BASIC

ELECTRONICS

PROF. SNEHA TALREJA

 MULTI-
VIBRATORS
MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Def: An electronic circuit that generates square waves or other non-sinusoidals
is known as a multivibrator
◦ Non-sinusoidal waves can be rectangular, saw-tooth waves etc
◦ “multi”– since a square wave consists of a large number of sinusoidal waves of
different frequencies by Fourier series analysis
◦ A multivibrator is a switching circuit which depends for operation on positive
feedback.
◦ It is basically a two-stage amplifier with output of one feedback to the input of the
other.
MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ The circuit operates in two states (viz ON
and OFF)
◦ Each amplifier stage supplies feedback to
the other in such a manner that will drive
the transistor of one stage to saturation
(ON state) and the other to cut off (OFF
state).
◦ After a certain time, the output is
reversed.
◦ The output can be taken across either
stage and may be rectangular or square
wave depending upon the circuit
conditions.
TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Depending upon the manner in which the two stages interchange their states, the
multivibrators are classified as :
◦ (i) Astable or free running
◦ (ii) Monostable or one-shot
◦ (iii) Bi-stable or flip-flop
CAPACITOR CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
COUPLING CAPACITORS
◦ Def: a capacitor which is used to couple together only the AC signal from one
circuit element to another.
◦ The capacitor blocks the DC signal from entering the second element and, thus,
only passes the AC signal.
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Def: A multivibrator which generates square waves of its own (i.e. without any
external triggering pulse)
◦ It has no stable state - switches back and forth from one state to the other
◦ At first one transistor conducts (i.e. ON state) and the other stays in the OFF state
for some time
◦ After this period of time, the second transistor is automatically turned ON and the
first transistor is turned OFF
◦ The width of the square wave (i.e. the time taken to switch from one state to
another) and its frequency is determined by the circuit constants
◦ Also called as free running multivibrators – since they do not require any
additional inputs or external assistance to oscillate
◦ We can use either NPN or PNP CE BJTs
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
R1 = R4
R2 = R3
C1 = C2
TR1 OFF & TR2 ON:
◦ As TR1 has just entered the cut-off
region, VC is rising towards VCC
(since IC ≈ 0 and VCE ≈ VCC )
◦ Plate A of C1 is also rising towards
VCC
◦ Plate B of C1 is at VBE of TR2 and
hence a potential difference exists
between A and B ( = VCC – VBE )
◦ Ref: https://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/waveforms/astable.html
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ As TR2 is ON, C2 starts charging
through resistor R2 towards VCC
◦ When the C2 voltage rises to more
than VBE of TR1, TR1 starts
conducting or goes into saturation
◦ As soon as TR1 switches ON, A of C1
which was earlier at Vcc immediately
falls to VBE
◦ This voltage fall on plate A causes
and instantaneous fall on plate B to a
reverse voltage =(- (VCC – VBE ))
◦ This negative voltage causes TR2 to
turn OFF – one unstable state
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
TR1 ON & TR2 OFF:
◦ Since TR2 is OFF, C1 charges to VCC at B
via R3
◦ Thus, base of TR2 is moving towards
VCC
◦ However, base of TR2 never reaches VCC
since as soon as it reaches VBE of TR2,
TR2 turns ON and goes to saturation
◦ This starts the process all over again but
this time with C2 getting the voltage =(-
(VCC – VBE ))
◦ Thus TR1 turns OFF – second unstable
state
Thus the circuit alternates between one unstable state and the other till the
supply voltage V
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
ADVANTAGES:
1. No external triggering required.
2. Circuit design is simple
3. Inexpensive
4. Can function continuously
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Energy absorption is more within the circuit.
2. Output signal is of low energy.
3. Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.
APPLICATIONS:
Amateur radio equipments, Morse code generators, timer circuits, analog circuits,
and TV systems.
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
ON or OFF TIME
◦ The time for which either transistor remains ON or OFF is given by:
1. ON time for TR1 or OFF time for TR2:
T1 = 0.694 R2C1

2. OFF time for TR1 or ON time for TR2:

T2 = 0.694 R3C2
(These are calculated from half-life of the capacitor)

Total time period of the square wave : T = T1 + T2 = 0.694 (R2C1 + R3C2)

Since R2 = R3 = R and C1= C2=C, T = 1.4RC seconds
Frequency of the square wave: f = 1/T = 0.7/RC Hz
PRACTICE PROBLEM
Q. In the astable multivibrator, R2 = R3 = 10 kΩ and C1 = C2 = 0.01 μF. Determine the
time period and frequency of the square wave.
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Def: A multivibrator in which one transistor is always conducting and the other is
non-conducting with the interchange in the states occurring temporarily only due
to the application of external pulse.
◦ If one transistor is conducting and the other is non-conducting, the circuit will
remain in this position.
◦ It is only with the application of external pulse that the circuit will interchange the
states called quasi-stable state or meta-stable state.
◦ However, after a certain time, the circuit will automatically switch back to the
original stable state and remains there until another pulse is applied.
◦ Thus a monostable multivibrator cannot generate square waves of its own like an
astable multivibrator.
◦ Only external pulse will cause it to generate the square wave.
Ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTm-fB1OrqE
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/pulse_circuits/pulse_circuits_monostable_multivibrator.htm
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Q1 OFF & Q2 ON (stable state):
◦ When the circuit is switched on, Q1
is OFF and Q2 is ON
◦ This is the stable state with zero
output
◦ Q1 off -> collector voltage = VCC at A
causing C1 to get charged
◦ The other plate is at VBE of Q2
Q1 ON & Q2 OFF (quasi-stable
state):
◦ A positive trigger pulse applied at
the base of Q1 turns it ON
◦ This decreases the collector voltage
making Q2 turn OFF
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Point A is grounded, hence Q2 base
gets a voltage of –(VCC – VBE) causing
Q2 to turn OFF.
◦ As the positive voltage from the
collector of Q2 gets applied to Q1, it
remains in ON state.
◦ C1 starts charging towards VCC in
the reverse direction from R1 to Q1.
◦ As soon as the plate towards R1
reaches VBE , Q2 starts conducting.
◦ Voltage at collector becomes low
causing Q1 to turn off and
eventually reach cut-off region.
◦ Hence, the circuit reaches the stable
state again.
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
ADVANTAGES:
1. One trigger pulse is enough
2. Circuit design is simple
3. Inexpensive
DISADVANTAGES:
The time between the applications of trigger pulse T has to be greater than the RC
time constant of the circuit.
APPLICATIONS:
Television circuits and control system circuits
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
ON or OFF TIME
◦ The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant. Hence it
depends on the values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given by
T = 0.69R1C1
◦ The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the action.
◦ There will be one output pulse for one trigger pulse.
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Def: A multivibrator which has both the states stable
◦ It will remain in whichever state it happens to be until a trigger pulse causes it to
switch to the other state
◦ If Q1 is conducting and Q2 is off, it shall stay like this unless a pulse is applied
◦ On the application of a trigger pulse, Q1 shall be off and Q2 shall be on.
◦ This positing will stay till another trigger pulse is applied.
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Main purpose of C1 and C2 is to
improve the circuit switching
characteristics – by passing the high
frequency components of the square
wave.
◦ This allows fast rise and fall times
and hence distortion-less square
wave output.
◦ The output can be taken across either
transistor.
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
◦ Parallel RC circuits pass high
frequency components of the square
wave.
◦ This allows fast rise and fall times
and hence distortion-less square
wave output.
◦ The output can be taken across either
transistor.
◦ When VCC is applied, one transistor
will start conducting slightly ahead
of the other due to some differences
in the characteristics of the
transistors
o One transistor goes to cut off and the other to saturation like in astable
multivibrator
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Q1 ON and Q2 OFF:
◦ To switch states, a negative pulse is
applied to the base of Q1 through C3
◦ This will cause Q1 to be turned off
◦ Another way: apply a positive pulse
to Q2 through C4 to conduct Q2
◦ Lets go by the negative pulse
method
◦ This reduces the forward bias on Q1
-> decreases Q1 IC and increases
collector voltage -> forward biases
the base-emitter junction of Q2 ->
increases Q2 IC and decreases
collector voltage
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Q1 OFF and Q2 ON:
◦ The decreasing collector voltage is
applied to the base of Q1 -> further
reverse biases the base-emitter
junction of Q1 -> further decreases
its collector current.
◦ Q2 is quickly driven to saturation
and Q1 to cut off.
◦ The circuit will now remain stable in
this state until a negative trigger
pulse at Q2 (or a positive trigger
pulse at Q1) changes this state.
SINUSOIDAL
OSCILLATORS
SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATOR
What is a sinusoidal oscillator?
◦ Def: An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired
frequency without any external signal source
◦ It does not have any external signal source but has a dc power supply
◦ It does not generate electricity but converts dc to ac energy
◦ The frequency of oscillations depends upon the constants of the device
◦ ranging from a few Hz to several MHz.
◦ An oscillator circuit provides a varying output signal.
◦ If the output signal varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to as a
sinusoidal oscillator.
◦ If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and later drops quickly
to another voltage level, the circuit is generally referred to as a pulse or
square-wave oscillator
TYPES OF SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATIONS

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS UNDAMPED OSCILLATIONS

 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

◦ The input signal Vs is applied to a mixer network, where it is combined with a feedback
signal Vf
◦ A portion of the amplifier output Vo is connected to the feedback network (β), which
provides a reduced portion of the output as feedback signal to the input mixer network
◦ The sum/difference of these signals Vi is then the input voltage to the amplifier.
◦ Sum (left diagram) – gives a positive feedback
◦ Difference (right diagram) – gives a negative feedback
POSITIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER AS AN OSCILLATOR
◦ A positive feedback amplifier is
one that produces a feedback
voltage (Vf ) that is in phase with
the original input signal (Vin)
◦ A phase shift of 180° is produced
by the amplifier and a further
phase shift of 180° is introduced
by feedback network giving a 360˚
shift
◦ This is still not an oscillator. Why?
◦ Because this needs an input signal.
◦ After an initial trigger of Vin, the
switch S is opened and Vf provides
the input needed in the same phase
as Vin
BARKHAUSEN CRITERION FOR OSCILLATION
◦ Amplifier stage gain: A
◦ Initial input voltage = Vi
◦ Output voltage Vo = AVi
◦ Feedback stage gain: β
◦ Input voltage = Vo
◦ Output voltage = β(AVi)
◦ βA – called loop gain
• If βA is of correct magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi.
• Then when we remove the input voltage Vi, the circuit will continue to
operate without feedback as desired.
• Barkhausen criterion for oscillation: βA =1

• Practical circuits need βA>1 to compensate for power loss in the circuit
POSITIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER AS AN OSCILLATOR
◦ Overall gain of a feedback amplifier: Af=𝐴/(1−𝛽𝐴)
◦ What happens when βA = 1 i.e. when Barkhausen criterion is met?
◦ Af becomes infinite ideally
◦ Even an infinitesimal signal (noise voltage or trigger) can provide a measurable
output voltage and the circuit can function without any input signal
◦ This aligns with our definition of an oscillator

◦ For a positive feedback amplifier to work as an oscillator:

1. A transistor amplifer with proper positive feedback will work as an oscillator.
2. The circuit needs only a quick trigger signal to start the oscillations. Once the
oscillations have started, no external signal source is needed.
3. In order to get continuous undamped output from the circuit, Barkhausen
criterion should be met
COMPONENTS OF TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS

1. LC CIRCUIT: Inductance coil in parallel with capacitor. Also called tank circuit
or tuned circuit or oscillatory circuit
2. TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER: Converts dc received from power supply to ac. The
oscillations received from tank circuit are amplified.
3. FEEDBACK CIRCUIT: Supplies a part of collector energy to the tank circuit to
provide positive feedback
 WORKING OF TANK CIRCUIT

i. Capacitor is charged with upper plate having deficit and lower having excess of electrons
ii. Capacitor discharges setting up magnetic field around the coil.
iii.Counter emf keeps the current flowing in the same direction, charging the capacitor with
opposite polarity
iv.After the capacitor is fully charged, it again discharges in the opposite direction
◦ The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of electrons or an
oscillating current.
 COMMON EMITTER BJT GIVES A 180˚ PHASE SHIFT

Why is it so?
◦ Vo is amplified but 180˚ out of phase with respect to Vi
◦ Vi increases -> VB increases -> IB increases -> IC increases -> IcRc increases
◦ IC RC increases -> Vo decreases. Why?
◦ Vo = VCC – ICRC
 TYPES OF TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS
◦ All oscillators under different names have similar function. What is the function?
◦ They produce continuous undamped output.
◦ The major difference between these oscillators lies in the method by which energy
is supplied to the tank circuit to meet the losses.

◦ TYPES:
1. TUNED OSCILLATORS
i. COLPITT’S OSCILLATOR
ii. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
2. RC OSCILLATORS
i. PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
ii. WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
3. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
 COLPITT OSCILLATOR
◦ CE and base capacitor acts as
DC-blocking bypass capacitors
◦ Radio Frequency choke applied
at collector to provide high
reactance (opposition) to
resonant frequency and a low
resistance to DC – to help start
the oscillations
◦ C1-C2-L form a feedback circuit.
◦ C1 and C2 are in series and they
get charged when the circuit is
turned on. Hence CT is:
 COLPITT OSCILLATOR
◦ They discharge through L,
setting up oscillations of
frequency determined by:

◦ The amplifier output voltage is

obtained across C1 and feedback
is given back to the BJT via C2
◦ As discussed, BJT gives a 180˚
phase shift and feedback circuit
give a further 180˚ phase shift
◦ Hence a proper 0˚ shift
feedback is received by the
transistor to produce continuous
undamped oscillation.
 COLPITT OSCILLATOR
◦ Feedback fraction:

◦ Since V = IXC

◦ Since XC = 1/(2fC)
PRACTICE PROBLEM
For the Colpitt’s oscillator shown, determine the:
(i) operating frequency
(ii) feedback fraction
PRACTICE SOLUTION
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
◦ Now, L1-L2-C form a feedback circuit
that provides a phase shift of 180˚. CE
amplifier gives 180˚ as in Colpitt’s
◦ When the circuit is turned on, the
capacitor is charged.
◦ When this capacitor is fully charged, it
discharges through coils L1 and L2
setting up oscillations of frequency

◦ LT = L1 + L2 +2M
◦ M = mutual inductance between L1
and L2
• The output voltage of the amplifier appears across L1 and feedback voltage across
L2
 HARTLEY’S OSCILLATOR
◦ Feedback fraction:

◦ Since V = IXL

◦ Since XL = 2fL
PRACTICE PROBLEM
For the Hartley’s oscillator shown with mutual inductance of 20μH, determine the:
(i) operating frequency
(ii) feedback fraction
PRACTICE SOLUTION
PRINCIPLE OF PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATORS
◦ One basic desirable feature of an oscillator is that the total phase shift of the circuit
should be 360˚.
◦ Hence feedback circuit should have a phase shift of 180˚
◦ The remaining 180˚ is obtained from the transistor properties of CE amplifiers.
◦ LC circuits used for feedback have the following disadvantages:
1. Frequency is unstable and the waveform is unclear (poor)
2. Very low frequencies cannot be attained easily as the elements become bulky and
expensive (frequency is inversely proportional to L and C)
◦ These issues get resolved when one uses RC circuit instead.
RC OSCILLATOR BASICS

◦ V1’ = Ri(t)
1
◦ V1= R + 𝑗ω𝐶 𝑖(𝑡)
−𝑗
◦ If R=0 -> V1 = 𝑖(𝑡)
ω𝐶
◦ Hence V1’ leads V1 by 90˚.
◦ Practically, creating R=0 is impossible hence we set up values such that V1’ leads V1
by 60˚. Connecting 3 such circuits will give us a phase difference 180˚ as desired
 PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
◦ The feedback circuit of R1C1,
R2C2 and R3C3 sections provide
a total of 180˚ phase shift as
discussed
◦ CE amplifier gives a 180˚ phase
shift
◦ Frequency of oscillations is
given by:

R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C3 = C
PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
ADVANTAGES:
1. Does not require inductors
2. Can be used to produce very
low frequencies
3. Provides good frequency
stability

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Difficult for the circuit to start
oscillations as the feedback is
generally small
2. Output from the circuit is less
PRACTICE PROBLEM
Q. A phase shift oscillator uses 5 pF capacitors. Find the value of R to produce a
frequency of 800 kHz.

PRACTICE SOLUTION
 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
◦ Standard oscillator circuit used
for all frequencies in the range of
10Hz to about 1MHz
◦ Most frequently used type of
audio oscillator since the output
is free from:
◦ circuit fluctuations
◦ ambient temperature
◦ It consists of:
1. A two-stage amplifier
2. A bridge circuit consisting of
R1C1, R3, R2C2 and tungsten
lamp Lp.
◦ Uses of all elements are
mentioned as below:
WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
◦ R3 and Lp: to stabilise the
amplitude of the output.
◦ T1: oscillator and amplifier
◦ T2: inverter to produce a phase
shift of 180˚
◦ R1C1 and R2C2: provide positive
feedback to T1
◦ R6 and R7: provide negative
feedback to T2
WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
◦ Series combination of R1C1 acts
as low pass filter
◦ Parallel combination of R2C2
acts as high pass filter
◦ Together, they allow only a
particular frequency to pass
through from the input
noise/thermal frequencies
◦ Frequency of oscillations is given
by:
 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
◦ T1 and T2 provide a total phase
shift of 360˚ to provide proper
positive feedback
◦ The negative feedback ensures
constant output
◦ Lp provides negative feedback:
◦ If the amplitude of output increases,
more current flows
◦ This increases the heat and further
increases the resistance of tungsten
lamp
◦ The output will return to original
value – i.e. it will be stabilized
◦ The reverse occurs when the output
decreases
◦ Hence the output is stabilized by L
WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
ADVANTAGES:
1. It gives constant output.
2. The circuit works quite easily.
3. The overall gain is high because
of two transistors.
4. The frequency of oscillations can
be easily changed by using a
potentiometer
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The circuit requires two
transistors and a large number
of components.
2. It cannot generate very high
frequencies.
PRACTICE PROBLEM
Q. In the Wien bridge oscillator shown, R1 = R2 = 220 kΩ and C1 = C2 = 250 pF.
Determine the frequency of oscillations.

PRACTICE SOLUTION
LIMITATIONS OF LC AND RC OSCILLATORS
◦ As the circuit operates, it will warm up.
◦ The values of resistors and inductors will change with temperature.
◦ This causes the change in frequency of the oscillator. Why?
◦ Because the frequency depends on these R, L and C
◦ What is the issue then?
◦ in many applications, it is desirable and necessary to maintain the frequency
constant with extreme low tolerances
◦ For example, broadcasting station frequencies should not vary more than 0.002%
of the specified frequency. Why?
◦ They have frequencies which are quite close to each other. Solution?
◦ Use piezoelectric crystals instead of LC or RC circuits Such circuits are called
crystal oscillators.
◦ The frequency change is less than 0.1% in crystal oscillators and hence used more
often.
PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
◦ Piezoelectric crystal: A crystalline substance that can generate an electrical
voltage when compressed physically.
◦ Conversely, when we apply an a.c. voltage across them, they vibrate at the
frequency of the applied voltage
◦ “Piezo”in Greek means push i.e. mechanical stress
◦ Crystal: A solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered
microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions
◦ Most commonly used piezoelectric crystal: quartz -> inexpensive, easily available
in nature, good mechanical strength, easy to manufacture
QUARTZ CRYSTAL
◦ Natural shape – hexagonal
◦ X-axis: electrical axis
◦ Y-axis: mechanical axis
◦ Z-axis: optical axis
PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
◦ X-cut crystal: Crystal cut perpendicular to x-axis
◦ Y-cut crystal: Crystal cut perpendicular to y-axis
◦ Each crystal has a natural frequency like a pendulum. Given by:
𝐾
f= 𝑡
K – constant depending upon the cut
t – thickness of the crystal
◦ Relation between thickness and frequency?
◦ Inversely proportional hence the thinner the crystal, the higher is its frequency
◦ However, extremely thin crystal may break because of vibrations
◦ This puts a limitation to the attainable frequency.
◦ Frequencies obtained usually: 25kHz to 5MHz
WORKING OF QUARTZ CRYSTAL

◦ The crystal is placed between two plates – forming a capacitor

◦ If an a.c. voltage is applied across the plates, the crystal will start
vibrating at the frequency of applied voltage
◦ What happens when the ac voltage frequency is the same as natural
frequency of the crystal?
◦ It resonates, maximizing the crystal vibrations
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CRYSTAL
◦ When the crystal is not vibrating, it
is equivalent to capacitance Cm –
called mounting capacitance
◦ When a crystal vibrates, it is
equivalent to R –L – C series circuit
◦ Therefore, the equivalent circuit of
quartz is Cm parallel with R-L-C 𝑇

◦ At low frequencies, impedance of the crystal

is really high because of XCm and XC ->
impedance is capacitive
◦ As the frequency increases, the crystal acts as
a series resonant circuit and the circuit
approaches its series-resonant frequency fs
◦ This happens when XC = XL s
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CRYSTAL
◦ Total R-L-C reactance = XT = XL + XC
◦ R-L-C impedance Z = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑇2
◦ At series-resonance, Z = R
◦ At higher frequencies, the net
reactance of R-L-C becomes
inductive.
◦ Cm is much larger than C
◦ After a certain increase in frequency, the crystal acts as a parallel-resonant
circuit, offering a very high impedance.
◦ The frequency at which the crystal vibrates is called parallel-resonant
frequency fp

◦ Beyond fp , XCm reduces further and the crystal acts like short circuit.
◦ Hence the crystal can work at 2 frequencies – fs and fp
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
◦ Very similar to Colpitt’s oscillator
◦ Instead of inductor, we have the
quartz crystal
◦ At parallel resonance, the
impedance of the crystal is
maximum -> Voltage drop across
C1 is maximum -> maximum
energy transfer through the
feedback network at fp
◦ As in Colpitt’s, a phase shift of 180˚ is provided by the transistor and of 180˚ by the
crystal-capacitor circuit.
◦ Since we are working at parallel-resonance frequency, the oscillator will oscillate
only at fp
◦ Even the smallest deviation from fp will cause the oscillator to act as an effective
short – giving us an extremely stable oscillator
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
◦ Q-factor?
◦ The ratio of maximum energy stored in a capacitor or inductor to the energy
dissipated by a resistor

ADVANTAGES
1. They have a high order of frequency stability.
2. The quality factor (Q) of the crystal is very high. The Q factor of the crystal may be
as high as 10,000 compared to about 100 of L-C tank.

DISADVANTAGES
1. They are fragile and consequently can only be used in low power circuits.
2. The frequency of oscillations cannot be changed appreciably
PRACTICE PROBLEM
Q. The ac equivalent circuit of a crystal has these values: L = 1H, C = 0.01 pF, R = 1000
Ω and Cm = 20 pF. Calculate fs and fp of the crystal

PRACTICE SOLUTION