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Clearing the Air The Health and Economic Damages of
Air Pollution in China 1st Edition Mun S. Ho Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Mun S. Ho; Chris P. Nielsen
ISBN(s): 9780262275484, 0262275481
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 7.30 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
 CLEARING THE AIR
Mun S. Ho is Visiting Scholar at the Institute for CLEARING THE AIR
Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University, The Health and Economic Damages of
and Visiting Scholar at Resources for the Future, Air Pollution in China
Washington, D.C. Chris P. Nielsen is Executive edited by Mun S. Ho and Chris P. Nielsen
Director of the China Project and Kernan Brothers
Fellow at the Harvard University Center for China’s historic economic expansion is driven by
Environment and Harvard School of Engineering fossil fuels, which increase its emissions of both
and Applied Sciences. local air pollutants and greenhouse gases dramat-
ically. Clearing the Air is an innovative, quantita-
tive examination of the national damage caused
by China’s degraded air quality, conducted in a
pathbreaking, interdisciplinary U.S.–China collabo-
ration. Its damage estimates are allocated by sec-
environment/economics/public health

CLEARING THE AIR tor, making it possible for the first time to judge
whether, for instance, power generation, trans-
portation, or an unexpected source such as
cement production causes the greatest environ-
“There is no such detailed, comprehensive analysis of this topic. All in all, a com- The Health and Economic Damages of Air Pollution in China mental harm. Such objective analyses can help
mendable effort.” China reset policy priorities.
—Vaclav Smil, University of Manitoba, author of China’s Environmental Crisis Clearing the Air uses this information to show

Ho and Nielsen
edited by Mun S. Ho and Chris P. Nielsen how appropriate “green” taxes might not only
“Clearing the Air is essential for anyone seriously interested in China’s environment. reduce emissions and health damages but even
Well researched and well written, the book documents what is known—and not enhance China’s economic growth. It also shows
known—about air pollution damage in China. Despite its serious theme, it optimisti- to what extent these same policies could limit
cally concludes that it is possible to reduce air pollution at an insignificant cost to greenhouse gases, suggesting that wealthier
economic growth. That conclusion, and the premises on which it is based, deserve nations have a responsibility to help China build
to be read and discussed widely.” environmental protection into its growth.
—Haakon Vennemo, Director, ECON, Norway Clearing the Air is written for a diverse audi-
ence, providing a bridge from underlying research
to policy implications, with easily accessible
overviews of issues and summaries of the findings
for nonspecialists and policymakers followed by
more specialized, interlinked studies of primary
interest to scholars. Taken together, these analy-
ses offer a uniquely integrated assessment that
Cover photographs by Arnold M. Howitt.
supports the book’s economic and policy recom-
mendations.
The MIT Press
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
http://mitpress.mit.edu

0-262-08358-2
978-0-262-08358-4
Clearing the Air
Clearing the Air
The Health and Economic Damages of Air
Pollution in China

edited by Mun S. Ho and Chris P. Nielsen

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
( 2007 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or
mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval)
without permission in writing from the publisher.

MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales promo-
tional use. For information, please email [email protected] or write to Special
Sales Department, The MIT Press, 55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, MA 02142.

This book was set in Sabon on 3B2 by Asco Typesetters, Hong Kong, and was printed and
bound in Hong Kong.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Clearing the air : the health and economic damages of air pollution in China / edited by
Mun S. Ho and Chris P. Nielsen.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-262-08358-4 (hc : alk. paper)
1. Air—Pollution—Health aspects—China. 2. Air—Pollution—Economic aspects—China.
3. Air—Pollution—Government policy—China. I. Ho, Mun S. II. Nielsen, Chris P.,
1960–.
RA576.7.C6C558 2007
363.739 0 20951—dc22 2006047209

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

Preface by Dale W. Jorgenson vii

Editors’ Acknowledgments xiii
Abbreviations and Acronyms xv

Part I Introduction, Review, and Summary 1

1 Air Pollution and Health Damages in China: An Introduction and Review 3
Chris P. Nielsen and Mun S. Ho
2 Summary for Policy 51
Chris P. Nielsen and Mun S. Ho

Part II Studies of the Assessment 67

3 Summary for Research 69
Chris P. Nielsen and Mun S. Ho
4 Estimating Health Effects of Air Pollution in China: An Introduction to Intake
Fraction and the Epidemiology 115
Jonathan I. Levy and Susan L. Greco
5 Local Population Exposure to Pollutants from Major Industrial Sectors and
Transportation 143
Shuxiao Wang, Jiming Hao, Yongqi Lu, and Ji Li
6 Local Population Exposure to Pollutants from the Electric Power Sector 189
Bingjiang Liu and Jiming Hao
7 Population Exposure to Power Plant Emissions Using CALPUFF 223
Ying Zhou, Jonathan I. Levy, James K. Hammitt, and John S. Evans
vi Contents

8 The Economic Value of Air-Pollution-Related Health Risks in China:

A Contingent Valuation Study 249
Ying Zhou and James K. Hammitt
9 Sector Allocation of Emissions and Damage 279
Mun S. Ho and Dale W. Jorgenson
10 Policies to Control Air Pollution Damages 331
Mun S. Ho and Dale W. Jorgenson
Contributors 373
Index 375

Part III Appendixes

Appendixes appear on enclosed CD
Appendix A Air Dispersion Simulation and the Power Sector
Bingjiang Liu
Appendix B Population Distribution
Bingjiang Liu and Shuxiao Wang
Appendix C Major Industrial Sectors in Five Cities
Shuxiao Wang
Appendix D Transportation Sector
Shuxiao Wang
Appendix E National Intake Fractions
Mun S. Ho and Shuxiao Wang
Appendix F Description of the Economic Model
Mun S. Ho and Dale W. Jorgenson
Appendix G Supplementary Details for National Sector Damage Estimates
Mun S. Ho
Preface

The historic rise of the People’s Republic of China, driven by an economic transfor-
mation that has proceeded almost without pause over the last three decades, is
hardly news in 2007. As a result of this rise, and because of its size, it is common-
place now to regard China as a newly arrived global power. Domestically, China’s
recent trajectory is believed to have lifted hundreds of millions of its citizens from
poverty, a transformation of unprecedented scale and pace in the history of nations.
While this growth in part reflects an underperforming economy when reforms began,
and has brought with it a growing imbalance in the distribution of wealth, in aggre-
gate human terms China’s economic progress has been incontrovertibly positive.
It has not had many positive impacts, however, on the natural environment, both
within China and across the globe. Fossil energy sources, especially coal, have fueled
the economic transformation. As in all nations, burning fossil fuels causes environ-
mental externalities, the term in economics for the costs of individual activities that
are inflicted on society as a whole. Among such externalities are the damages of air
pollution, foremost its impacts on human health. China has made laudable progress
on some fronts of pollution control, for example, forcing the substitution of gas for
coal in central cities to reduce large particulate loads in urban air (and limiting, at
the same time, carbon dioxide emissions). Addressing many other forms of pollution
and their damages, however, is proving more vexing.
Clearing the Air: The Health and Economic Damages of Air Pollution in China
presents a new modeling framework for integrating the study of economic growth,
energy utilization, and environmental quality in China. Our initial effort in this area,
published in 1998, was confined to a projection of Chinese economic growth and
carbon emissions, using an aggregate growth model without industry detail. I com-
pleted this project in collaboration with Dwight Perkins of the Department of Eco-
nomics at Harvard and Mun Ho of the Kennedy School of Government. Ho and I
then developed a multi-sector model of Chinese economic growth in collaboration
viii Preface

with Richard Garbaccio, now of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This
model gave special attention to the dual plan-and-market features of the Chinese
economy in the 1990s. We developed a version of this model with perfect foresight
dynamics in collaboration with Karen Fisher-Vanden, now of Dartmouth College.
In constructing these progressively more elaborate models we obtained the invalu-
able assistance of Li Shantong and Zhai Fan of the Development Research Center
of the State Council of China.1
Our new economy-energy-environment model of China incorporates population
projections including the changing demographic structure, projections of productiv-
ity growth, enhancements of labor quality, and changes in household spending and
savings behavior. We have analyzed changes in Chinese energy use at the industry
level, using data from the 1987 and 1992 input-output tables, and this information
is incorporated into projections of energy use per unit of industry output in the
model. The initial version of the model incorporated a sub-model of local health
impacts of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) and total suspended particulate (TSP) emissions,
using information generously provided by Gordon Hughes and Kseniya Lvovsky of
the World Bank. This version was first used to examine the reduction in local health
damages due to a policy to reduce carbon emissions. Our subsequent analysis
focused on the effects of ‘‘green tax’’ policies, designed to reduce local air pollution
damages, on economic growth, on reductions in mortality and morbidity, and on
carbon emissions.
The model described in the book is the culmination of the improvements to this
economic-energy-environment model. We have developed a new environmental sub-
model that incorporates industry-specific contributions to the TSP and SO2 concen-
trations. We have also incorporated the latest economic data for China, including
the 1997 input-output table. We are pleased to acknowledge the contributions of
Cao Jing, who provided outstanding research assistance to us in completing the
new version of the model.
The core of the environmental submodel, initiated in collaboration with Jon Levy
of the Harvard School of Public Health, is the assessment of ‘‘intake fractions’’—
a methodological approach to estimating human exposures to pollution in data-
constrained contexts such as China’s. Intake fractions are derived by modeling pol-
lutant dispersion and human exposures from a sample of real sources. This research
was conducted partly in collaboration with Hao Jiming and his colleagues Wang
Shuxiao, Liu Bingjiang, Lu Yongqi, and Li Ji from the Department of Environmen-
tal Sciences and Engineering of Tsinghua University, Beijing, mainly in residence at
Harvard’s Division of Engineering and Applies Sciences. Another part of this re-
 Preface ix

search was conducted by Zhou Ying, Jon Levy, James Hammitt, and John Evans of
the Harvard School of Public Health. Zhou and Hammitt contributed additional re-
search, on the economic value that Chinese citizens place on health, to the environ-
mental submodel.
The ambitiously collaborative nature of the study exemplifies the objectives of the
Harvard University Center for Environment (HUCE). This Center grew out of a fac-
ulty committee established in 1993 by then-President Neil Rudenstine. The commit-
tee’s chief mandate was to foster collaboration in environmental research and
education across disciplines, and across the ten schools of the university. Under the
chairmanship of atmospheric scientist Michael McElroy, the committee evolved into
an intellectual and physical center supporting a wide scope of initiatives, bringing
students, researchers, and faculty together from across the university. Today the
HUCE, under Daniel Schrag, continues to manifest Harvard’s vision of how a com-
prehensive university can best cultivate research and education in a topical area as
consummately interdisciplinary as humankind’s relationship to the natural environ-
ment. Rather than create a self-contained department of environmental studies, the
HUCE is designed to draw on the strengths of the entirety of Harvard University,
and to evolve as its many initiatives and the interests of participants grow and
change.
The China Project has been one of the largest and most sustained single research
initiatives of the HUCE, now also supported by Harvard’s Division of Engineering
and Applied Sciences. Established by McElroy and a team including Xu Xiping of
the Harvard School of Public Health, Chris Nielsen and Peter Rogers of the Division
of Engineering and Applied Sciences, William Alford and the late Abram Chayes of
Harvard Law School, Dwight Perkins and myself of the Department of Economics,
Mun Ho of the Kennedy School of Government, and others, the China Project’s
focus has been the challenge of reconciling China’s economic development with pro-
tection of the atmospheric environment, and in particular integrating the Chinese
domestic priority of air pollution control with the global objective of limiting emis-
sions of greenhouse gases. This topic requires a challenging confluence of knowledge
and expertise in economics, law, policy, and natural, applied, and health sciences,
among others. It is also a topic that draws together two longstanding academic com-
munities at Harvard: those who study environment, and those who study China.
Crucially, the China Project from the outset has embraced a second collabora-
tive mandate: a full Harvard–China partnership in research with contributions
from universities and institutes of the People’s Republic of China. In early stages
these collaborations were facilitated by designees of Song Jian, State Councilor and
x Preface

Chairman of the then-State Science and Technology Commission. As the program

evolved, the governmental associations also changed, and the Project has consulted
over time with senior leaders that have included then-Vice Premier (and now
Premier) Wen Jiabao, then-Minister Xie Zhenhua of the State Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (SEPA), and others. Qu Geping, the founding Administrator of
SEPA and now often called the ‘‘father’’ of environmental protection in China, has
long served as a key supporter and senior advisor to the HUCE China Project.
It is important to emphasize that the primary aim of the China Project is to
advance independent inquiry, crossing disciplines and nations, and to contribute to
basic knowledge judged by traditional standards of peer review and scholarly publi-
cation. Independent scholars define their own questions, rather than answer those
posed by policy makers. The Project does not provide policy advice nor serve as an
advocacy group. It has also sponsored research motivated by competing perspec-
tives, reflecting the conviction that innovative ideas are generated and tested through
critical thinking and intellectual challenges. Fostering fruitful debates is essential for
mitigating biases due to a specific disciplinary orientation or a particular national
perspective. University-to-university collaborations are uniquely suited to pursue this
objective. Accordingly, the Project has built relationships over time with a number
of schools and departments of Tsinghua University, Beihang University, Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Peking University, and others.
It would be misleading to dismiss the confluence of different scholarly points of
view as Ivory Tower irrelevance. What we really know, collectively, about the pros-
pects for reconciling China’s economic growth with local and global environmental
protection, and the role of wealthier nations in this effort, is still very limited.
Studies that merely apply conventional research methods without full understanding
of the fundamental underlying assumptions that distinguish Chinese society and the
Chinese economy from industrialized economies are unlikely to improve the practice
of economic and environmental policy. Independent studies developed with careful
attention to these fundamental assumptions and critically scrutinized empirical data
have the potential for greater credibility and more original insights. This is the most
important explanation of the intense interest in our results by senior leaders in
China. Independent research is also the primary means by which the existing centers
of scholarly excellence in China can build research capacities meeting international
standards and by which non-Chinese scholars can better understand China’s unique
development.
The first phase of the China Project set the stage for subsequent research by invit-
ing interested scholars to write review studies or initiate preliminary research proj-
 Preface xi

ects. The resulting papers were presented in a research workshop at Harvard, then
revised and published in Energizing China: Reconciling Environmental Protection
and Economic Growth, edited by Michael McElroy, Chris Nielsen, and Peter
Lydon, distributed by Harvard University Press in 1998. A variety of externally
funded, multi-year studies in a diversity of fields grew out of this initial effort. These
have been reported in scholarly journals, law reviews, book chapters, and published
reports, too numerous to list here but given on the HUCE website: www.fas
.harvard.edu/~huce/china_project.htm/.
The economic and related work of this book comprise one of three major streams
of research under the China Project with roots in the initial phase, each capitalizing
on years of development of unique research models, new data resources, and time-
tested collaborative relationships. The second is an atmospheric program led by
McElroy, who with Wang Yuxuan has developed a high-resolution window over
China within the GEOS-Chem global chemical tracer model to analyze poorly
understood regional and seasonal dimensions of air quality in China, including
complex secondary species such as ozone. The model now makes use of continuous
observations of key atmospheric species collected at a measurement station
deployed at a site north of Beijing since 2004, in a partnership of the Project with
Hao Jiming and colleagues at Tsinghua University that includes William Munger of
Harvard.
The third major research component of the China Project is interdisciplinary
study of urban transportation, land use planning, air quality, human exposure, and
health, now focused on the case city of Chengdu. This venture is partly inspired by
and builds on the work of this book, refining some of its exposure and valuation
methods, involving several of the same collaborators, and similarly structured as
separable but linked modules led by different investigators. Key participants are
He Kebin and Wang Shuxiao of Tsinghua University; Zhang Dianye of Southwest
Jiaotong University; Shen Mingming of Peking University; and Chris Nielsen, James
Hammitt, Guo Xiaoqi, Peter Rogers, and Sumeeta Srinivasan at Harvard.
Clearing the Air is the result of many years of development, data collection, and
dedicated research by a large, international team of scholars. It was made possible
by numerous funding institutions providing generous support either to individual
modules or to the program as a whole. Each chapter contains its own funding
acknowledgments, but we will summarize and thank them collectively here.
Three institutions provided major funding. The integrated project was initiated
and several elements were funded by a grant from the V. Kann Rasmussen Foun-
dation. Development of the economic model was funded chiefly by the Integrated
xii Preface

Assessment Program of the Office of Biological and Environmental Research,

U.S. Department of Energy, under contract DE-FG02-95ER62133. The pollution
dispersion and exposure assessment component was supported by a joint grant
to the HUCE China Project and Tsinghua University Institute of Environmental
Science and Technology from the China Sustainable Energy Program of the Energy
Foundation.
Additional funding was provided for individual research components, workshops,
or the participation of particular researchers. These include the Task Force on Envi-
ronmental and Natural Resource Pricing of the China Council for International Co-
operation on Environment and Development, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, The Henry Luce Foundation, The Bedminster Foundation and the Dun-
walke Trust, the Harvard Asia Center, and the Harvard Kernan Brothers Fellow-
ship. We are grateful to all of these institutions for making this program of
research possible.

Dale W. Jorgenson
Harvard University

Note

1. A note on the names of Chinese nationals in this book: In this preface they are rendered in
correct Chinese name-order, with surnames first. They are reversed in the chapters, however,
to prevent erroneous future citations of contributions to this book, a small but serious prob-
lem for Chinese in international scholarly literature.
Editors’ Acknowledgments

The program of research described in this book grows from a mandate of the Har-
vard University Center for the Environment (HUCE) to bring scholars together from
across disciplines to jointly address environmental research topics. This collabora-
tive effort has involved researchers from different university departments and institu-
tions in China and the United States, and received financial support from a number
of organizations, as summarized in the preface by Dale W. Jorgenson.
A central component of the research described here has been led by Jorgenson
(Harvard Economics Department) and Hao Jiming (Tsinghua University Depart-
ment of Environmental Science and Engineering), building on the concept of ‘‘intake
fractions’’ introduced to the group by Jonathan I. Levy (Harvard School of Public
Health). The intake fraction method for estimating exposures to air pollution is
explained in the chapter by Levy and Susan L. Greco, and applied in three chapters
involving John S. Evans, James K. Hammitt, Hao, Levy, Li Ji, Liu Bingjiang, Lu
Yongqi, Wang Shuxiao, and Zhou Ying (in alphabetical order, using Chinese
name-order of surnames first). Hao led research conducted in China that involved
the cooperation of various national and local government departments. We are
grateful to the Chinese government officials for their contributions.
Hammitt and Zhou additionally conducted research on the valuation of health
damages from air pollution in China. Mun S. Ho and Jorgenson used the results of
these various components of research to estimate the value of damages due to pollu-
tion from various industries, and to examine how environmental policies affect eco-
nomic performance while reducing local and global pollution.
Building up this collaborative program was no easy task, and was made possible
by the willingness of all participants to adjust to, and accommodate, the needs of
contributors from other disciplinary fields. We must thank especially the researchers
and authors of the chapters for their spirited and patient participation in the
venture, from proposal writing, to long coordination meetings, to many rounds of
xiv Editors’ Acknowledgments

presenting and reworking research, and ultimately to revising reports and journal
articles into chapters for this volume. To this we add our gratitude to Dale Jorgen-
son for his committed oversight of this program of research, and to Michael B.
McElroy for sustained support of it as chair of the HUCE and the China Project.
Presenting such a complex economic, energy, and environmental assessment in a
single book designed to bridge lay and expert readerships has been a challenging but
gratifying undertaking for the editors and authors. We thank Clay Morgan and his
colleagues at MIT Press for their constructive advice and commitment to the project.
We owe special thanks to three anonymous reviewers for their invaluable, detailed
comments, which greatly improved the book.
Progress reports and drafts of what became chapters were presented at numerous
meetings including the Ninth Conference of the Parties to the United National
Framework Convention on Climate Change in Milan, Tsinghua-Harvard research
workshops held in Beijing, workshops in Oslo and Beijing led by the Center for
International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo and the State Environ-
mental Protection Administration, meetings of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and public seminars at Harvard. We are grateful for valuable critiques and
comments by participants in all of these events.
Mun Ho would finally like to thank Resources for the Future for hosting him as a
Visiting Scholar while much of this work was conducted.

Mun S. Ho
Chris P. Nielsen
Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACS American Cancer Society

AEEI autonomous energy-efficiency improvement
AMD average marginal damage
BR nominal population-average breathing rate
BRICC Beijing Research Institute of Coal Chemistry
CB chronic bronchitis
Cd pollution concentration
CEPY China Electrical Power Yearbook
CEY China Environment Yearbook
CGE computable general equilibrium economic model
CI confidence interval
CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research,
Oslo
CMAQ Community Multiscale Air Quality modeling system
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
CPC Climate Prediction Center
CRAES China Research Academy of Environmental Sciences
CV contingent valuation
DR dose response
EC European Commission
ECON ECON Centre for Economic Analysis
EIA environmental impact assessment
EPB(s) environmental protection bureau(s)
xvi Abbreviations and Acronyms

ESP electrostatic precipitator

FDDA Four-Dimensional Data Assimilation
FGD flue gas desulfurization
g grams
gce grams of coal equivalent
gce/kWh grams of coal equivalent per kilowatt-hour
3
g/m grams per cubic meter
g/s grams per second
GDP gross domestic product
GEOS-Chem a global chemical tracer model
GHG(s) greenhouse gas(es)
GIS geographical information system
GW gigawatt
HAPs hazardous air pollutants
HEI Health Effects Institute
HNO3 nitric oxide
HUCE Harvard University Center for the Environment
iF Intake fraction
IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISC Industrial Source Complex air dispersion model
ISCLT long-term version of ISC
ISCST short term version of ISC
IWAQM Interagency Working Group on Air Quality Modeling
kg kilograms
kg/s kilograms per second
kj kilojoules
kj/kg kilojoules per kilogram
km kilometers
2
km square kilometers
kt, kton kilotons
ktce kilotons of coal equivalent
kWh kilowatt-hours
 Abbreviations and Acronyms xvii

LHV latent heat value

m meters
m/s meters per second
3
m cubic meters
3
m /day cubic meters per day
3
m /kg cubic meters per kilogram
3
m /s cubic meters per second
MD marginal damage
mg milligrams
3
mg/m milligrams per cubic meter
mm millimeters
MM5 fifth-generation Penn State/NCAR mesoscale model of atmo-
spheric circulation
MOP Ministry of Power
MOST Ministry of Science and Technology
Mt million tons
MW megawatts
mg/day micrograms per day
3
mg/m micrograms per cubic meter
mm micron, also called micrometer
NBS National Bureau of Statistics
NCDC National Climatic Data Center
NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction
NEPA National Environmental Protection Agency (now SEPA)
NMMAPS National Morbidity and Mortality Air Pollution Study
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
NO3 shorthand for nitrate compounds
NOX nitrogen oxides
O3 ozone
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Pb lead
PM particulate matter
xviii Abbreviations and Acronyms

PM10 , PM2:5 , PMX particulate matter of less than 10, 2.5, or equal to other speci-
fied number of microns in aerodynamic diameter, respectively
POP1 population within 10 km, or 5 km for mobile sources
POP2 population within 10–50 km, or 5–50 km for mobile sources
POPd at-risk population
ppb parts per billion
PPP purchasing power parity
PRCEE Policy Research Center of Environment and Economy of SEPA
PSD particle size distribution
2
R Square of the correlation coefficient
RAINS-Asia Regional Air Pollution Information and Simulation model for
Asia
RFF Resources for the Future
RHS right-hand side
SAES Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences
SAM social accounting matrix
s.d. standard deviation
SEPA State Environmental Protection Administration
SH stack height
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO4 shorthand for sulfate compounds
SPC State Power Corporation
toe tons of oil equivalent
TSP total suspended particulates
TVE(s) township and village enterprise(s)
TWh terawatt-hour
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
U.S. EIA U.S. Energy Information Agency
U.S. EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Administration
VAT value-added tax
VSL value of a statistical life
WHO World Health Organization
WTP willingness to pay
I
Introduction, Review, and Summary
Other documents randomly have
different content
explained, is rather negative than positive. Those who use it
are more careful to say what they do not than what they do.
They insist upon ‘the Bible only’ to the exclusion of everything
else, but they are not equally jealous about receiving the whole
Bible, every part of it. They say that nothing is to be required
of any man that it should be believed which is not to be found
in the Bible, or at least may not be proved thereby; but they do
not with equal distinctness insist upon the duty of believing
everything which is read in that sacred book or may be proved
by it. This is no idle assertion, but is plain matter of fact.”—P. 1.
“There are many texts even then which they do not really
receive; some which are to them as an unknown tongue,
without any meaning at all, and which they therefore make no
use of whatever; others which seem to be opposed to their own
creed, and which they therefore try to escape from and to
explain away; lastly, there are others which they even boldly
contradict.”—P. 2.
“If God did not intend the Bible to be man’s only guide and
teacher in matters of religion, but appointed His Church for this
very purpose, that she should fulfil this office, and promised her
His guidance, so that she should never be deceived in proposing
anything to our belief that was not true and had not been
revealed by Him, then of course, not only is the Catholic Church
right upon this point, but also of necessity right upon every
other point also.”—P. 6.
“The Protestant professes that the only sure way of knowing
God’s will is for every man to read the Holy Scriptures for
himself. I take up the Holy Scriptures, therefore, for this
purpose, and I find there that our Lord appointed, and the
apostles practised, quite another way of learning God’s will and
the right road to heaven. I find that our Lord sent, not a
message, but messengers; not a book for men to read, but
apostles for men to obey; and in like manner I find that the
apostles do say not a word about the necessity of not believing
 anything that is not written in a certain book, but on the
contrary, that they distinctly say, Believe all that you have been
taught, whether written or unwritten.”—P. 9.
“It is plain that our Lord did not use the words, ‘Search the
Scriptures,’ in the sense in which the Protestants use them. He
did not refer His hearers to the Scriptures in the same way that
the Protestant refers you. For if so, why did they need His
further teaching? He made the same use of the Scriptures as
Catholics do in speaking to Protestants at this day. The Catholic
says to Protestants, ‘Search the Scriptures,’ for these are they
which testify of the Church as well as of her Head. They
expressly command you to ‘hear the Church’ (St. Matt, xviii.
17).”—P. 11.
“A Catholic priest at the present day might follow the example
of St. Paul, and show that Jesus whom he preached was Christ;
that the Church which he preached to them was in very deed
the society to which such high and noble privileges were
promised in Holy Scripture. And every one who should give
heed to his preaching in the same way as the Bereans did,
would not fail to meet with the same reward. He also would
‘believe;’ believe not only the one doctrine which had been thus
proved to him from Holy Scripture, viz. that the Church was the
appointed teacher of mankind, but also every other doctrine
which the same teacher might propose to his belief, whether
written in the Holy Bible or not.”—P. 14.

Extract from another tract, entitled, “The Church, the Guardian of

Scripture, or, How does the Bible come to us?”

“People are apt to think of the Bible, as if it were a whole

without parts, indivisible, self-existent, in short, a kind of
divinity; or, at least, as if it had come down from heaven
precisely such as we now have it, ready bound to our hands, if
not with the Bible Society’s stamp upon it.”—P. 7.
Extract from another tract, entitled, “The Rosary of the Blessed
Virgin Mary, or, The use of the Beads no vain Repetition.”

“Perhaps you find something that shocks you in the fact of the
‘Hail Mary’ being repeated so much oftener than the Lord’s
Prayer; and it may be that there is in this a fresh instance of
that unhappy creature-worship which disfigures every part of
the Catholic religion. Now do not suppose that the reason of
this is, that we consider prayers addressed to the Blessed Virgin
better than prayers addressed to God. We do certainly think her
prayers for us are better, and more likely to be heard and
answered than our own; because we know that she was ever
perfectly free from all stain of guilt, and is now nearest to God
in glory; and we feel ourselves full of the defilement of sin.”—P.
10.
“Christ has entered into His kingdom, and His saints are
reigning with Him. Which of them shall be nearest to Him in
glory as once in suffering, but her through whom He joined our
human nature to Deity itself? The anguish over, the grace and
virtue crowned, the glory never to pass away; surely, well may
we again call the Queen of Heaven, ‘Blessed among women!’
and more than ever trusting in the power of her intercession,
more than ever call on her, ‘Holy Mary, mother of God! pray for
us sinners, now, and at the hour of death.’”—P. 14.
SECOND AND FOURTH OF THE FIVE SORROWFUL MYSTERIES.
“2d. The scourging of our Blessed Lord, at the pillar by soldiers,
in Pilate’s house; the number of stripes they gave him being
above five thousand.
“4th. The carrying of the Cross; in which our Lord Jesus Christ,
being sentenced to die, bears with most amazing patience the
cross which is laid upon Him for His greater torment and
ignominy, meeting His blessed mother by the way.”
FOURTH AND FIFTH OF THE FIVE GLORIOUS MYSTERIES.
 “4th. The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin; in which after her
death, twelve years after the Resurrection, she is assumed into
heaven by her Divine Son accompanied by the holy angels.
“5th. The Coronation of the Blessed Virgin; in which, amid the
great jubilee and exultation of the whole court of heaven, and
to the particular glory of all the saints, she is crowned by her
Son with the brightest diadem of glory.”—P. 16.

Extracts from a tract, entitled, “Our Parish Churches as they were

and as they are. 1. Old stones tell tales.”

“I declare, it seems to me that the very idea of worship has

almost died out in England. Do you think that if people really
felt they were speaking to Almighty God, they would sit at their
ease, or look over a book, and never do more? Church of
Englandism has such a comfortable look about it; it is the
religion of people well to do in the world, and have too much
business to transact to turn their minds thoroughly to anything
else. It is a one day a week religion. Every thing about it is so
formal, so decent, so sober, so proper and respectable. It
would look so odd to seem in earnest; to be on your knees in
prayer before so many well-dressed people, as though you had
a soul to be saved. Church of Englandism is such a human
thing; it smacks so much of the world and of ‘good society.’ It
makes a poor man feel awkward, just as he does when he finds
himself in a gentleman’s drawing-room.”—P. 10.
“The Church of England would never have built such churches,
though it is very proud of them now it has got them, and lately
has taken to making a few others in imitation of the old ones.
People never seem to think of this. They are always bragging
about their fine old parish churches, and their venerable
cathedrals, and all the while they were built by the Papists, as
they call them; and if it had not been for the Papists they would
never have had them to brag of. The sparrow stole into the
martin’s nest, and said, See what a nice warm house I have
 got. He couldn’t say he had made it, but he was quite as cocky
as if he had.”—P. 11.
“‘And what is this?’ said I again; and I pointed at a curious sort
of niche with a hole at the bottom of it. ‘That,’ said he, ‘is a
piscina; it was for pouring the water away after the priest had
washed his hands.’ ‘Why should he wash his hands,’ said I,
‘more than our ministers?’ ‘Because,’ said Peter, ‘he had to
touch the body of the Lord, and to lift Him up, as when He was
raised on the cross. And your ministers have no need to wash
theirs, because they have not got the body of our Lord there at
all.’”—p. 14.
“‘What was the use of saying mass for him,’ said I, ‘when he
was dead and buried?’ Peter smiled, and answered, ‘It is said in
the Scriptures, that it is a good and wholesome thought to pray
for the dead, and it certainly must be so.’”—P. 15.

Extracts from a tract, entitled, “The Church of our Fathers.”

“St. Peter, the prince of the apostles, to whom our Lord himself
gave the name of Peter, which signifies a rock, and told him at
the same time that on that rock He would build His Church, and
that the gates of hell should not prevail against it,—this same
Peter went to Rome and became its Bishop; and from that time
the Church of Rome, as being the See of St. Peter, has ever
been looked upon by the faithful as the mother and mistress of
all churches, and each of his successors in turn as the visible
head of the Church on earth.”—P. 5.
“It is generally believed that Caractacus settled in Rome with his
family; that his daughter was called Claudia, and that she
married a noble Roman called Pudens, who, together with
herself, afterwards became Christian; that they had a daughter
who was afterwards celebrated as a saint under the name of St.
Pudentiana; and that this Pudens and Claudia, whom St. Paul
mentions in his Epistle to Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 21), were no other
than these. It is said also that this noble British household gave
shelter and hospitality to St. Peter, while he lived as Bishop in
Rome; a retired room in the house being set apart as his
chapel. A church was afterwards built on the site of this house,
which having been since twice rebuilt, is still known by the
name of St. Pudentiana; and it is this church which, from its
connexion with the history of our country, has been assigned to
Cardinal Wiseman as the church from which he takes his title.”—
P. 7.
“Several miracles attended the death of this our first martyr
(Alban). When on his way to death, he came to a river which
divided the town from the hill where he was to suffer; the
people thronged the bridge over it in such multitudes that he
feared he should not be able to pass all that day, and longing
for his crown, raised his eyes to heaven and prayed. And God
straightway divided the waters as for His people of old, so that
he walked through dryshod.”—P. 9.
“The next thing that we hear of the Church in Britain is, that
two bishops from Gaul, Germanus and Lupus, were sent over
here to preach to the people, many of whom had been
perverted by false teachers; but all gladly listened to the
preaching of these holy bishops, and returned to the way of
truth. They were the more easily persuaded, because the
preaching of these men was also accompanied by the working
of miracles. After a public conference, in which the heretics had
been completely put to silence by the eloquence of the bishops,
an officer in the Roman army stepped forward with his little
daughter who was blind, and begged that they would bestow
such relief upon her as they were able. The bishops desired
him to try first the powers of those false teachers who had been
just now disputing against them. But these declined the trial,
and united with the officer in begging her cure at the hands of
Germanus and Lupus. Upon this Germanus offered up a short
prayer, and invoking the Holy Trinity, pulled from his bosom a
 little box of relics which he always carried about him. This he
applied to the girl’s eyes, and her sight was immediately
restored.”—Pp. 9, 10.

Extracts from a tract, entitled, “How Antichrist keeps Christmas; or, A

Peep at Christmas in a Catholic country.”

“It is true, indeed, that Christmas is a festival of such universal

gladness, as to thaw for a moment even the icy heart of
Protestantism; sending a ray of joyousness down into the cold
depths of the population of this country, where all is so smooth
and smiling on the surface, all so chill and joyless underneath.
At Christmas I really believe a thrill of gladness darts through
the heart of the great majority of the people. Churches and
chapels are made gay with shining leaves and scarlet berries;
carols are sung in the streets; the words, ‘A merry Christmas to
you!’ pass from mouth to mouth; and beef and pudding, the
outward form which joy is wont to put on in this cold, hungry
climate, smoke on many a board to which, alas! for every other
day in the year they are utter strangers. Nay, it is to be hoped
that even in union workhouses there is an intermission of gruel
for Christmas day.”—Pp. 4, 5.
“Abundant food is a necessity of our climate, and a condition of
our physical well-being to a degree that the people of the South
cannot understand. We are told of our Saxon forefathers,
whom I have before mentioned, that their frames, though so tall
and well-formed, were neither so patient of labour nor of
hunger as might be expected from their apparent strength.
Alas! for the necessity which grinds down our poor to the
endurance of both to such a hurtful degree. But to return to
Christmas. The difference between Catholic and Protestant
Christmas is this, that both love Christmas, but Catholics love it
far more distinctly and consciously for Christ’s sake. The very
name of the festival is theirs, Christ’s Mass; to Protestants one
part of the word has confessedly lost its meaning, and the other
 is a dim vision. Look at the professedly religious part of the
observance of this feast, and see what it amounts to. In the
churches of the English establishment, except the holly boughs,
what is there to tell of the Lord’s birth? Of course the lesson
from Scripture recounting that event is read; so also are certain
Psalms which prophetically relate to it; and a sermon on the
Nativity is (sometimes) preached. But otherwise the ordinary
routine of the service goes on the same as usual. ‘Dearly
beloved brethren,’ holds on the even tenour of its way, with
dulness scarcely mitigated; and there is really nothing either
peculiarly to draw out the devotion of those assisting at it
towards their infant Lord, nor, which is more to our present
purpose, any special outpouring of such devotion on the part of
the Church herself.”—P. 6.

Note B. (P. 17.)

It is hoped that the following brief summary of the leading doctrines
held by the two Churches of England and Rome, with the authorities
on which they respectively rest, may prove useful to some of the
readers of these pages, whether as promoting their inquiry, or
confirming their faith.
Doctrines maintained by the Members of the Church of England and
of the Church of Rome, with the authorities claimed by each in their
support.

CHURCH OF ENGLAND. CHURCH OF ROME.

I. I.
Holy Scripture containeth all things All saving truth is not contained
that are necessary to salvation: so in the Holy Scripture, but partly
that whatsoever is not read therein, in Scripture and partly in
nor may be proved thereby, is not unwritten traditions, which
to be required of any man, that it whosoever doth not receive
should be believed as an article of with like piety and reverence as
the faith, or be thought requisite or he doth the Scriptures, is
necessary to salvation.—6th Article accursed. If any one doth not
of Religion. See Deut. iv. 2; Isa. viii. receive all these books (viz. the
20; Rom. xv. 4; 2 Tim. iii. 15–17; apocryphal mixed with the
Rev. xxii. 8. genuine and canonical books),
with every part of them as they
used to be read in the Catholic
Church, and as they are
contained in the ancient vulgar
Latin edition, for holy and
canonical, and shall knowingly
contemn the aforesaid
traditions, let him be accursed
—Decrees of the Council of
Trent.
II. II.
We are accounted righteous before If any man shall say that the
God, only for the merit of our Lord good works of a justified man
and Saviour Jesus Christ by faith, are in such sense the gifts of
and not for our own works or God, that they are not also his
deservings.—11th Article of worthy merits; or that he,
Religion. See Ps. cxliii. 2; Luke xvii. being justified by his good
10; Rom. iii. 22–24, 27, 28. works, which are wrought by
him through the grace of God
and the merits of Jesus Christ,
of whom he is a living member,
does not really deserve
increase of grace, eternal life,
the enjoyment of that eternal
life, if he dies in a state of
grace, and even an increase of
glory, let him be accursed.—
Decrees of the Council of Trent.
III. III.
The offering of Christ once made is If any one say that in the mass
that perfect redemption, there is not a true and proper
propitiation, and satisfaction, for all sacrifice offered unto God; or,
the sins of the whole world, both that to be offered is nothing
original and actual; and there is else but for Christ to be given
none other satisfaction for sin, but us to eat, let him be accursed!
that alone.—31st Article of Religion. —Decrees of the Council of
Gal. iii. 13; Heb. vii. 26, 27; ix. 12, Trent.
22, 24–28; x. 14; 1 John iii. 1, 2. I further profess, that in the
mass is offered to God a true,
proper, and propitiatory
sacrifice for the quick and
dead.—Creed of Pope Pius IV.
IV. IV.
The Romish doctrine concerning It is lawful to represent God
purgatory, pardons, worshipping, and the Holy Trinity by images;
and adoration, as well of images as and the images and relics of
of reliques, and also invocation of Christ and the saints are to be
saints, is a fond thing vainly duly honoured, venerated, and
invented, and grounded upon no worshipped. And in this
warranty of Scripture, but rather veneration and worship those
repugnant to the word of God.—22d are venerated which are
Article of Religion. Texts opposed to represented by them.—Decrees
the doctrine of purgatory: Eccl. ix. of the Council of Trent.
5, 6; Isa. xxxviii. 18; St. Luke xxiii. I most firmly assert that the
43; Heb. ix. 27; Rev. xiv. 13. Texts images of Christ and of the
opposed to the doctrines of the Mother of God, who was
worship of images and the always a virgin, are to be had
invocation of saints: St. Matt. iv. 10; and retained; and that due
Acts iv. 12; x. 25; 1 Cor. iii. 11; 1 honour and worship are to be
Tim. ii. 5, 6; 1 John ii. 1, 2. given to them.—Creed of Pope
Pius IV.
I constantly hold that there is a
purgatory; and that the souls
 detained there are assisted by
the prayers of the faithful.—
Creed of Pope Pius IV.
V. V.
There are two Sacraments ordained Whosoever shall affirm that the
of Christ our Lord in the Gospel; Sacraments of the New Law
that is to say, Baptism, and the were not all instituted by Jesus
Supper of the Lord. Those five Christ our Lord; or that they
commonly called Sacraments, that is are more or fewer than seven;
to say, Confirmation, Penance, or that any of them is not truly
Orders, Matrimony, and Extreme and properly a sacrament, let
Unction, are not to be counted for him be accursed.—Decrees of
Sacraments of the Gospel, being the Council of Trent.
such as have grown partly of the I profess also that there are
corrupt following of the apostles, truly and properly seven
partly are states of life allowed in Sacraments of the New Law
the Scriptures; but yet have not like instituted by our Lord Jesus
nature of Sacraments with Baptism Christ, and necessary for the
and the Lord’s Supper, for that they salvation of all men, (though
have not any visible sign or not all of them to every one,)
ceremony ordained of God.—25th viz. Baptism, Confirmation, the
Article of Religion. St. Matt. xxviii. Lord’s Supper, Penance,
19; xxvi. 26; St. Mark xiv. 22; St. Extreme Unction, Orders, and
Luke xxii. 19, 20; 1 Cor. xi. 24. Matrimony.—Creed of Pope Pius
IV.
VI. VI.
It is a thing plainly repugnant to the Although the mass contain
word of God, and the custom of the great instruction for the faithful
primitive Church, to have public people; yet it has not appeared
prayer in the Church, or to minister expedient to the Fathers, that it
the Sacraments in a tongue not should be everywhere
understanded of the people.—24th celebrated in the vulgar
Article of Religion. 1 Cor. xiv. 3, 6, tongue.—Decrees of the
14, 16, 19. Council of Trent.
 VII. VII.
The cup of the Lord is not to be Whosoever shall affirm that all
denied to the lay people: for both and every one of Christ’s
the parts of the Lord’s Sacrament, faithful are bound by divine
by Christ’s ordinance and command to partake the most
commandment, ought to be holy sacrament of the Eucharist
ministered to all Christian men alike. in both kinds as necessary to
—30th Article of Religion. St. Matt. salvation, let him be accursed.
xxvi. 26–28; 1 Cor. xi. 28. —Decrees of the Council of
Trent.
I confess also, that under one
kind only is received the whole
and entire Christ, and the true
Sacrament.—Creed of Pope
Pius IV.

Note C. (P. 17.)

It is confidently believed by those persons who are most familiarly
acquainted with the state of the property adjacent to the new
Romish Church, that within a very few years nearly the whole of it
will be covered with new buildings. And it is so far removed from
the churches and National schools at Fulham and Walham Green,
where the population has also increased of late very considerably,
that it is easy to foresee the necessity which will arise for some new
provision for the spiritual instruction of such a district, growing up
nearly in the centre of the parish of Fulham. In such cases, all
experience teaches that it is far wiser to anticipate the measures
that may be required for meeting the exigency, than to adopt them
after it has occurred. And the Vicar, therefore, deems the present a
suitable opportunity for making it known, that the promise has been
secured of a most eligible piece of land, near the locality here
described, and containing rather more than the third of an acre,
which would be well calculated, either now or hereafter, for the
erection of school-rooms, or a church adapted to the wants of this
growing population. The owner of the land, knowing the important
object for which it has been wished to obtain it, has liberally
consented to accept a price considerably below that which its
marketable value would command, and the Bishop of London has
kindly given his sanction to the measure. To those persons whose
interest in the spiritual edification of their poorer neighbours may
induce them to promote it, the Vicar will be thankful to afford any
information that may be wished, in reference to this object, and to
receive from them any amount of pecuniary assistance that will be
needed to meet the expense, which of course must be considerable.

Note D. (P. 18.)

To those members of the congregation at All Saints, who have not
yet introduced into their families the practice of domestic prayer, and
who may possibly feel the want of some suggestions as to the books
best adapted for conducting it, the Vicar would desire to recommend
one or other of the following publications, according as they may
find them most eligible for their own use. The different prices
named would bring the books within the means of every class of his
people; and he ventures to urge the adoption of the practice equally
upon all.

s. d.
Bishop of London’s Manual of Family Prayer, from 1d. to 1 0
Family Prayers, by the late H. Thornton, Esq., M.P. 3 0
Family Prayers, by the late W. Wilberforce, Esq. 1 6
The Churchman’s Book of Family Prayer, by the Rev. J. H. 1 6
Swainson, Rector of Alresford
A Manual of Prayer for Family and Private Devotion, by the Rev. 0 1
C. A. Heurtley
 Note E. (P. 19.)
At a time when books of the most valuable and interesting character
are published at prices far below any former precedent, it seems to
be little less than the duty of every master of a Christian household
to furnish to his servants a collection, however limited, of such works
as would be at once most useful and acceptable to them, which a
few shillings annually would serve to keep up or to extend. The
Vicar would wish to recommend The Churchman’s Monthly Magazine
as one publication, which might, in any case, be added with
advantage to such a library. It has now extended to five small
volumes, and is continued periodically.

The following Table shows the result of the former decennial

inquiries into the population of the parish of Fulham:

NUMBER OF HOUSES.
Males. Females. Total.
Occupied. Empty. Building.
1801 723 15 . . . 2086 2334 4420
1811 885 14 15 2714 3189 5903
1821 987 46 13 2949 3542 6491
1831 1163 111 52 3432 3885 7317
1841 1441 52 9 4189 5230 9419

R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL.

 FOOTNOTES.

[3] 1 Sam. xvii. 34, 35.

[4a] 1 Sam. xvii. 50.
[4b] 1 Cor. i. 28, 29.
[4c] 2 Sam. xxiv. 3, 4.
[7a] Gal. vi. 2.
[7b] Eph. iv. 25.
[7c] 1 Pet. iii. 7.
[8a] Psalm xc. 10.
[8b] Acts xvii. 28.
[8c] Col. i. 27.
[9a] James i. 21.
[9b] Matt. iii. 7.
[9c] John v. 40.
[9d] John vi. 37.
[9e] Gen. vi. 3.
[9f] Heb. iv. 9.
[10a] Psalm xxxix. 12.
[10b] Heb. xi. 16.
[10c] 1 Pet. iv. 18.
[10d] Prov. xiv. 9.
[10e] Philip, iii. 19.
[10f] Heb. vi. 6.
[11a] Acts v. 15.
[11b] Gen. iii. 19.
[12a] 2 Pet. i. 10.
[12b] 1 Cor. vii. 29–31.
[13] 2 Sam. xxiv. 14.
[14a] Isaiah xxiii. 8.
[14b] Deut. iv. 6.
[17a] See Note A.
[17b] Heb. x. 23.
[17c] See Note B.
[17d] See Note C.
[18a] See Note D.
[18b] Isa. lviii. 13.
[19a] See Note E.
[19b] Address to the Sponsors at the close of the Office of Baptism.
[20a] Rev. x. 6.
[20b] Rev. xx. 13. (See the marginal reading.)
[20c] 1 Cor. i. 21.
[20d] 1 Thess. iv. 16.
[20e] Eph. v. 15, 16.
[20f] Rev. vii. 9.
[20g] Rev. iv. 11.
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