SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY

Semiconductor memory is used in any electronics assembly that uses

computer processing technology. Semiconductor memory is the essential
electronics component needed for any computer based PCB assembly.
To meet the growing needs for semiconductor memory, there are many types
and technologies that are used. As the demand grows new memory
technologies are being introduced and the existing types and technologies are
being further developed.

A variety of different memory technologies are available - each one suited to

different applications. Names such as ROM, RAM, EPROM, EEPROM,
FLASH MEMORY, DRAM, SRAM, SDRAM, as well as F-RAM and MRAM are
available, and new types are being developed to enable improved performance.

Terms like DDR3, DDR4, DDR5 and many more are seen and these refer to
different types of SDRAM semiconductor memory.

SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY: MAIN TYPES

There are two main types or categories that can be used for semiconductor
technology. These memory types or categories differentiate the memory to the
way in which it operates:

 RAM - Random Access Memory:

As the names suggest, the RAM or random access memory is a form of

semiconductor memory technology that is used for reading and writing
data in any order. Data is stored and read many times to and from this
type of memory.

Random access memory is used in huge quantities in computer

applications as current day computing and processing technology
requires large amounts of memory. Many types of RAM including SDRAM
with its DDR3, DDR4, and soon DDR5 variants are used in huge
quantities.

 ROM - Read Only Memory:

A ROM is a form of semiconductor memory technology used where the

data is written once and then cannot be changed. Hence the data is
stored permanently, even when the power is removed.

As a result, this type of semiconductor memory technology is widely used

for storing programs and data that must survive when a computer or
processor is powered down. For example the BIOS of a computer will be
stored in ROM. As the name implies, data cannot be easily written to
 ROM. Depending on the technology used in the ROM, writing the data
into the ROM initially may require special hardware. Although it is often
possible to change the data, this again requires special hardware to erase
the data and for new data to be written in.

There is a large variety of types of ROM and RAM that are available. With
technology moving forwards apace, not only are the established
technologies moving forwards with SDRAM technology moving from DDR3
to DDR4 and then to DDR5, but Flash memory used in memory cards is
also developing as are the other technologies.

SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY TECHNOLOGIES:

The different memory types or memory technologies are detailed below:

 SRAM :
SRAM or Static Random Access Memory is a form of semiconductor
memory widely used in electronics, microprocessor and general
computing applications.
There are two key features to SRAM :

The data is held statically: This means that the data is held in the
semiconductor memory without the need to be refreshed as long as the
power is applied to the memory.

SRAM memory is a form of random access memory: A random

access memory is one in which the locations in the semiconductor
memory can be written to or read from in any order, regardless of the
last memory location that was accessed.

SRAM memory cell operation:

The circuit for an individual SRAM memory cell comprises typically four
transistors configured as two cross coupled inverters. In this format the
circuit has two stable states, and these equate to the logical "0" and "1"
states. In addition to the four transistors in the basic memory cell, an
additional two transistors are required to control the access to the
memory cell during the read and write operations. This makes a total of
six transistors, making what is termed a 6T memory cell.

When the cell is selected, the value to be written is stored in the cross-
coupled flip-flops. The cells are arranged in a matrix, with each cell
individually addressable. Most SRAM memories select an entire row of
cells at a time, and read out the contents of all the cells in the row along
the column lines. Access to the SRAM memory cell is enabled by the
Word Line. This controls the two access control transistors which control
whether the cell should be connected to the bit lines. These two lines are
used to transfer data for both read and write operations

SRAM advantages and disadvantages:

SRAM is a little more expensive than DRAM. However SRAM is faster

and consumes less power especially when idle. In addition to this, SRAM
memory is easier to control than DRAM as the refresh cycles do not need
to be taken into account, and in addition to this the way SRAM can be
accessed is more exactly random access. A further advantage if SRAM is
that it is more dense than DRAM.

As a result of these parameters, SRAM memory is used where speed or

low power are considerations. Its higher density and less complicated
structure also lend it to use in semiconductor memory scenarios where
high capacity memory is used, as in the case of the working memory
within computers.

 DRAM:

Dynamic RAM, or DRAM is a form of random access memory, RAM

which is used in many processor systems to provide the working
memory.
DRAM is widely used in digital electronics where low-cost and high-
capacity memory is required.
As the name DRAM, or dynamic random access memory, implies, this
form of memory technology is a type of random access memory. It
stores each bit of data on a small capacitor within the memory cell.
The capacitor can be either charged or discharged and this provides
the two states, "1" or "0" for the cell.
Since the charge within the capacitor leaks, it is necessary to refresh
each memory cell periodically. This refresh requirement gives rise to
the term dynamic - static memories do not have a need to be
refreshed.

DRAM advantages and disadvantages:

The advantage of a DRAM is the simplicity of the cell - it only requires

a single transistor compared to around six in a typical static RAM,
SRAM memory cell. In view of its simplicity, the costs of DRAM are
much lower than those for SRAM, and they are able to provide much
higher levels of memory density. However the DRAM has disadvantages
as well, and as a result, most computers use both DRAM technology
and SRAM, but in different areas.
In view of the fact that power is required for the DRAM to maintain its
data, it is what is termed a volatile memory. Memory technologies such
as Flash are non-volatile and retain data even when the power is
removed.
 Advantages of DRAM
 Very dense
 Low cost per bit
 Simple memory cell structure
Disadvantages of DRAM
 Complex manufacturing process
 Data requires refreshing
 More complex external circuitry required (read and refresh periodically)
 Volatile memory
 Relatively slow operational speed

 PROM:

This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a

semiconductor memory which can only have data written to it once -
the data written to it is permanent. These memories are bought in a
blank format and they are programmed using a special PROM
programmer.

Typically a PROM will consist of an array of fuseable links some of

which are "blown" during the programming process to provide the
required data pattern.

 EPROM:

This is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. These

semiconductor devices can be programmed and then erased at a later
time. This is normally achieved by exposing the semiconductor device
itself to ultraviolet light. To enable this to happen there is a circular
window in the package of the EPROM to enable the light to reach the
silicon of the device. When the PROM is in use, this window is
normally covered by a label, especially when the data may need to be
preserved for an extended period.

The PROM stores its data as a charge on a capacitor. There is a charge

storage capacitor for each cell and this can be read repeatedly as
required. However it is found that after many years the charge may
leak away and the data may be lost.

Nevertheless, this type of semiconductor memory is used widely in

applications where a form of ROM was required, but where the data
needed to be changed periodically, as in a development environment,
or where quantities were low.
 EEPROM:

The initials EEPROM stand for Electrically Erasable Programmable

Read Only Memory. EEPROM also written as E2PROM is a type of
non-volatile memory used to store relatively small amounts of data
that can allow individual bytes to be erased & reprogrammed/
programmed electrically.
The advantage of an EEPROM memory, apart from the fact that the
data stored is non-volatile, is that it is possible to read data from it
and also erase it and write data to it. To erase the data, a relatively
high voltage is required.
EEPROM memory uses the same basic principle that is used by
EPROM memory technology. Although there are several different
memory cell configurations that can be used,the basic principle that is
behind each memory cell is the same.

Often the memory cell will comprise two field effect transistors. One of
these is the storage transistor. This has what is termed a floating gate.
Electrons can be made to become trapped in this gate, and the
presence or absence of electrons then equates to the data stored there.

The other transistor generally in the memory cell is what is known as

the access transistor and it is required for the operational aspects of
the EEPROM memory cell.

 FLASH MEMORY:

Flash memory is a non-volatile form of electronic data storage and as

a result it is used in many areas where short and medium term data
storage is needed.

Flash memory was first introduced in the 1980s and since then
it has been used in many applications and products: USB
memory sticks, Compact Flash cards, SD memory cards,
computer non-volatile memory, solid state hard drives and more.

Flash memory storage is a form of non-volatile memory that was born

out of a combination of the traditional EPROM and E2PROM. These
two forms of memory are only seen occasionally these days and other
forms of memory, including Flash have taken over.

In essence Flash memory uses the same method of programming as

the standard EPROM and the erasure method of the E2PROM.
 One of the main advantages that flash memory has when compared to
EPROM is its ability to be erased electrically.

However it is not possible to erase each cell in a flash memory

individually unless a large amount of additional circuitry is added into
the chip. This would add significantly to the cost and accordingly most
manufacturers dropped this approach in favour of a system whereby
the whole chip, or a large part of it is block or flash erased - hence the
name.

Today most flash memory chips have selective erasure, allowing parts
or sectors of the flash memory to be erased. However any erasure still
means that a significant section of the chip has to be erased.

Flash memory advantages & disadvantages

As with any technology there are various advantages and

disadvantages. It is necessary to consider all of these when determining
the optimum type of memory to be used.

Flash Memory Advantages

 Non-volatile memory
 Easily portable (e.g. USB memory sticks, camera flash cards, etc)
 Mechanically robust
Flash Memory Disadvantages
 Higher cost per bit than hard drives
 Slower than other forms of memory
 Limited number of write / erase cycles
 Data must be erased before new data can be written
 Data typically erased and written in blocks

Flash memory types:

There are two basic types of Flash memory. Although they use the same
basic technology, the way they are addressed for reading and writing is
slightly different. They two flash memory types are:

 NAND Flash memory: NAND Flash memories have a different

structure to NOR memories. This type of flash memory is accessed
much like block devices such as hard disks. When NAND Flash
memories are to be read, the contents must first be paged into memory-
mapped RAM. This makes the presence of a memory management unit
essential.
 NOR Flash memory: NOR Flash memory is able to read individual flash
memory cells, and as such it behaves like a traditional ROM in this
mode. For the erase and write functions, commands are written to the
first page of the mapped memory, as defined in "common flash interface"
created by Intel.

 NAND / NOR tradeoff : NAND Flash memories and NOR Flash

memories can be used for different applications. However some
systems will use a combination of both types of Flash memory. The
NOR memory type is used as ROM and the NAND memory is
partitioned with a file system and used as a random access storage
area.