. As an additional benefit, the technology offers continuous
feedback to the user, which enables them to be aware of the current condition
of the greenhouse at all times. It is possible to exercise remote control over
feedback by using network services. As additional station sensors, temperature
sensors, soil moisture sensors, light sensors, and humidity sensors are put on
the designs on the designs themselves. In addition, sensors for controlling
humidity and temperature are placed. These sensors enable the sprinklers and
fans to be changed in order to either increase or decrease the temperature.

The application of the Cyber-Physical system to agriculture via the use of smart
greenhouses offers a significant number of benefits. An example of such a
benefit is the cash savings, in addition to the time and labour that the farmer is
able to save. Furthermore, it produces an atmosphere that is more favourable to
greater levels of production.

4. Health Care

In the realm of medicine, Cyber-Physical Systems are widely used for the
purpose of real-time patient monitoring and sensor control. This helps to
improve care for the elderly and handicapped, which in turn reduces the number
of patients who need hospitalisation. In order to improve both the workflow and
the security of the system, this system is further improved by combining a
closed network loop with a human loop configuration.

5. Transportation

In order to reduce the likelihood of accidents and improve overall safety,

automobiles may communicate with one another via the use of Cyber-Physical
Systems. This allows for the exchange of information on traffic, location, and
road problems. The use of an anti-skid braking system, also known as an ABS,
is yet another illustration of transportation. This system is designed to prevent
a collision and bring the vehicle to a complete stop.

9.10 DIGITAL TWINS AND INDUSTRY 4.0 INTEGRATION

A paradigm change has occurred in the manner in which industries create, produce, and
deliver goods as a result of the fourth industrial revolution, which is usually referred to
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as Industry 4.0. The confluence of digital technology and physical systems is a defining
characteristic of this phenomenon, which ultimately results in the development of
factories that are intelligent, linked, and capable of optimising themselves. The Digital
Twin is one of the most revolutionary technologies that is allowing this change.

Fig 9.10 Key Components of Digital Twin in Manufacturing

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

It is a highly developed digital clone of a physical asset, process, or system that

replicates the circumstances that exist in the actual world in real time. With the help of
digital twins, organisations are able to simulate, monitor, forecast, and optimise their
operations via continuous feedback loops. Digital twins act as a bridge between the real
and virtual worlds. The incorporation of these technologies into ecosystems that are
part of Industry 4.0 enables a greater degree of automation, intelligence, and decision-
making, which brings about a transformation in the way firms operate and compete in
an industrial environment that is quickly developing.

The underlying principles of digital twins, their historical evolution, important enabling
technologies, and how they connect with Industry 4.0 pillars such as the Internet of
Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, and cyber-physical systems
are discussed in this introduction. In addition to this, it describes the strategic value that
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they bring in a variety of industrial sectors as well as the difficulties that are involved
with their implementation.

The use of data science is the first step in the development of digital twin technology.
This field of study investigates the physics or mathematics of a system or physical item,
as well as operational data, in order to develop a mathematical model that will imitate
the original.

9.10.1 Key Steps in Digital Twin Technology

1. Data Collection & Modeling

Real-world sensors acquire data from their virtual equivalents, which are then
used by developers to generate virtual computer models that get input from
those sensors.

2. Real-Time Simulation & Insights

In real time, the digital twin imitates and replicates the original version, which
enables it to provide insights on performance, efficiency, and future problems.

3. Scalability & Complexity

Depending on the data that is available, digital twins might be as
straightforward or intricate as the situation calls for. In proportion to the amount
of data gathered, the simulation will become more accurate and responsive.

4. Prototyping & Testing

Validating designs prior to production may be accomplished with the use of
digital twins in conjunction with actual prototypes. In addition, they may
function as independent prototypes, replicating the circumstances that exist in
the actual world in order to forecast how the physical version will behave
throughout the production process. Manufacturers are able to increase overall
operational efficiency, optimise output, and boost predictive maintenance by
using the digital twin technology that is a part of Industry 4.0.

9.10.2 Top Challenges in Implementing Digital Twin Technology

A number of different sectors, including power generation, automotive, and alternative

energy, are all potential applications for the digital twin. It has been used to find
solutions to a variety of issues. An example of one of these issues is the need to improve
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the economy of racing automobiles. Other challenges include assessing the exhaust and
corrosion resistance of offshore wind turbines. Additional uses include hospital
modelling for the purpose of determining workflows and staffing in order to identify
areas for improvement in the process.

Through the usage of digital twins, customers are able to investigate various options
for product development, product lifecycle extension, product process optimisation,
and prototype testing applications. In situations like these, the digital twin may serve
as an accurate representation of a problem, allowing for the solution to be created and
evaluated via the use of programming rather than in the actual world.

9.10.3 Key Applications of Digital Twin in Industry 4.0

There are numerous different sectors that are making use of digital twins for a wide
variety of purposes and applications. A few of the examples are shown in this section:

 Smart cities: Digital twins are increasingly being used to assist cities in being
more sustainable on several fronts, including the environment, society, and the
economy. Planning choices may be guided by virtual models, which can also
tackle many of the common issues that contemporary towns confront.
 Healthcare: Digital twins are beneficial to the medical sector in a variety of
areas, including the training of surgeons, the donation of organs, and the
reduction of risks during surgical procedures. In addition to this, the system
simulates the movement of patients through the hospital and monitors the
location of the virus as well as the individuals who may be at risk of receiving
it.
 Retail - Aside from the manufacturing and industrial sectors, digital twins are
also used in the retail sector to model and improve the overall client experience.
 Disaster Management- In recent years, the globe has been impacted by global
climate change; hence, digital twins have the potential to assist in the fight
against this issue by facilitating the development of more intelligent
infrastructure, monitoring of climate change, and emergency response plans.

9.10.4 Operational Benefits of Using Digital Twin in Manufacturing

Real-time Remote Monitoring: Obtaining a comprehensive picture of a large physical

system in real time is sometimes very challenging, and in certain cases it is even almost

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impossible. The digital twins, on the other hand, may be accessed from any location,
which enables users to remotely monitor and manage the functioning of the system.

Accelerated Risk Assessment and Production Time: Through the use of digital
twins, businesses are able to confirm and test their goods before they are released into
the real world. Engineers are able to spot faults before the manufacturing process starts
by recreating the intended production process. This helps to reduce expensive design
defects and optimise production cycles that are driven by the digital twin used in
Industry 4.0 implementation.

Enhancing System Reliability Disruption: Engineers have the ability to disrupt the
system in order to investigate the behaviour of the system, create unforeseen situations,
and determine the appropriate mitigation techniques. Through the use of this function,
risk assessment is enhanced, new product development is sped up, and manufacturing
line dependability is optimised.

Better Team Collaboration: By having access to system data and automated

procedures around the clock, technicians are able to devote more of their attention to
fostering cooperation amongst teams, therefore enhancing the efficiency of workflow
and the overall efficacy of operations. Industry 4.0 digital twin solutions make it
possible for departments to coordinate with one another in a seamless manner.

Predictive Maintenance: In a digital twin system, the Internet of Things sensors

produce a substantial quantity of data in real time. This enables businesses to engage
in data analysis in order to proactively detect any issues that may arise inside the
system. With the help of this function, businesses are able to schedule predictive
maintenance with greater precision, therefore increasing the productivity of their
production lines and lowering their maintenance expenses.

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 CHAPTER 10

ROBOTICS IN HEALTHCARE AND SERVICE INDUSTRIES

Through the use of collaborative robotics in the medical field, it is possible to

significantly improve the quality of life of persons by assisting dependent individuals
in achieving independence. One use of collaborative mobile robots is the creation of
motorized or robotic shower systems. These systems make it possible for people with
functional restrictions to wash freely by merely giving the robot a command.

10.1 ROBOTS IN MEDICINE AND HEALTHCARE

 Medical Device Packaging

When it comes to working with medical equipment, packaging robots have a

few unique hurdles that they must overcome. Sterilization is required for every
equipment that will come into contact with people, as an illustration of this
need. Because of the relatively high probability of contamination, the integrity
of the items is placed in jeopardy whenever people are responsible for packing
duties of this kind.

When it comes to minimizing or completely removing the chance of

contamination, robots are an excellent instrument to use. It's possible that they'll
be responsible for packing duties that need a completely sanitary environment.

 Lab Automation

When it comes to handling delicate medical equipment, pharmaceutical

packaging robots face a few unique problems. Sterilization is required for any
and all pieces of equipment that will come into contact with human beings, as
an illustration of this need. When humans are left with the responsibility of
packing, the integrity of the items is placed in jeopardy owing to the relatively
high probability that they may get contaminated.

When it comes to cutting down on or completely removing the chance of

contamination, robots are an excellent tool to have at your disposal. There is a
possibility that their tasks entail packing, which necessitates a tidy environment.
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  Surgical Assistants

These remote-controlled robots are often used to aid in minimally invasive

surgical procedures at the hospital. Constant progress in three-dimensional
high-definition video technology gives surgeons with the spatial references
essential for difficult surgeries. These references include greater natural stereo
vision in combination with augmented reality, and new uses for surgical-
assistant robots are constantly developing.

 Rehabilitation Robots

These are a crucial component of the rehabilitation process for persons who are
impaired because they enhance mobility, strength, coordination, and quality of
life. Mobility, strength, and coordination are all improved. It is possible that the
training of such robots might make it easier for patients to recover from
neurological problems such as multiple sclerosis, damage to the brain or spinal
cord, or other neurological conditions. Balance, walking, and other motor
functions might be made easier with the assistance of virtual reality and
rehabilitation robots.

 Transportation Robots

These robots increase the flow of information between patients, medical

experts, and the hospital by making it easier for food, medicine, and supplies to
be delivered to patients. It is possible for the great majority of these devices to
traverse the facilities on their own as well. However, in order for transportation
robots to improve their ability to navigate, they need sophisticated internal
navigation systems that are based on sensor fusion location technologies. These
systems should be both inexpensive and simple to use.

 Sanitation and Disinfection Robots

As a reaction to the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the appearance of

lethal illnesses like Ebola, it is becoming more common for healthcare facilities
to depend on robotic cleaning and disinfection systems. The use of UV light
and hydrogen peroxide vapour are now the two most used approaches of
disinfection in the modern world. In a couple of minutes, these robots are able
to eliminate all of the germs that live in a room.

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  Robotic Prescription dispensing

When it comes to pharmacies, the two most significant advantages that robots
provide are speed and precision. Robots are able to operate with liquids,
powders, and materials that are very viscous. They are able to do this more
swiftly and accurately than ever before.

10.1.1 Service Robotics

Although service robotics is still in its infancy, experts predict that by the year 2022,
healthcare personnel will need professional service robots to aid with a startling 38
billion USD in workload reduction and advanced job support. This is a projection that
has been made by experts. The first definition of a service robot was developed in 1993
by the Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Automation
(Fraunhofer IPA). It said that a service robot is a kinematic device that can be freely
programmed and that may execute services in a semi- or completely autonomous
manner.

In the context of an industrial environment, services are defined as the performance of

practical work for people and machines that does not directly involve the creation of
goods. Since that time, the word has been defined in a number of different ways. One
of these definitions comes from the International Standardization Organization (ISO),
which describes it as "a robot that performs useful tasks for humans or equipment,
excluding industrial automation applications." In another definition, the autonomy of
the robot is given a greater amount of importance.

This definition reads as follows: "a service robot is a robot that operates semi- or fully
autonomously to perform services useful to the well-being of humans and equipment,
excluding manufacturing operations." According to ISO (n.d.). As the term "Service
Robot" has evolved through its history, the original meaning of the term has grown
increasingly unclear. This is because the industrial and service sectors have been
converging. In the field of service robotics, for example, automated guided vehicles
(AGVs) and mobile robots are finding new applications in atypical contexts such as
hospitals and in industrial automation.

In light of the fact that the primary focus of our study is on healthcare service robots,
we will define a service robot as one that is capable of carrying out tasks in a clinical

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setting either partially (semi-) or completely (totally) autonomously. Within the realm
of social care, we demonstrate how personal service robots have the potential to
decrease feelings of loneliness and increase productivity in circumstances like these.
There are a wide variety of clinical uses for service robots, including endoscopy,
cleaning, surgery, logistics, monitoring, and rehabilitation, to name just a few.

It is because of their capacity to carry out specific tests, improve safety, keep an eye on
patients, and precisely regulate instruments that they play an important role in the
healthcare industry. These robots should have exceptional skills in the areas of object
identification, facial recognition, and gesture recognition since they often interact with
humans. Once you have mastered these talents, you will be able to communicate on an
emotional level and prevent hurdles from occurring. The fundamental components of
service robots are machines that are capable of carrying out a series of tasks in a
sequential order.

They are able to make judgments on their own, adapt to new conditions, and learn from
their errors in the past based on the information that they get from the many sensors,
cameras, and microphones that they possess. A large number of service robots have
access to this information because they are connected to larger systems, such as cloud-
based databases that store information on customers and transactions.

In the event that they are coupled with biometrics such as face recognition, service
robots have the capability to recognize consumers and deliver tailored attention for a
nominal cost. When we think of a service robot, we often see something mechanical or
humanoid, with certain humanoid qualities that have been styled. This is the case the
majority of the time. These specialists may be broken down into three primary
categories: logistics, which refers to operational tasks connected to transportation;
analytics, which involves analyzing images for diagnostic purposes; and emotional
work, which involves direct engagement with actual people.

10. 2 SERVICE ROBOTS IN HOSPITALITY, RETAIL, AND DOMESTIC

SETTINGS

10.2.1 Service robots in hospitality

The hospitality industry is seeing an increase in the use of service robots. The need to
offer clients with frictionless services, such as robotic food ordering and delivery, is

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another driver that is hastening the adoption of robots. On the basis of what we have
learned up to this point, we would want to discuss with managers the following crucial
points:

By working together with service robots, human workers are able to tackle emotionally
taxing occupations while service robots do mechanical and analytical tasks. This gives
human workers the opportunity to overcome the limited social and emotional capacities
of robots. If robots with human-like characteristics (such as a face, voice, and
movement) are employed in automated service interactions, it is possible that
customers may see these encounters as more satisfying. It is extremely important for
managers in the hospitality sector to take extreme care when deploying (very)
humanoid service robots, particularly for roles that need consistent interaction with
customers.

The results of the poll indicate that Chinese clients are more likely to choose hotels that
are staffed by robots than they are by humans during COVID-19. To put it another way,
collectivistic civilizations, such as China's, may stand to gain more from service robots
that relieve concerns about the spread of infectious diseases and encourage attendance.
Due to the fact that consumers perceptions of service robots vary from culture to
culture, global hospitality firms should consider the kind of robots they should deploy
based on the location of their hotels in order to make the most of these robots.

10.2.2 Service robots in retail

There are many different methods that you may automate your retail company with the
help of robots. There are other applications that have been around for longer and are
more dependable, such as palletizing. Some applications, such as robots that work
inside stores, are still in the infancy of their development.

 Palletizing robots

At this time, a great number of retail establishments have begun using

palletizing robots into their logistics and shipping procedures. Without any
assistance from a human, the robots load the freight pallets in preparation for
transportation.

One of the most significant benefits of palletizing robots is that they eliminate
the need for human personnel to do this labor-intensive task. While doing so,
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 they reduce the probability of injury occurring, improve the dependability of
palletizing, and reduce the amount of time it takes for goods to be transported.

 Inventory management robotics

Robots are finding themselves more capable of doing a variety of jobs,

including recording items, scanning shelves, and organizing warehouses. The
end result is much improved stock management as well as more accurate
inventory counts.

There is also the possibility of incorporating scanning and product monitoring

into other robotic activities, such as packaging or palletizing.

 Product packaging robots

In the realm of primary and secondary packaging, robots are rapidly becoming
a vital tool. This includes activities such as wrapping items individually or
placing them in boxes.

The use of robots at this point in time to simplify the packaging process and
make it more consistent would result in faster delivery times as well as happy
consumers.

 Delivery robotics

The delivery of products is yet another domain in which robots are beginning
to make their entrance. Internal distribution, such as transporting items from
one portion of a warehouse to another, and external distribution, such as
delivering goods to customers, are both examples of distribution situations that
might occur. Robots for retail stores

The use of robots in retail environments is still in its infancy and is still in the
process of being developed. One example of this would be robots that are able
to manage inventories or even provide customer care.

One example of a robot that is currently in operation at a retail business is the

robot that Lowe's installed to help customers in locating certain items. In
addition to this, the robot monitors the overall stock levels in real time.

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  Automated shelf-stocking robotics

In warehousing, robots can also automate the process of stocking shelves. This
reduces the workload on human workers along with the potential for injury
caused by lifting heavy items.

Companies, such as Amazon, have moved almost entirely to robotic

warehousing. This allows them to accurately control stock and optimize
warehousing processes through artificial intelligence.

 Automated picking robotics

It has been a long time since robots were able to automate the process of
selecting products and transporting them. There is a possibility that this will
assist reduce the number of errors that occur while picking manually.

One such kind of automated picking involves the use of robots in conjunction
with quality sensors in order to automatically remove defective goods from
production lines.

In the next years, one of the most potential areas for the development of retail
robotics is the field of delivery robots, especially those that are involved in last-
mile deliveries.

10.2.3 Service robots in retail

A domestic robot, commonly referred to as a homebot, is an autonomous robot that is

typically used to help with domestic activities. However, it may also be used as a
companion in the house, in the school, or even in therapy. Despite the fact that the vast
majority of house robots are relatively simple, there are a select few that are able to
roam their houses with reasonable ease as a result of their integration with Wi-Fi
networks or smart settings. As of the year 2018, there were around 16.3 million service
robots in operation.

1. Indoor robots

This type of domestic robot does chores around and inside homes. Different
kinds include:

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  Robotic vacuum cleaners and robots that use water to sweep and mop floors are
both available for purchase to consumers. When it comes to dry sweeping, some
individuals make use of Swiffer or other disposable cloths, while others make
use of microfiber cloths that can be reused instead.

 The ironing robots are equipped with a mannequin known as Dressman, which
use hot air to dry and iron garments with more efficiency. A mannequin for
bottoms, which includes trousers, skirts, and pantsuits, is one of the other items
in the collection. Effie, on the other hand, irons twelve pieces of clothes
simultaneously and makes use of image analysis and artificial intelligence.

 Laundroid and FoldiMate are two instances of more advanced robots that fold
and sort laundry using their capabilities. An integrated trash receptacle that may
be lined with an ordinary plastic bag is included in robotic litter boxes for cats.
These litter boxes are also capable of cleaning themselves. Using the gadget,
the clumps are removed from the mixture.

 The Moley Robotics MK1 and the Prometheus delta robot are two examples of
the robotic kitchens that are already accessible. Additionally, the Rotimatic is a
machine that can swiftly and efficiently turn flour into rotis, tortillas, and puris.

2. Outdoor robots

Once it has been taught, a robotic lawn mower is capable of mowing a lawn
without the assistance of a person. Following the completion of the
programming, this invention is capable of doing the work at hand on its own.
There is a power unit that is included in robotic lawn mowers. This power unit
may be either an electric motor or an internal combustion engine. Due to the
presence of this source of power, the robot is able to move both its cutting blades
and itself.

The mower may also be operated by a different device, which is an alternate

feature. The operational programming of this unit is recorded and memorized
by a memory unit that is also an extra memory unit. Not only does it recall the
overall distance traveled in a certain direction, but it also remembers any turns
that may be necessary. The result of this is that it is feasible to mow the same
lawn several times without having to reprogramme the mower. An operational

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 signal is received by the control unit of the mower, which then makes use of
this signal to guide the leading wheel along the course that has been specified.

There are some types that are capable of mowing lawns that are as large as three
quarters of an acre, even if they are very uneven and complicated. There are
some of these mowers that are capable of mowing lawns that are as large as
40,000 square feet (3,700 m2), and they can handle slopes that are up to 27
degrees.

It is possible to purchase automated pool cleaners that are capable of cleaning

and maintaining swimming pools without the need for human involvement.
These cleaners are capable of removing particles as small as two micrometers
in size, cleaning and circulating over seventy US gallons (260 L) of water each
minute, and scrubbing in-ground pools from the floor to the waterline in only
three hours. With the use of brushes and rubber blades, robots such as Looj are
able to clean rain gutters. These robots are operated by a human using a remote
control.

3. Toys

Ever since the year 1998, robotic playthings like as the well-known Furby have
been seeing a surge in general appeal. There are even little humanoid robots
that can be controlled remotely, in addition to the electronic pets that are already
available, such as robotic dogs. RoboCup and other competitions of a similar
kind have also been adopted by a number of institutions.

4. Social robots

The use of social robots enters the picture when it comes to interactions with
other people. Companions in the form of domestic humanoid robots are used
by elderly individuals or those who are unable to walk about much.

By using the built-in microphone, speaker, and camera of a home-telepresence

robot, you are able to remain in one location while simultaneously engaging in
conversation with someone located in another location.

The creation of new ways of living is one of the ways that network robots are
contributing to the resolution of social problems such as nursing care and the
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 old population. Network robots are connecting the ubiquitous nature of
networks with robots.

Since quite some time ago, the production of therapeutic robots has been in
progress. Autism treatment and physical therapy are two examples of potential
uses.

10.3 REHABILITATION ROBOTS AND ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES

In the context of rehabilitation, a rehabilitation robot is any mechanical device that may
be controlled by an operator in order to assist individuals whose physical skills have
been impaired in moving about more freely. There are two major categories that may
be used to generally classify rehabilitative robots. One kind is an assistive robot, which
gives a person the ability to carry out activities that would typically be done by their
missing limbs. Through the use of a chin switch or some other kind of input device, a
robotic arm such as the Manus ARM (assistive robotic manipulator) may be linked to
a wheelchair and controlled by the user.

The term "telemanipulation" is used to characterize the process, which is comparable

to an astronaut controlling a robot arm from inside a spacecraft. Also included in the
category of teleoperated assistive robots are powered wheelchairs. The term
"rehabilitators" may also be used to refer to therapy robots, which are another kind of
rehabilitation robot. It has been shown via research in the field of neuroscience that
damaged parts of the brain and spinal cord may heal and adapt to their environment
with the assistance of taught motor skills. The employment of therapy robots, which
are pieces of apparatus or devices, may be of assistance to rehabilitation therapists in
the process of helping their patients practice motions. The MIT-Manus was the first
robot to be used in such a fashion.

It was designed to provide assistance to people who had suffered a stroke and were
unable to reach across a tabletop on their own. It was shown that patients who received
further therapy from the robot saw a quicker return of their arm movement. By carrying
the patient's weight and directing their legs through a walking pattern on a treadmill
that is in motion, the Lokomat is an additional therapy robot that may assist restore
walking skills after a stroke or spinal cord injury. This is accomplished by the Lokomat.
Studying how robots may be used in motor therapy to assist individuals in regaining
control of their motor abilities after a stroke or other disability is the primary objective

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of the discipline of Rehabilitation Robotics. Additionally, the field seeks to develop
mechatronic and robotic systems that can assist the elderly and handicapped in living
independently.

The techniques, methods, and equipment used in rehabilitation have gone a long way
in recent years. There has been a growing emphasis on the cognitive aspects of motor
control, and cutting-edge brain imaging technology has been used in order to "close the
loop" between the brain and the rest of the body. As a result of this, robotics is now
playing a more significant role. These instruments are inherently adjustable and
programmable, which enables the quantitative setup and evaluation of operations.
Furthermore, they have the potential to be effective in the rehabilitation of neuro-motor
functions and motor skills. The employment of robotic technology in the sectors of
motor rehabilitation and psychological enrichment for the elderly has shown some
encouraging results.

The field of assistive technology for the elderly and disabled appears to be ready for
new research and application breakthroughs through the integration of human-centered
design methodologies with micro-mechatronic and robotic systems. This comes after a
period of time during which scientific advancements have been steady but slow. In
recent years, several large research projects in this field have been initiated on a
worldwide basis. These programs have been initiated in a variety of countries,
including Europe, Japan, and Korea, amongst others.

10.4 ETHICAL CONCERNS AND REGULATORY CHALLENGES IN

HEALTHCARE ROBOTICS

10.4.1 Ethical concerns

1. Social cues: According to the findings of our study, people are more likely to
have the intention of employing a robot after it displays social indications. For
this reason, it is very necessary for robots to include social components into
their service delivery in order to make it as similarly human-like as is practically
possible. In contrast, a customer service bot has no business interfering with
human communication or even attempting to take the place of human
discussion. This is an essential component that must be ensured for any
company that is considering using robots for the supply of services.

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 2. Trust and safety: The degree to which a robot is seen to be trustworthy and
safe is a significant factor that plays a role in the user's willingness to make use
of the technology. Although it is true that manufacturers and designers have
some responsibility for ensuring that robots are safe for people to use,
companies that depend on service robots are obligated to make sure that this
essential feature is regularly monitored and maintained..

3. Autonomy: A idea that is included in ethical charters is the capacity to restrict

the autonomy of a robot, even if this variable did not have an influence on the
user's choice to employ a robot in our case. Therefore, we argue that the
autonomy of a service robot should always be controlled by the company that
is using the robot. This is especially important in situations when the
consequences of the robot's actions are not totally under the control of the
organization.

4. Responsibility: The belief that users may hold robots responsible for their
actions is a significant factor in the likelihood that users will use robots. It would
be beneficial for businesses that use service robots to pay attention to this
particular aspect and determine, prior to the deployment of the robot, precisely
who would be held liable for the acts of the robot. In addition, in order to
effectively manage liability issues, it is essential that the decisions and acts of
a robot can always be tracked back to their origin.

5. Privacy and data protection: When it comes to the choice to use a robot, the
most important considerations are concerns around the privacy and security of
personal information. When it comes to everything else, a company that uses a
service robot has an unquestionable commitment to protect the confidentiality
of its customers. As a result of the fact that transparency of the what, how, and
why of data collecting enhances the user experience, we urge companies (and
their bots) to be open and honest about how they acquire and use customer data.

When deploying customer service robots, it is essential for businesses to realize

that it is essential to encrypt and safeguard the data of their customers. In the
third place, companies are obligated to ensure that they are in conformity with
all relevant legislation and policies concerning the data collection performed by
robots. As a last point of discussion, the incorporation of cloud-based services
with physical robotic systems raises a variety of legal and regulatory difficulties
that need to be addressed.
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6. Human worker replacement: In spite of the fact that our model did not consider
this variable to be very important, we were nonetheless able to identify the most
effective procedures that are associated with the matter. It is essential for a company
to include its employees in the procedure of making decisions and selecting options
for the service robot. Among these are the selection of the robot and the
determination of the many duties that will be assigned to it. In the event that a
worker were to be replaced by a robot, it would be prudent for the organization to
equip the individual with new skills.

10.4.2 Challenges in healthcare robotics

Three major policy Challenges surrounding the use of robots in healthcare

 The growth of robot roles and capabilities

 Privacy and data protection in care and therapeutic settings
 Robots as convergent technologies

1. The growth of robot roles and capabilities;

In order to guarantee a sustainable and desirable output, it is necessary to

take into consideration these challenges throughout the process of creating
and using robots. The immediate and long-term implications of introducing
automated interventions into these capacities are not well understood, and
there is a paucity of information about these effects. As a result of the
significant role that robots will play in the gathering and processing of data
related to health monitoring, there is the potential for a variety of privacy
and data security concerns to emerge.

2. Privacy and data protection in care and therapeutic settings

The healthcare business has its own stringent code of ethics that controls
many elements of the industry, including patient privacy, the connection
between the doctor and the patient, collaborative decision-making, and the
allocation of resources. Regulations will need to go beyond just achieving
technical requirements in order to take into consideration conflicting
normative frameworks as a consequence of the convergence of artificial
intelligence and robotics in the healthcare industry.

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 3. Robots as convergent technologies

Long diagnostic times, an aging population, shortages of healthcare

workers, varying venues of treatment, waste and abuse of prescription
pharmaceuticals, lifestyle illnesses on the increase, and chronic and
noncommunicable diseases disproportionately impacting smaller
populations are all factors that contribute to the problem. There are a
number of exciting new innovations that include the Internet of Things
(IoT), nanotechnology, big data (such as 5G/6G connection), and high-
performance computing.

Although it is not anticipated that advancements in artificial intelligence and

robots will solve all of these problems, these developments are particularly
promising. The ever-expanding technological stack has made it possible for
machines to do jobs with a higher degree of accuracy and efficiency than
ever before. In order for artificial intelligence and robots to realize their full
potential, integration with preexisting systems is essential.

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 CHAPTER 11

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS

11.1 FORWARD AND INVERSE KINEMATICS

The field of study known as kinematics is concerned with the motion of bodies, but it
does not take into consideration the forces or moments that are responsible for the
motion. Robot kinematics is the study of the motion of a robot manipulator from an
analytical point of view. The phrase "robot kinematics" refers to this academic
discipline. The process of building proper kinematics models for a robot mechanism is
of the highest relevance when performing an examination of the behaviour of industrial
manipulators. This is because the robot mechanism is the mechanism that control the
robot.

The process of kinematics modelling of manipulators makes use of two basic types of
spaces: Cartesian space and quaternion space. Both of these spaces are referred to as
coordinate spaces. The transformation that takes place between two Cartesian
coordinate systems may be broken down into two components: a rotation and a
translation. This is something that is feasible to achieve. The concept of rotation can be
represented in a wide variety of ways, including but not limited to Euler angles, Gibbs
vectors, Cayley-Klein parameters, Pauli spin matrices, axis and angle, orthonormal
matrices, and Hamilton's quaternions. Additionally, there are a great deal of other
approaches.

Regarding these representations, the ones that have been utilised in robotics the most
frequently are homogeneous transformations that are founded on orthonormal matrices
on a 4x4 grid. These transformations have been utilised in a variety of applications. In
their research conducted in 1955, Denavit and Hartenberg established that in order to
carry out a general transformation between two joints, it is necessary to have four
characteristics under consideration. The parameters that have been utilised are known
as the Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters.

These parameters are the ones that have been responsible for establishing the standard
for characterising robot kinematics. Quaternions, despite the fact that they offer a
complex representation of rotation, have not been utilised by the robotics community

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to the same level as homogeneous transformations have been utilised. Through the use
of this technology, it is feasible for dual quaternion to simultaneously supply rotation
and translation in a condensed form of transformation vector. In homogeneous
transformations, the orientation of a body is represented by nine separate components
for each of the nine components. On the other hand, the dual quaternions bring the total
number of components down to only four total.

In terms of the computational robustness and storage efficiency it provides, it offers a

considerable benefit when it comes to dealing with the kinematics of robot chains. This
is because it provides a substantial benefit. The kinematics of the robot may be
classified into two categories: forward kinematics and inverse kinematics. Both of these
categories serve as potential classifications. Generating the equations for the forward
kinematics problem is a straightforward operation that does not include any challenges
or complications. A forward kinematics solution is always available, and it may be
applied to a manipulator.

Figure 11.1 . The schematic representation of forward and inverse kinematics.

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

This is because of the reason stated above. Comparatively speaking, the problem of
inverse kinematics is far more difficult to solve than the problem of forward kinematics.
When it comes to the real-time control of manipulators, the solution to the inverse
kinematics problem is computationally complex and frequently takes a very long time
to finish. This is because the problem is the origin of the problem. The existence of
certain singularities and nonlinearities that make it more difficult to find a solution to
the problem presents a challenge.

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Therefore, thorough analytical solutions are only accessible for a very specific category
of manipulators that are kinematically straightforward. This group includes
manipulators that have Euler wrists. To illustrate the connection that exists between
forward and inverse kinematics models, Figure 1 is a graphical depiction of the
connection. When it comes to finding a solution to the problem of inverse kinematics,
the two basic methodologies that may be utilised are an analytical approach and a
numerical one.

The joint variables are solved analytically in line with the configuration data that is
supplied in advance in the first sort of formulation. When it comes to the second type
of solution, the joint variables are determined via the use of numerical methods. The
numerical solution of the manipulators is not the primary emphasis of this chapter;
rather, the analytical solution is provided and debated throughout the majority of the
chapter. The method of analysis may be divided into two unique techniques: geometric
solutions and algebraic solutions. Both of these approaches are distinct strategies.
Construction of fundamental robot structures, such as a planar manipulator with two
degrees of freedom or a manipulator with fewer degrees of freedom and parallel joint
axes, is accomplished through the use of the geometric technique.

When manipulators have a higher number of connections and arms that extend into
three dimensions or more, the geometry becomes significantly more tedious. This is
because the geometry gets more complicated. For the purpose of solving the inverse
kinematics issue, the algebraic method is the one that offers the greatest number of
benefits in this particular circumstance. There are a great number of solutions and
singularities that arise when the equations of kinematics are linked, which makes it
challenging to find a solution to the problem of inverse kinematics.

A number of substantial difficulties are presented as a result of this. There is a

possibility that the mathematical solutions to the inverse kinematics problem may not
necessarily correspond to the physical replies. This is because the answers will depend
on the structure of the robot. To add insult to injury, the robot will determine the
approach that will be used to solve this problem. The current chapter is organised in
the manner that will be detailed in the following paragraphs.

The first part provides a description of the forward and inverse kinematics
transformations for an open kinematics chain. These transformations are described in
detail. It is the homogenous transformation that serves as the foundation for these
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changes. In the second place, both algebraic and geometric methods are discussed,
along with examples that illustrate how they are utilised. Thirdly, the challenges that
are encountered in inverse kinematics are presented with an explanation through the
utilisation of informative examples. After all is said and done, the quaternion modelling
convention is utilised in order to compute the forward and inverse kinematics
transformations.

11.1.1 Forward Kinematics

A manipulator is constructed out of serial links that are connected to each other by
revolute or prismatic joints. These links are located between the base frame and the
end-effector of the device under manipulation. A downward extension of these linkages
may be seen from the base frame. When referring to the process of identifying the
position and orientation of the end-effector by calculating it in terms of the joint
variables, the notion that is referred to as forward kinematics is the one that is being
discussed. When attempting to get forward kinematics for a robot mechanism in a
methodical manner, it is essential to make use of a kinematics model that is suitable for
the specific situation.

Figure 11.2. Coordinate frame assignment for a general manipulator.

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

When it comes to describing the kinematics of a robot, the Denavit - Hartenberg

technique, which is the most traditional way, is the one that takes use of four different
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aspects. The parameters ai-1, α −1i, di, and θi refer to the length of the connection, the
twist of the link, the offset of the link, and the joint angle, respectively. A coordinate
frame is connected to each joint in order to facilitate the process of finding the DH
parameters from the data. The Zi axis of the coordinate frame is pointing out in the
direction that corresponds to the direction in which the joints are sliding or turning. The
coordinate frame assignment for a generic manipulator is illustrated in Figure 2, which
is an example of the assignment.

Based on the information shown in Figure 2, the distance between Zi-1 and Zi, which
is measured along Xi-1, is represented by the symbol ai-1. The angle that is measured
along Xi and is indicated as αi-1 is the angle that is formed between Zi-1 and Zi. di is
the symbol that is used to represent the distance that is measured along Zi and is
between Xi-1 and Xi. When Xi-1 and Xi are measured around Zi, the angle that is
measured between them is indicated by the symbol θi. In order to obtain the general
transformation matrix T 1i i − for a single connection, it is possible to employ the
approach that is described below.

𝑇 = 𝑅 (∝ )𝐷 (𝑎 )𝑅 (𝜃 )𝑄 (𝑑 )

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 𝑎 𝑐𝜃 −𝑠𝜃 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 𝑐∝ −𝑠 ∝ 0 0 1 0 0 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 0 0 0 1 0 0
=
0 𝑠 ∝𝑖−1 𝑐 ∝𝑖−1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 𝑑𝑖
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

𝑐𝜃 −𝑠𝜃 0 𝑎
𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝛼 𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝛼 −𝑠𝛼 −𝑠𝛼 𝑑
= ………………………………(1)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑐𝛼 𝑑
0 0 0 1

Rx and Rz are symbols that represent rotation, Dx and Qi are symbols that represent
translation, and cθi and sθi are the short hands of cosθi and sinθi, respectively, which
denote translation and rotation, respectively. The determination of the forward
kinematics of the end-effector in regard to the base frame is performed by multiplying
all of the T 1i i − matrices.

𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 𝐓 𝐓… Τ…………………….(2)
𝐓

181 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House

 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
An alternative representation of 𝑒𝑛𝑑_ 𝑇 can be written as
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 Ρ
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 Ρ
𝑒𝑛𝑑 = … … … … … … … … ..(3)
𝑟31 𝑟32 𝑟33 Ρ𝑧
0 0 0 1

When the rotational components of the transformation matrix are denoted by the letters
rkj, where k and j are equal to 1, 2, and 3. The elements of the position vector are
denoted by the symbols px, py, and pz. In the case of a manipulator with six joints, the
location and orientation of the end-effector in relation to the base may be determined
using the following equation:

𝐓 = 𝐓(𝑞 ) 𝐓(𝑞 ) 𝐓(𝑞 ) 𝐓(𝑞 ) 𝐓(𝑞 ) 𝐓(𝑞 )………………. (4)

where qi is the joint variable (revolute or prismatic joint) for joint i, (i=1, 2, .. .6)

11.1.2 Inverse Kinematics

The inverse kinematics problem that is linked with serial manipulators has been the
subject of investigation by researchers for a considerable number of decades. It is vital
when it comes to the control of those who want to manipulate others. When it comes
to the real-time control of manipulators, solving the inverse kinematics is a procedure
that requires a significant amount of computer power and typically takes a very lengthy
number of minutes. On the other hand, in contrast to actuators, which function in joint
space, the duties that a manipulator is expected to carry out are situated in the Cartesian
space. There are two components that are included in the Cartesian space: the
orientation matrix and the position vector.

On the other side, joint angles will be utilised in order to depict joint space that is
present. Inverse kinematics refers to the process of converting the position and
orientation of a manipulator end-effector from Cartesian space to joint space. This
method converts the location and orientation from Cartesian space to joint space.
Geometric and algebraic approaches are two distinct methods that may be utilised in
order to solve the inverse kinematics issue. The goal of these approaches is to derive
the solution to the problem by analytical means. Moving on to the geometric technique
is the first step in this process.

Xoffencer International Book Publication House 182 | P a g e

The cornerstone of the geometric solution approach is the decomposition of the spatial
geometry of the manipulator into a number of plane geometry problems. The building
of fundamental robot structures, such as the two-degrees-of-freedom planer
manipulator seen in Figure 5a, is accomplished with the utilisation of this material. This
particular robot possesses joints that are both revolute and link lengths that are l1 and
l2. It is required to take into mind Figure 5b in order to arrive at the equations that
describe the kinematics of the planar manipulator.

It is possible to derive the components of the point P (px and py) in the following
manner.

Figure 11.3. a) Planer manipulator; b) Solving the inverse kinematics based on

trigonometry
183 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House
Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

Ρ = 1 𝑐𝜃 + 1 𝑐𝜃
Ρ = 1 𝑠𝜃 + 1 𝑠𝜃 ……………………….(5,6)

where 𝑐𝜃 = 𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝜃 − 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 + 𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝜃 . Using the summation

of the squares of equations 15 and 16, it is possible to get the solution of the equation
θ2.

Ρ = 1 𝑐 𝜃 + 1 𝑐 𝜃 + 21 1 𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝜃
Ρ = 1 𝑠 𝜃 + 1 𝑠 𝜃 + 21 1 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜃
Ρ + Ρ = 1 (𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 ) + 1 (𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 ) + 21 1 (𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝜃 + 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜃 )

Since 𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 = 1 the equation given above is simplified as follows.

Ρ + Ρ = 1 + 1 + 21 1 (𝑐𝜃 [𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝜃 − 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜃 ] + 𝑠𝜃 [𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 + 𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝜃 ])

Ρ + Ρ = 1 + 1 + 21 1 (𝑐 𝜃 𝑐𝜃 − 𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝜃 + 𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜃 )
Ρ + Ρ = 1 + 1 + 21 1 (𝑐𝜃 [𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 ]
Ρ2𝑥 + Ρ2𝑦 = 1 + 1 + 21 1 𝑐𝜃

and so

𝑐𝜃 = ……………………….(7)

Since, 𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 = 1(𝑖 = 1, ,2,3, … … ), sθ2 is obtained as

2
𝑠𝜃 = ± 1 − ……………………………(8)

Finally, two possible solutions for θ2 can be written as

2
𝜃 = 𝐴 tan 2 ± 1 − , ………………………(9)

Xoffencer International Book Publication House 184 | P a g e

For the purpose of determining the solution of θ1 in relation to the link parameters and
the known variable θ2, let us begin by multiplying each side of equation 15 by cθ 1 and
equation 16 by sθ1. Then, we will sum the equations that are obtained from this process.

𝑐𝜃 P = 1 𝑐 𝜃 + 1 𝑐 𝜃 𝑐𝜃 − 1 𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝜃
𝑠𝜃 P = 1 𝑠 𝜃 + 1 𝑆 𝜃 𝑐𝜃 + 1 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝜃 P + 𝑠𝜃 P = 1 (𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 ) + 1 𝑐𝜃 (𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠 𝜃 )

The simplified equation obtained as follows.

𝑐𝜃 𝑃 + 𝑠𝜃 𝑃 = 1 + 1 𝑐𝜃 … … … … … … … …(10)

The process involves multiplying both sides of equation 15 by 1 − sθ and equation 16

by 1 cθ. Subsequently, the resultant equations are added together to get the final
product.

−𝑠𝜃 𝑃 = 1 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 − 1 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝜃 + 1 𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝜃 𝑃 = 1 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 − 1 𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 + 1 𝑐 𝜃 𝑠𝜃
−𝑠𝜃 𝑃 = 𝑐𝜃 𝑃 − 1 𝑠𝜃 (𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑠𝜃 )

The simplified equation is given by

−𝑠𝜃 𝑃 = 𝑐𝜃 𝑃 − 1 𝑠𝜃 ………………..(11)

For the purpose of obtaining 1 cθ, it is necessary to multiply each side of equation 20
by x p and equation 21 by py. Then, the resultant equations should be added together.

𝑐𝜃 𝑃 + 𝑠𝜃 𝑃 𝑃 = 𝑃 (1 + 1 𝑐𝜃 )
−𝑠𝜃 𝑃 𝑃 + 𝑐𝜃 𝑃 = 𝑃 1 𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝜃 𝑃 + 𝑃 = 𝑃 (1 + 1 𝑐𝜃 ) + 𝑃 1 𝑠𝜃

and so

( )
𝑐𝜃 = ………………. (12)

𝑠𝜃 is obtained as

185 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House

 ( )
𝑠𝜃 = ± 1 − ……………(13)

As a result, two possible solutions for θ1 can be written

( ) ( )
𝜃 = 𝐴 tan 2 1− , …………….(14)

In spite of the fact that the planar manipulator has a construction that is rather
straightforward, as can be seen, the inverse kinematics solution that is founded on the
geometric technique includes a significant amount of complexity.

11.2 DENAVIT-HARTENBERG PARAMETERS

While it is possible to carry out all of the analysis that is described in this chapter by
affixing an arbitrary frame to each connection, it is helpful to pick these frames in a
methodical manner. This is because it is possible to carry out all of the analysis. For
the purpose of selecting frames of reference, the Denavit - Hartenberg convention,
which is also referred to as the D-H convention on occasion, is a convention that is
widely utilised in robotic applications. In accordance with this methodology, each and
every homogenous transformation Ai is shown as a result of four fundamental
transformations.

𝐴 = ℛ 𝜃 Trans , 𝑑 Trans , 𝑎 ℛ 𝑎

𝑐𝜃 −𝑠𝜃 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 𝑎𝑖 1 0 0 0
𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 𝑐𝛼 −𝑠𝛼 0
=
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 𝑑 0 0 1 0 0 𝑠𝛼𝑖 𝑐𝛼𝑖 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

𝑐𝜃 −𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝛼 𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝛼 𝑎 𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝛼 −𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝛼 𝑎 𝑠𝜃
= …………………….(15)
0 𝑠𝛼𝑖 𝑐𝛼𝑖 𝑑𝑖
0 0 0 1

For link i and joint i, the four variables θi, ai, di, and αi are regarded to represent their
respective parameters. These values are referred to as the parameters. When discussing

Xoffencer International Book Publication House 186 | P a g e

the four parameters ai, αi, di, and θi in, it is common to refer to them by their respective
names. These names are link length, link twist, link offset, and joint angle, respectively.
It will become obvious in the next paragraphs that the origin of these names may be
traced back to certain components of the geometric link that occurs between two
coordinate frames. It has been found that three of the four values that were mentioned
before remain constant for a particular connection.

This is because the matrix Ai is a function of a single variable, which is the reason why
this discovery was made. The joint variable is the fourth parameter, which is denoted
by the symbol θi for a revolute joint and di respectively for a prismatic joint. Based on
the information presented in Chapter 2, it is clear that an arbitrary homogeneous
transformation matrix may be described by any six integers. Two instances of the six
values that may be used to characterise the matrix are the utilisation of three numbers
to identify the fourth column of the matrix and the utilisation of three Euler angles to
designate the top left 3×3 rotation matrix. Both of these examples are examples of the
six values that can be employed.

Figure 11.4

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

However, the D-H representation is only made up of four parameters, in contrast to the
conventional model. How is it even possible for this to happen? It is important for frame
i to be connected to link i in a rigid manner; however, we have a considerable deal of
187 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House
discretion in selecting the origin of the frame as well as the coordinate axes that it will
have. This is the response that we have received. For example, it is not necessary for
the origin, Oi, of frame i to be situated at the physical end of link i. This is not a
requirement whatsoever.

This is due to the fact that it is not necessary. It is not even necessary for frame I to be
located within the actual connection; frame I might be located anywhere surrounding
the link. Frame I can be laying in free space as long as it is firmly coupled to link I. In
fact, it is an important requirement that frame I be located within the connection. By
making a smart choice of the origin and the coordinate axes, it is possible to minimise
the number of parameters that are required from six to four (or even less in certain
circumstances). This is a practical option. It is possible to achieve this goal by
employing a great deal of inventiveness.

11.2.1 Existence and uniqueness issues

The fact that it is not possible to symbolise any arbitrary homogeneous transformation
by utilising only four components is not something that should come as a surprise to
anyone. Consequently, the first thing that we do is determine whether homogeneous
transformations can be described using the form (3.10). This is the first step in the
process. In the event that we are given two frames, which we will refer to as frames 0
and 1, respectively, for the sake of this discussion. In such instance, there is a unique
homogeneous transformation matrix A that is capable of changing the coordinates of
frame 1 into those of frame 0.

At this point, let us make the assumption that the two frames include two additional
features, specifically (DH1). The axis x1 extends in a direction that is perpendicular to
the axis z0 (DH2) when compared to it. Based on the information shown in Figure 5.4,
the axis x1 is the one that intersects with the axis z0. Taking into consideration the
specific conditions at hand, we declare that there exist different numbers a, d, θ, and α
that are such that

𝐴 = ℛ Trans , 𝑑 Trans , ℛ …………………(16)

Given that θ and α are angles, it is of course the case that we are referring to the fact
that they are exclusive to within a multiple of 2π. Write the matrix A as follows to
demonstrate that it is possible to express it in this form:

Xoffencer International Book Publication House 188 | P a g e

 𝐴= ℛ 𝑂 …………………………. (17)
0 1

As an additional point of interest, let us identify the i-th column of the rotation matrix
R0 1 with the notation ri. At this juncture, we are going to look at the implications that
the two DH constraints bring about. Therefore, if the condition (DH1) is satisfied, then
x1 is perpendicular to z0, and the equation x1•z0 = 0 is obtained as a result. Through
the use of the information that r1 is the representation of the unit vector x1 with
reference to frame 0, we are able to deduce the following result when we express this
constraint with respect to o0x0y0z0:

0 = 𝑥 .𝑧
= [𝑟 , 𝑟 , 𝑟 ] . [0, 0, 1] ……………..(18,19,20)
=𝑟 .

Since r31 is equal to zero, all that remains is to demonstrate that there are distinct angles
θ and α that are such that

𝑐 −𝑠 𝑐 𝑠 𝑠
𝑅 = 𝑅 , 𝑅 , = 𝑠 𝑐 𝑐 −𝑐 𝑠 ………………….(21)
0 𝑠 𝑐

Even if the sole piece of information that we have is that r31 equals zero, this one piece
of knowledge is adequate. Considering that each row and column of R0 1 must have a
length of one unit, the fact that r31 = 0 shows that the length of each row and column
must be one unit.

𝑟 + 𝑟 = 1,
………………………(22)
𝑟 + 𝑟 =1

Hence there exist unique θ, α such that

(𝑟 , 𝑟 ) = (𝑐 , 𝑠 ), (𝑟 , 𝑟 ) = (𝑐 , 𝑠 )……………..(23)

It is a frequent practice to demonstrate that the other components of R0 1 must possess

the form presented in (3.16), after finding out the values of and. This is done after the
values of and have been determined. Utilising the knowledge that R0 1 is a rotation
matrix allows for the successful completion of this task. Therefore, the assumption
(DH2) suggests that the displacement between O0 and O1 may be expressed as a linear
189 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House
combination of the vectors z0 and x1. This is the conclusion that can be drawn from
the discussion. Following is an example of how this can be expressed: O1 is equal to
O0 plus dz0 plus ax1. As a reminder, we are able to define this link by making use of
the coordinates o0x0y0z0, and the end result is that we obtain

𝑂 = 𝑂 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑎𝑥 ………………….. (24)

0 0 𝑐
= 0 +𝑑 0 +𝑎 𝑠 ………………….(25)
0 1 0

𝑎𝑐
= 𝑎𝑠 ……………………….(26)
𝑑

Taking into account all of the data that were presented before, we arrive at the reported
value of 3.10. As a result of this, we are able to reach the conclusion that it is feasible
to represent any homogeneous transformation that satisfies the conditions of both
(DH1) and (DH2) using just four parameters. After demonstrating that any
homogeneous transformation matrix that meets the conditions (DH1) and (DH2)
described earlier may be written in the form, we are now in a position to provide a
physical explanation for each of the four values. This is because we have demonstrated
that the form can be expressed in any homogeneous transformation matrix.

Figure 11.5: Positive sense for αi and θi

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

Xoffencer International Book Publication House 190 | P a g e

The unit of measurement for the parameter a, which is measured along the axis x1, is
the distance that exists between the axes z0 and z1. The symbol α is used to denote the
angle that is measured on a plane that is perpendicular to the x1 coordinate and is
situated between the axes z0 and z1. Using the right-hand rule, as seen in Figure 3.3,
the positive sense of α is created from z0 to z1. This is accomplished by using the rule.
The parameter d is used to represent the distance with regard to the origin of the
measurement. Along the z0 axis, a measurement is made of O0 as well as the point at
where the x1 axis crosses with the z0 axis that is being measured.

On a plane that is perpendicular to z0, the angle θ is the angle that occurs between x0
and x1. This angle is measured relative to the plane. This physical interpretation will
prove to be useful in the process of developing a method for assigning coordinate
frames that are in accordance with the constraints (DH1) and (DH2), and at this point,
we are shifting our attention to the process of developing such a procedure.

11.2.2 Assigning the coordinate frames

It is always feasible to select the frames 0,...,n inside the context of a certain robot
manipulator in such a way that the two conditions specified above are satisfied. This is
the case regardless of the context. Under certain circumstances, this will require
positioning the origin Oi of frame i at a location that might not be intuitively acceptable;
however, in the majority of instances, this will not be the case. In the course of reading
the information that is supplied below, it is vital to keep in mind that the choices of the
various coordinate frames are not unique, even when they are constrained by the
requirements that were stated before.

This is something that should be kept in mind at all times. As a consequence of this, it
is not out of the question that different engineers will arrive at coordinate frame
assignments for the links of the robot that are distinct from one another but are
nonetheless accurate. Nevertheless, it is of the highest importance to take note of the
fact that the eventual result, which is the matrix T 0 n, will stay the same regardless of
the assignment of intermediate link frames (given that the coordinate frames for link n
coincide). This is something that should be taken into consideration. The first step in
getting started is to determine the general procedure that will be followed.

Next, we will discuss a number of typical exceptional conditions that are examples of
scenarios in which it is possible to further decrease the homogeneous transformation

191 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House

matrix. These circumstances are instances of when it is possible to reduce the matrix.
It is important to keep in mind that the selection of zi is entirely arbitrary to begin with.
Through the examination of the equation, it becomes evident that by carefully picking
the values of αi and θi in a manner that is appropriate, we are able to obtain any arbitrary
direction for zi. To begin, we will assign the axes z0,...,zn−1 in a manner that is
intuitively appealing. This will be our first step. In order to provide a greater level of
specificity, we will refer to zi as the axis of actuation for joint i of the first order. As a
result, the axis of actuation for joint 1 is represented by the symbol z0, whereas the axis
of actuation for joint 2 is represented by the symbol z1, and so on. Please have a look
at the following two distinct scenarios:

In the situation where joint i + 1 is a revolute joint, the axis of rotation of joint i + 1 is
represented by the symbol zi. In the situation that the joint i + 1 is a prismatic joint, the
axis of translation of connection i + 1 is denoted by the symbol zi. At first glance, the
connection between zi and joint i + 1 could appear to be a little bit confusing. However,
it is essential to bear in mind that this is in accordance with the convention that we
established in Section 3.1. According to this convention, joint i is fixed with respect to
frame i, and when joint i is actuated, link i and its associated frame, oixiyizi, experience
a motion that is subsequent to the actuation of joint i.

This convention also specifies that joint i is fixed with regard to frame i. Immediately
following the establishment of the z-axes for the links, the subsequent stage is to
construct the fundamental framework structure. When it comes to choosing a base
frame, the process is very near to being random. This indicates that we have the power
to select any point on z0 inside the base frame to serve as the origin O0 of the frame.
In the following step, we select x0 and y0 in whatever manner that is convenient for
us, provided that the frame that is built is designed to be used by right-handed
individuals. Consequently, frame 0 is decided upon. After the creation of frame 0, we
initiate an iterative process in which we define frame i by subtracting one from frame
i, beginning with frame 1.

This process continues until frame 0 is formed. In order to better understand the
procedure that we are going to talk about right now, it is recommended that you have a
look at Figure 3.4. In order to determine frame i, it is essential to take into consideration
three different possibilities. The following are the situations that can occur: (i) the axes
zi−1, zi are not coplanar; (ii) the axes zi−1, zi intersect; and (iii) the axes zi−1, zi are
parallel. It is of utmost importance to take note of the fact that the axes zi−1 and zi are
Xoffencer International Book Publication House 192 | P a g e
coplanar in circumstance (ii) as well as circumstance (iii). According to what we are
going to observe in the following, this is a situation that occurs rather frequently:

(i) zi−1 and zi are not coplanar: In the event that zil and zi are not coplanar, it is
possible for there to be a singular line segment that is perpendicular to both zi1
and zi. This line segment is perpendicular to both lines, and it should be of
minimal length. What defines xi is the line that has this common normal to zi1
and zi, and the point at which this line meets zi is the origin, denoted by the
coordinates Oi. Both criteria (DH1) and (DH2) are met by construction, and the
vector that extends from Oi−1 to Oi is a linear combination of zi−1 and xi. All
of these requirements are satisfied. Selecting the axis yi to create a right-hand
frame is the last step in the process of completing the definition of frame i. As
a result of the fact that assumptions (DH1) and (DH2) are met, the
homogeneous transformation matrix Ai is of the type .

(ii) zi−1 is parallel to zi: According to the fact that the axes zi−1 and zi are parallel,
it may be deduced that there exists an infinite number of common normals that
are shared between them. An further point to consider is that condition (DH1)
does not offer a thorough specification of xi. Within the context of this
particular case, we have the freedom to select the origin Oi from any possible
position along zi. In order to alleviate the complexity of the equations that are
generated, Oi is frequently utilised. For the purpose of determining the direction
of the axis xi, it is either chosen to be orientated from Oi towards zi−1 in
accordance with the common normal, or it is chosen to be that which is opposed
to this vector.

In the process of finding Oi, a common method involves picking the normal
that passes Oi−1 as the axis of the xi coordinate. According to this definition,
the point at where this normal intersects zi is referred to be Oi. Within the
context of this situation, the value of di would be equal to zero. In accordance
with the norm, the right hand rule is applied in order to determine yi once xi has
been determined beforehand. Considering that the axes zi−1 and zi are parallel,
it can be concluded that the value of αi will be zero in this specific circumstance.

(iii) zi−1 intersects zi: Xi is selected in this instance such that it is normal to the
plane that is created by zi and zi−1. The direction that xi is going in is
completely random. When considering the origin Oi in this particular scenario,
193 | P a g e Xoffencer International Book Publication House
 the most logical decision would be to locate it at the place where zi and zi−1
cross. On the other hand, any place along the axis zi that is handy is sufficient.
Take note that the value of the parameter ai is equal to zero in this instance.

When applied to frames 0,...,n − l in an n-link robot, this constructive technique

successfully operates. The specification of frame n is required in order to finish the
construction. The endeffector or tool frame is a frequent name for the ultimate
coordinate system onxnynzn (see Figure 5.6 for more information). In most cases, the
origin On often placed in a manner that is symmetrical between the fingers of the
gripper of the object being held.

Figure 11.6: Tool frame assignment.

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

Each of the unit vectors that are parallel to the axes xn, yn, and zn are represented by
the letters n, s, and a, which are the letters that correspond to those vectors accordingly.
Due to the fact that the direction an is the approach direction, the nomenclature is
derived from the fact that the gripper typically approaches an object along the a
direction. This is because the direction an is the opposite of the approach direction. The
s direction, also known as the sliding direction, is the route that the fingers of the gripper
slide along in order to open and close the gripper.

On the other hand, the n direction is the direction that is normal to the plane that is
generated by the a and s directions. This plane is created by the a and s directions. When
it comes to contemporary robots, the final joint motion involves a rotation of the
endeffector by θn. Additionally, the two joint axes that correspond with each other are
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zn−1 and zn. Specifically, in this specific case, the transformation that takes place
between the two most recent coordinate frames is a translation along zn−1 by a distance
dn, which is then followed (or preceded) by a rotation of θn radians about zn−1. The
computation of the inverse kinematics in the following chapter will be considerably
simpler to complete as a result of this key discovery, which will also make the
calculation much easier to do.

Be sure to remember to pay attention to the important information that is presented

here. When it comes to all i, the numbers ai and αi remain constant, and they represent
a distinguishing characteristic of the manipulator. It makes no difference whether the
joint in question is a prismatic joint or a revolute joint; this is always effective. If joint
i is prismatic, then θi is also a constant, and di is the variable that represents the i th
joint. This implies that if joint i is prismatic, then θi is also a constant. Following the
same line of reasoning, if joint i is a revolute joint, then di is a constant, and i is the
variable that represents the i th joint.

11.3 TRAJECTORY PLANNING

A given high-level activity, such as picking an object off a conveyor belt and putting it
on a shelf, must be translated into low-level instructions that can be understood by the
robot operating system in order for the robot to be able to complete the task. As can be
seen in Figure 1, this entire process, which is referred to as "motion planning," may be
split down into a number of different phases. It is essential to notice that, in order to
provide clarity, the various stages and procedures were presented in a chronological
and linear format. This is something that should be taken into consideration. However,
in actual practice, it is likely that a number of levels or stages may need to be handled
simultaneously without any interruptions.

In the process of planning at the "trajectory" level, for instance, it would be required to
take into account the limits imposed by the robot torque, which are provided at the
"actuator commands" level. Before relatively recently, the majority of motion planning
was done by human operators. This practice has completely changed. A skilled and
experienced operator would manually decide the instructions (using, for example, a
teach pendant and visual feedback) that would enable the robot to perform the
operation. This would be done for a particular job.

The flip side of the coin is that this approach is time-consuming and frequently leads
to trajectories that are not entirely optimum. Additionally, if the work is adjusted in any
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manner, even if it is only minor, the entire painstaking process of training must be
performed from the beginning. This is the case even if the change is very slight. The
amazing theoretical developments that have been achieved in the field of motion
planning over the course of the past few decades have resulted in the emergence of a
new picture. Even in environments that are believed to be extremely challenging and
crowded, it is now possible for a computer to identify, in a matter of minutes or seconds,
the best commands for a robot to carry out a particular task.

This is the case even in very difficult and crowded environments. A number of
companies, some of which are spin-offs from academic institutions (for example,
Siemens Kineo, France/Germany or Mujin Inc., Japan), are now engaged in the process
of developing software solutions that are already being utilised in actual factories.
These software solutions are currently being developed by a number of companies. In
this particular chapter, the subject of trajectory planning, which is a component of
motion planning, is discussed in detail. In order to be more detailed, we will focus on
the problem of identifying a trajectory of the joint angles that are between the starting
and target joint angles that have been supplied (for more information, see Figure 2 for
more details).

That being the case, it is presumed that the essential computations have been carried
out before to this stage (for instance, grab synthesis, inverse kinematics, etc.) or that
they will be carried out after this stage (for instance, robot instruction synthesis,
command synthesis, etc.). When it comes to the process of creating a trajectory, it is
essential to take into mind two important concepts: limitations and optimisation. The
robot is restricted in the range of motions that it is able to do as a result of the limitations
that it is subject to. It is theoretically conceivable to separate them into two separate
categories.

In order to get things started, geometric constraints are the limits that may be defined
just in terms of the joint angles of the robot. The avoidance of self-collision and
collision with objects, as well as other limitations of a similar kind, are included among
these constraints. Limits on the joint angles are also included. As a consequence of this,
these constraints may be taken into account in their totality throughout the stage of
route planning. The second type of constraints is known as kinodynamic constraints,
and it is the constraints that include higher-order temporal derivatives of the joint
angles.

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A few examples of these constraints include restrictions placed on the joint velocities,
accelerations, torques, or motor current inputs. Other names for kinodynamic
constraints are kinodynamic constraints and kinodynamic forces. It is not enough to
just design the path in order to take into account these constraints; rather, it is essential
to take them into mind even at the trajectory level. Because there is more than one path
or path that may be taken to achieve the objective while still sticking to the limits, the
notion of optimisation becomes significant in situations like these. When anything like
this takes place, it is a wonderful experience to select the path or path that would
maximise the accomplishment of a particular objective.

It is possible that one would be interested in identifying the shortest path in joint space
or in the end-effector space while operating at the route level. Perhaps they might find
this to be of interest. Additional optimisation objectives, such as the shortest possible
time, the smoothest possible smoothness, the least amount of energy, and so on, may
be taken into consideration at the trajectory level. These goals may be considered. It is
essential to bear in mind that a shortest path might not match to a minimum-time or
minimum-energy trajectory because of the limitations imposed by kinodynamics. This
is something very important to keep in mind.

Figure 11.7 From task to commands.

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

The task that is being carried out in the workplace may include, for instance, moving
the end effector of the robot manipulator from a starting position and orientation in
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space, where it has just grasped the item, to a target position and orientation, where it
can safely release the item onto the shelf. This is an example of the job that is being
performed. Through the use of inverse kinematics, it is possible to ascertain the angles
of the manipulator joints that will allow one to accomplish the desired position and
orientation of the end-effector without any difficulty. Consequently, the function of the
joint space would be to establish a connection between the angles of the initial joint
and the angles of the joint that is the aim of the joint. Path planning is the process that
leads to the discovery of a route that is free of collisions.

Figure 11.8 Trajectory planning for a two-link manipulator. (a) The

manipulator and the obstacles (black rectangles) in the work space. (b)
Trajectories connecting qstart and qgoal in the joint space

Source: Data Collection and Processing though by "Robotics and Automation " (Sahil
Kamleshwar,2021)

In this path, there is a continuous sequence of intermediate joint angles that are located
between the beginning and goal joint angles. These angles are what distinguish this
path from others. At any of the intermediate joint angles, this guarantees that the
manipulator will not come into touch with either the surrounding environment or with
itself. During the process of time parameterisation, it is necessary to locate the time
stamps for the joint angles along the route. This must be done while adhering to specific
limitations, such as the torque bounds, and/or optimising the traversal time or the
energy consumption that is being employed.

The following stage is referred to as instruction synthesis, and it entails transforming

the desired path into a set of instructions that are written in the robot's language. In the

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next step, command synthesis takes these instructions and transforms them into low-
level commands, such as the electrical current that is supplied into the motors. The
majority of the time, this last step is carried out on the inside by the robot controller
that is given by the manufacturer of the robot. The end user does not have access to this
controller.

11.4 DYNAMICS OF ROBOTIC SYSTEMS

When we talk about the dynamics of robotic systems, we are talking to the study of the
forces and motions that control the behaviour of robots while they are functioning. This
is what we mean when we say that when we talk about robotic systems. The
development of robots that are capable of executing complex tasks in a precise and
efficient manner requires a good grasp of these dynamics. This understanding is vital
for the development of robotics. In general, actuators, sensors, and controllers are the
components that make up a robotic system.

Additionally, the framework or frame that holds all of these components together is
also included in this category. One of the most important aspects of the dynamics of
these systems is the analysis of the manner in which the components interact with one
another, as well as the methods in which forces are transmitted and regulated within
the system. Kinematics, which is concerned with the mobility of robots without taking
into consideration the forces that are involved, is at the core of the discipline of robotic
dynamics. Kinematics is focused on the motion of robots. Kinematics is the study of
the many joints of the robot arm, as well as the position, velocity, and acceleration of
the end-effector (or tool) of the robot. Kinematics is important since it allows for the
examination of these factors.

After gaining an understanding of the kinematic properties, the dynamics process takes
into account the forces and torques that are accountable for the motions that are being
seen. In addition to the effects of gravity and friction, these forces and torques also
incorporate the effects of inertia. utilising equations that define the system's mass, joint
stiffness, damping, and external forces, it is possible to model the dynamic behaviour
of a robot. This may be performed by utilising computer simulations. These equations
are governed by Newton's laws of motion, which are the principles that determine how
a robot will behave.

The dynamic model gets more difficult and requires the use of technologically
advanced methodologies in control theory and simulation when dealing with robots
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that contain multiple degrees of freedom (DOF), such as industrial arms or humanoid
robots. This is because the dynamic model must be able to account for multiple degrees
of freedom. Differential equations of the second order are the most typical form in
which dynamic equations are represented. These equations are utilised to build a
relationship between the positions of the joints, the velocities and accelerations of the
system, and the forces that are acting on it. Due to the fact that it permits precise control
and accurate movement management, robotic dynamics is an essential component for
practical applications. Robots are required to be able to bear varying weights while
keeping smooth motion in order to guarantee that assembly operations are performed
with a minimum of mistakes.

One example of this is the manufacturing business, where robots are required to achieve
this type of capability. Within the realm of autonomous robotics, having a strong
understanding of dynamics is very necessary in order to properly traverse environments
that are highly unpredictable. Therefore, this is due to the fact that dynamic modelling
makes it possible to make a more precise prediction of the robot's conduct in real time.
PID controllers, inverse kinematics, and adaptive control methods are examples of
control approaches that are frequently utilised in the process of managing and
optimising the dynamic responses of robotic systems. In order to make modifications
to the inputs (such as torque or force) in response to changes in the environment of the
robot, it is required to include the dynamic model of the robot while developing these
controllers.

This is one of the reasons why incorporating the dynamic model is necessary. Because
of this, the robot is able to do the motions that are necessary while simultaneously
correcting for disturbances and strengthening its stability. The dynamics of robotic
systems, which involves the study and application of physical ideas, is vital when it
comes to understanding and managing the motion and forces that are present in robots.
This is because the dynamics of robotic systems encompass the study of physical
concepts. Engineers who have mastered the dynamics of robotics are able to construct
robots that are capable of performing tasks that are accurate, dependable, and efficient
across a wide variety of applications. This ability is made possible by engineers who
have had the opportunity to develop robotics.

11.5 MOTION CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

It is the systems or subsystems that are responsible for moving the different components
of machines in a controlled manner, where precision and efficacy are of the highest

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significance. The word "motion control" refers to these systems or subsystems. It is
important for a wide range of applications, including computer numerical control
(CNC) machines, modern robotics, and a great number of other applications as well.
As stated by Biren Patel, who is the director of business development at Maxon USA,
motion control is the act of moving components or objects in a manner that is both
accurate and smooth.

It is the responsibility of motion controllers to orchestrate the motors and actuators in

order to achieve correct automation in a range of applications. Motion controllers are
comparable to a director of an orchestra, who is responsible for directing each musician
to play their instrument at the proper precise moment. Motion control is the process of
moving a component or tool from one area to another. Motion control is also known as
motion control.

It is the process that takes place at those end points or along the way that is of the utmost
importance to the machine designer, as stated by Jim Wiley, who is the product
manager for the Motion Systems Group at Parker Hannifin. For the purpose of selecting
the right motion control components, it is very necessary to have a comprehensive
grasp of the operation of the machine. For example, the stability of the motion and the
amount of time it takes for the motion to settle are the parameters that influence the
picture quality throughput in fields such as digital pathology and dynamic metrology.
The characteristics of the application will be used to identify which actuator is the most
appropriate for the application.

11.5.1 Fundamentals of Motion Control

Movement control is a crucial concept that engineers and technicians who work in
automation need to have a solid understanding of. Position control, velocity control,
and torque control are important ideas that regulate the operation of motion control
systems and how they interact with their surroundings. These concepts are among the
most important. A single axis of motion may be all that is present in motion systems,
or they may comprise several axes of motion that are coordinated with one another.
The motion control systems may be divided into two distinct types. There is no
feedback in open-loop systems; instead, they rely on directives that have been preset.
For the purpose of continually adjusting and optimising, closed-loop systems make use
of feedback mechanisms.

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 1. Feedback Sensors

The feedback devices are responsible for gathering and transmitting

information to the motion controller on the position and speed of the motor or
actuator. In order to give location information in relation to a starting point,
quadrature encoders are used. Potentiometers provide location feedback in an
analogue format. Absolute encoders and resolvers are responsible for providing
absolute position measurements, whilst tachometers are responsible for
providing velocity feedback.

2. Mechanical Components

Examples of mechanical components that are responsible for translating the

motion of the motor output shaft into the motion profile that is required for a
specific application include bearings, gears, speed reducers, actuators, and
linkages. These components are responsible for transforming the motion of the
motor output shaft. There are three different types of bearings: plain, ball, and
roller bearings. These bearings are intended to sustain radial and axial stresses
while simultaneously minimising friction as much as possible.

Linear bearings are used to sustain any type of load, including combined loads,
loads that are vertical, horizontal, pitch, roll, or yaw moment loads, and loads
that are yaw moment loads. Loads that are moving in the same direction as the
bearing are likewise supported by linear bearings. Gearboxes have the ability
to increase torque while simultaneously reducing the speed of the output shaft
of the prime mover if they are properly designed.

Through the use of speed reducers, the quantity of torque that is generated by
an input shaft is doubled in order to enhance the amount of work that can be
accomplished and to increase the output speeds that are desired. Linear
actuators are responsible for producing motion that is in a straight line to begin
with. Ball screws and lead screws are the most common forms of linear
actuators that are used in mechanical systems. Through the use of these
components, rotation is converted into linear motion. In addition, there are
actuators that are equipped with linear motors, pneumatically driven actuators,
rack-and-pinion driven actuators, and belt-driven actuators. When selecting the
suitable actuator, it is important to take into account a number of aspects,

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 including the needed speed and precision, the amount of force that is required,
the distance that the actuator has to travel, and the amount of force that is
required. controlling force and movement is the responsibility of a mechanical
linkage, which is a collection of linked segments that are responsible for
controlling these forces.

In the field of motion control, which is constantly evolving, there are a number of
noteworthy innovations that are having an impact on the future of the field. The
statement made by Pelletier is that "Motion control is constantly under development."
Their level of intelligence is higher than it has ever been. The encoder, which has a
resolution of more than 68 million pulses per rotation, is responsible for transmitting a
substantial quantity of data to the servo amplifier. The servo amplifiers are outfitted
with a larger memory and faster processors, which enables them to make use of the
information they possess in order to correctly control motion and eliminate vibration.
It is becoming increasingly important to include artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning (ML) into motion control systems.

This is a trend that is getting more noteworthy. The predictive capabilities of motion
control systems are being improved by these technologies, which in turn makes it
possible to do real-time optimisation and the management of complex activities. The
use of wireless technology and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is yet another
important breakthrough that has occurred in the realm of motion control. Through this
link, it is able to undertake remote monitoring and control, as well as greater system
integration and insights that are driven by data, which ultimately leads to increased
operational efficiency. Alongside this, the motion control industry is witnessing an
increase in the incidence of miniaturisation as well as the integration of components.

This trend towards smaller and more compact systems is driving breakthroughs in
space efficiency, energy economy, and accuracy in motion control applications. These
gains are being driven by the trend towards smaller and thinner systems. The
implementation of Industry 4.0 has the potential to further revolutionise motion control
systems, and there is a serious likelihood that this will occur. It is included in this that
the establishment of smart factories, the utilisation of digital twins for the purpose of
system simulation, and the utilisation of big data and advanced analytics for the purpose
of continuously improving motion control systems are all included in this.

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 CHAPTER 12

CONCLUSION

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Robotics and automation have developed as foundational technologies within the field
of computer science and engineering. These technologies have made it possible for a
new age of intelligent systems that are able to interact with their surroundings in a
seamless manner. The ideas of mechanical engineering, electronics, and computer
science are brought together in these multidisciplinary fields in order to construct
machines that not only imitate human labour but also improve it in terms of speed,
accuracy, and dependability. Modern robots and automated systems are able to learn,
adapt, and act independently in contexts that are constantly changing thanks to the
integration of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and powerful algorithms.

The effect of robotics and automation is continuing to extend across a variety of

industries, with applications ranging from autonomous cars and industrial automation
to healthcare robots and intelligent assistants. Proficiency in these areas provides
students and professionals in the field of computer science and engineering with a
doorway to chances for innovation and career advancement in cutting-edge companies.
The role of robots and automation will become even more important as we go forward
into a world that is becoming more automated. This is made possible by technologies
such as Industry 4.0, the Internet of Things (IoT), and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS).
Not only are robotics and automation transforming businesses, but they are also
redefining the scope and influence of computer science and engineering itself. In
conclusion, robotics and automation are shaping industries.

As a result of their participation in this dynamic sector, future engineers will be

equipped with the skills necessary to drive revolutionary change and design technical
solutions that are intelligent, sustainable, and focused on people. The complementary
relationship between computer science and robotics is becoming more significant as
the need for intelligent automation continues to rise. Deep learning, real-time data
processing, and edge computing are examples of recent technological developments
that are making it possible for robots to demonstrate increased levels of autonomy,
efficiency, and contextual awareness and awareness. These technologies provide

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systems the ability to make complicated judgements in real time, which paves the way
for advances such as autonomous vehicles, precision agriculture, smart manufacturing,
and robotic surgery. It is also becoming more important to consider the ethical, legal,
and societal concerns that are associated with robots and automation. Privacy concerns,
employment displacement, concerns about safety, and concerns about responsibility
are all issues that need to be addressed as these technologies become increasingly
interwoven into human life.

This brings a new facet to the field of engineering education, one that places an
emphasis not just on technical achievement but also on creativity that is driven by
responsibility. The future of robotics and automation in computer science and
engineering rests in the capacity to collaborate across disciplines, to continue learning
throughout one's life, and to be as flexible as possible. Engineers need to be prepared
not only with the ability to code and the knowledge to build systems, but also with the
ability to comprehend and integrate a wide variety of technologies and disciplines.

The next generation of engineers will have a difficulty as well as an opportunity when
it comes to robotics and automation, to summarise. Students and researchers in the
fields of computer science and engineering have the potential to take the lead in the
creation of solutions that are more intelligent, safer, and more sustainable in a world
that is undergoing fast change if they embrace the convergence of computing, control,
and cognition.

When looking into the future, it is anticipated that the path of robotics and automation
would progressively connect with developing fields such as quantum computing,
neuromorphic engineering, biomechatronics, and cognitive science. These points of
intersection will result in the development of increasingly more advanced autonomous
systems that are capable of human-like perception, thinking, and interaction. Therefore,
educational institutions and industry leaders need to work together to establish new
curriculum, make investments in research and development, and cultivate innovation
ecosystems that are able to support the fast progress of robotic technology.

When it comes to directing the ethical use of automation technologies and ensuring that
they are distributed in an equitable manner, global cooperation and government laws
will also play a significant role. Students of Computer Science and Engineering who
embrace robotics and automation open the door to options that may completely
revolutionise their lives. These students will not only be able to become consumers of
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technology, but they will also be able to create the next generation of intelligent
systems. Whether it be in the realm of climate monitoring, autonomous transportation,
smart cities, or personalised healthcare, the contributions of experts working in
computer science and engineering will be essential to the resolution of some of the most
serious problems facing the world today.

As a conclusion, robotics and automation are not only emerging trends in the field of
technology; rather, they are the fundamental foundations that will support the digital
future. The integration of these professions within the realms of computer science and
engineering will be essential to the development of a society that is more intelligent,
efficient, and environmentally friendly as they continue to transform how we live,
work, and communicate with one another.

12.2 SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS

This term refers to the process of designing, building, operating, and employing robots.
The process involves combining control systems, sensors, and actuators with
mechanical components. It is possible for robots to carry out tasks in a manner that is
either fully or partially autonomous.

Automated work: In order to do activities with a minimum of involvement from

humans, the use of technology. Produces increased levels of productivity, consistency,
and efficiency across a variety of disciplines. Robotic arms and drones are examples of
physical automation, whereas robotic process automation (RPA) and artificial
intelligence bots are examples of software automation.

How Computer Science Contributes to the Fields of Robotics and Automation In order
to facilitate decision-making, it offers algorithms, programming, and computational
frameworks.

Key areas include: The terms "machine learning" and "artificial intelligence" (AI and
ML) Vision on a Computer NLP stands for "natural language processing." Computers
that operate in real time and embedded systems Mechatronics and Control Systems as
Examples Various Requests Manufacturing and automation in the industrial sector The
use of drones and autonomous vehicles (Robotic surgery, rehabilitation robots) in the
healthcare industry In-home digital assistants and intelligent dwellings Agriculture,
military operations, and the exploration of space Integrating New Technologies into

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Existing Environments The Internet of Things (IoT) makes it possible to have data-
driven robotic systems that are linked.

Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS): The combination of computational operations with

physical processes. Cloud computing and edge computing provide support for robotic
operations that are both scalable and responsive. Robotics and automation are among
the most important aspects of smart production, according to Industry 4.0.
Considerations and Obstacles to Overcome Job displacement, data privacy, and
decision responsibility are all ethical considerations that need to be addressed.

Real-time processing, sensor fusion, and flexibility are some of the technical hurdles
encountered. Knowledge that spans several disciplines and ongoing education are both
necessities. Prospective Trends Collaboration between humans and robots (cobots)
Robots that are auto-learning and adaptable Convergence into the realm of services and
daily life An increased focus on the ethical, social, and environmental effects of the
situation.

12.3 INTEGRATION OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION IN COMPUTER

SCIENCE

The incorporation of Robotics and Automation within the subject of Computer Science
represents a major step forward in the manner in which machines interact with the
physical environment by means of intelligent software systems. Automation guarantees
that these systems run with minimum or no interaction from humans, while robotics
focusses on building mechanical systems that are capable of executing tasks they are
designed to execute. Through the provision of the fundamental tools algorithms, data
structures, programming languages, and artificial intelligence that are responsible for
the manifestation of intelligent behaviour in robotic systems, the field of computer
science plays a pivotal role in the facilitation of this synergy.

The confluence of computer science and robotics has been accelerating in recent years
as a result of advancements in areas like as machine learning, computer vision, sensor
fusion, and real-time data processing. These days, robots are more than simply
programmed devices; they are also intelligent agents that are able to see their
surroundings, learn from data, and make choices on their own. This is supplemented
by automation, which makes it possible for systems to function in a manner that is
consistent, efficient, and precise across a variety of applications. Autonomous

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automobiles and industrial robots, as well as personal assistants and surgical systems,
are just some of the examples of how the incorporation of robotics and automation into
computer science is causing a transformation in the manner in which operations are
carried out across a variety of fields.

This integration helps to facilitate the development of cyber-physical systems, which

are systems in which software and hardware interact closely with one another in order
to carry out complicated tasks in settings that are in the real world. The need for
computer scientists who are knowledgeable in robotics and automation is expected to
continue to increase as companies continue their transition towards Industry 4.0 and as
smart technologies become more accessible to wider audiences. Not only can this
multidisciplinary sector improve operational efficiency, but it also opens up chances
for innovation in areas such as problem-solving, intelligent system design, and human-
machine cooperation.

12.4 FINAL REMARKS AND FUTURE ROADMAP

The incorporation of robotics and automation with computer science ushers in a

revolutionary age in which intelligent robots will progressively complement human
skills across a wide range of fields. When these technologies reach their full potential,
they will be able to do complicated activities that were previously dependent on human
involvement with increased efficiency, accuracy, and autonomy. It is important to note
that the future roadmap places an emphasis on stimulating multidisciplinary
innovation, building ethical frameworks for artificial intelligence, and expanding
human-robot cooperation.

The limits of what autonomous systems are capable of doing will be pushed further by
emerging trends such as cloud robotics, edge computing, and automation powered by
artificial intelligence. For the purpose of providing professionals in the field of
computer science with cross-domain abilities that combine software competence with
hardware comprehension and ethical concerns, educational efforts need to undergo
constant evolution. In the end, the purpose of this integration is to construct systems
that are accountable, intelligent, and adaptable, with the goal of enhancing the quality
of life while simultaneously tackling global concerns.

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