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 A MODULAR COURSE

The Social Psychology

of Aggression

Barbara Krahe
 �"e.ltl 'Ptf�e""',,s�
A MODULAR COURSE

Edited by
Miles Hewstone

The Social Psychology of Aggression

This book provides an up-to-date overview of social psychological research in the field of
aggression. It presents a balanced account of both theoretical and applied issues and
explores strategies designed to control, reduce and prevent aggression on both an
individual and a societal level.
The book follows the broad division of basic and applied research in the area. First,
it deals with the theoretical approaches that have been taken to conceptualise, explain,
measure and predict the occurrence of aggression as a particular form of social
behaviour. Issues discussed include individual differences in aggressive behaviour, the
role of situational factors such as alcohol in eliciting aggression and the impact of media
violence on vi,ewer's aggressive response tendencies. Second, it addresses the
manifestations of aggression in different areas of lif e and the concerns of applied
,

psychologists and practitioners regarding the damaging effects of aggression on

individuals, groups and societies. Included are chapters on aggression in the public
sphere. domestic viole n ce and sexual aggression. Topics such as bullying, gang
,

violence, ethnic violence and violence in the family are also covered.
,

The Social Psychology of Aggression will be of interest to students and researchers

in psychology, sociology, law, media studies, and social work. It w i ll also be useful to
practitioners and policy makers working in areas such as domestic violence, sexual
aggression, childhood and adolescent aggression, bullying and gang violence.

"WeI/-written, accurate, and up-to-date. It was fun to read - I had a hard time putting it
down . . "
. Brad J. Bushman, Iowa State University

"Readers will find evidence which leads them to new insights in daily life and to a better
understanding of the dynamics behind aggressive behaviour. "
Han�-Werner Bierhoff, Ruhr-Universitat Bochum

"A very weI/-organized and wide-ranging overview of most of the current thinking in the
area of aggression ... this text should be one of the top choices for undergraduate courses
on aggression. " Jeff Bryson, San Diego State University

ISBN 0-86377-776·7
I SSN 1368-4574
1111 111 �IIII I IIII �
9 780863 777769
THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
OF AGGRESSION
To Justin
The Social Psychology
of Aggression

Barbara Krahe
University of Potsdam
Published in 2001 by Psychology Press Ltd
27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex, BN32FA

www.psypress.co.uk

Simultaneously published ill the USA and Canada

by Taylor & Francis Inc
325 Chestnut Street, Suite 800, Philadelphil\, PA 19106

Psychology Press is part of the Taylor & Fra/lcis Croup

© 2001 by Psychology Press Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any fonn or by any electronic,

mechanical. or other means, now known or hereafter IDvented,
including photoc.opying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, Without permission in writing from
the publishe.rs.

Britisl! Library Cala/og'llilIg ill Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Britis.h Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Dala

Krahe, "Barbara.
The social psychology of aggression I Barbara Ktahe.
p. em. - (Social
psychology, ISSN 1368-4574)
Jncludes bibliographical references and index.
lS"BN 0-86377-775-9 - 0-86377-776-7 (pbk..)
1. Aggressiveness. T. TiI:le.. TI. Social psychology (Philadelphia, Pa.)

HMl116.K372001
302.S'4-dc21 00-046028

ISBN 0-86377-775-9 (hbk) 0-86377-776-7 (pbk)

ISSN 1366-4574 (Social raychology: A Modw/ll" CoUJ1je)

Cover design by Joyce Chester

Cover ilh.tstration: Vio/eIU:.c,used with permission from dpa
Typeset in Palatino by Mayhew Typesetting, Rhayader, Powys
Printed and bound in the UK by TJ international Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
 Contents

Preface ix

Introduction 1

1 Concepts and measures of aggression 9

Defining aggression 9
The measurement of aggression 13
Summary 25
Suggested reading 26

2 Theories of aggressive behaviour 27

Biological explanations 28
Psychological explanations 33
Summary 46
5uggested reading 46

3 Individual differences in aggression 47

The development of aggressive behaviour 47
Personality and aggression in adulthood 54
Gender differences in aggressive behaviour 59
Summary 64
Suggested reading 66

4 Situationa] influences on aggression 67

.Aggressive cues 67
Alcohol 69
Temperarure 80
Other Environmental Stressors 85
Summary 87
Suggested reading 88

,v
 5 Med ia violence and aggression 91
Short-term t?ffects of media violence 92
Long-term effects of media violence 100
The effects of pornography 103
Explaining the media violence-aggression link 108
Mitigating the adverse effects of media violence 114
Summary 115
Suggested reading 117

6 Aggression in the public sphere 119

Bullying in school and at the workplace 119
Ethnic and politically motivated violence 126
Collective violence 132
Homicide IS8
SUInLnBry 143
Suggested Reading 145

7 Domestic violence 147

Child abuse and maltreatment 149
Partner abuse and wife battering 165
Elder abuse and neglect 170
Explaining domestic violence 175
Summary 180
Suggested reading 181

8 Sexual aggression 183

Definition and prevalence of sexual aggression 184
Causal explanations of sexual aggreSSion 191
Risk factors ot sexual victimisation 200
Consequences of sexual victimisation 203
Sexually aggressive women 205
Summ ary 208
Suggested Teading 209

9 Controlling and preventing aggressive behaviour 211

General strategiesfot reducing aggression 212
Tackling bullying and gang violence 222
Preventing domestic violence 225
Preventing sexual aggression 228
Summary 235
Suggested reading 236

vi COt1TENTS
References 239

Author Index 267

Subject Index 275

CONTENTS vii
 Preface

Writing this book has been b oth a challenge and a pleasure: a

challenge, because of the sheer volum e of new and exciting research
on the various aspects of aggression that needed to be considered; a
pLeasure because it provided an opportunity to look beyond the con­
fines of my immediate research interests and "exploit" the excellent
work of other specialised researchers. The richness and quality of the
material that I encountered dealing with all the different issues of the
f
fascinating, albeit depressing, subject o aggression gave a new boost
to myenthu.siasm for social psychology. It also raised my confidence
that social psychological research has a real contribution to offer to the
solution of pressing social problems, both b$r explaining their causes
and Oligins and by highlighting avenues for prevention. I hope that at
least some of that enthusiasm and confidence comes across to the
readersand will eventually be shared by them.
In completing this book, 1 have received valuable support and
encouragement from a number of coUeagues and friends. I am
indebted to Hans-Werner Bierhoff, Jeff 'Bryson, and Brad Bushman
for their constructive feedback on the manuscript, which greatly
helped 'to improve its clarity and precision. 1 would like to thank:
Evelyn Fischer, Steffen Bieneck, Ingrid MoUet, and Sabine Quandte
for their help in preparing the final manuscript. Thanks are also due
to Rachel Brazil and Mandy Collison at Psychology Press for the
competence with which they steered the book to its final stage and
appearance. I am particularly grateful to Barbara Lloyd for many
stimulating meetings and discussions in a pleasant environment and
to Jannet King for providing much-appreciated breaks and conver­
sations during the phase of solitary confinement necessary to com­
plete the book in time. Finally, special thanks go to my husband Peter
for his continuous support and encouragement and to my children
Charlotte and Justin for all those hours of "silent reading time".

Ix
 Introduction

On Brighton's Palace Pier, one of the

many amusement piers which are greatly
popular in seaside resorts all along the
British coast, visitors can enjoy in a
leisurely way an entertainment device
called the RenJ Ptmcher. This ingeniously
designed machine enables them to work
out their aggressive impulses in a care­
fully designed sequence of events.
yourself
Just take a moment to pi cture
in front of the Real PUllcller, having
inserted a £1 coin (this would have done I
in March 2000; rates may well have gone
up since).
First, you are asked to positiqn yourself
in front of the machine so that a picture of
your face can be taken by a mounted
camera. This picture is then digitalised
and displayed on a large colour screen.

As soon as your digitalised portrait

appears, you are asked to don two large
boxing gloves and punch your photo­
graphed face as hard as you can by
�lamming on a pad. Please note the special instructions on how to
deliver the blow without injuring your fists and wrists!
The effects of the pWlch to yOUl' face are graphically displayed
on the screen and, in case you haven't taken it in properly, accom­
panied by a message of success printed in large letters underneath:
DEFORMED!
Special thrill is to be gained from the game if played in the
two-player mode in which case the portraits of both players are
,
 digitalised and the "partners" can take turns deforming each other s '

faces.
What does this piece of equipment for an amusement arcade have
to do in the introduction of a book on aggression research? When I
firstencountered the Real PUJlcher in the early planning stages of this
volume, it struck me that it nicely, if inadvertently, illustrates a
variety of aspects involved in the social psychological study of
aggression. First, it simulates a behaviour that is intended to inflict
harm or injury on a person and thus meets a core criterion in the
definition of aggressive behaviour. Second, it reflects the extent to
which aggression is part and parcel of our daily lives in that the
deformation-albeit in a virtual reality-of one's own and others'
facial features is presented as an acceptable and enjoyable leisure
activity. In so doing, it to uches upon the controversial issue of fic­
titious aggression in the media and its effects on viewers' aggressive
tendencies. By providing an opportunity for "real action", it even
surpasses media depictions of aggression that confine the viewer to
the passive role of recipient. Furthermore, its entertainment value is
predicated on the assumption that the release of destructive impulses
through the act of punching is a pleasurable experience for which
people ate willing to pay. Finally, the fact that the Real Puncher is
accessible to the general public of all age groups reflects a consensus,
at least among the regulatin'
result from releasing destructive impulses in this way-provided the
warnings are observed about protecting wrists and fists. Looming
behind these/last):wo aspects is the notion of cathaTSis inhetent in both
psychoanalytic thinki,ng and common-sense di scourse, which regards
the imaginary or "innocuous" rel ease of destructive energy as an
effective way-of controlling aggression. As we shall see, however, this
view is fundamentally challenged by social cognitive models of
aggreSS ive behaviour.
These are but some of the �pects addressed by social psycho­
logical research on aggression to be presented in this volume. Given
the complexity of human aggression, it is self-evident that no single
psychological discipline can offer a comprehensive understanding of

itsmanifes ta tions causes and consequences. Therefore, it is import­

,

ant to stress at the outset the issues that are atthe focus of a social
psychological perspective on aggression as weLL as to mention those
aspects that £all primarily into the realm of other fields.
From a social psychological point of view, aggression is con­
aptualised as a particular form of social behaviour that is both shaped
by an. individual's social world and has effects on that social world

2 THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF AGGRESSION

and its inhabitants. Therefore, in terms of looking at manifestations of
aggression, the focus will be on aggressive behaviour occurring in
social relationships between individuals and/ or groups. This means
that other forms of aggression, such as self-destructive behaviour,
psychopathological forms of aggression or destructive behaviour
against mate)'ial objects, will not be given special consideration. Simi­
larly, in terms of explaining the occurrence of aggressive behaviour,
the focus will be on social factors, such as socialisation experiences,
situational context variables and social information processing
and their interactions with individual dispositions. Other causal
influences, such as hormonal and neurophysiological processes, are
given less weight, not because they are deemed less relevant but
because they iocus on non-social determinants of aggression. They are,
however, given comprehensive coverage in other recent reviews
(e. g. Bond,
, Lader, & Da Silveira, 1997; Renfrew, 1997). Finally, our
examination of the consequences of aggression will also be concentrated
on the social functioning of both victims and perpetrators in the
context of their interpersonal relationships, excluding such issues as
the forensic ot psychiatric treatm ent of aggressive o ffen ders and
clinical help for target persons of aggressive behaviour in coping with
their victimisation.
Moreover,it seems appropriate at this; point- to try and locate
the present volume in the current landscape of the literature on
aggression. For those who look for a comprehensive and in-dep th
coverage of social psychological aggression research , excellent
volumes are available with wtuch the present volume neither can,
nor aspires to, compete (Baron & Richardson, 1994; Berkowitz, 1993;
Geen & Oonnerstein, 1998; Tedeschi & Felson, 1994). On the other
hand, readers looking for a summary of the main issues and findings
of aggression research will find a pertinent chapter in every textbook
of social psychology. The present volume is designed to take an
inteUlleruate position between these two levels of specificity. Its aim is
to provid e an up-to�date and critical overview of aggression Iesearch
from a social psychological perspective to inform readers about the
. central concepts, i ssues , and findings in the study of aggression.
Moreover, it-is in tend ed to create a knowledge base from which more
specialised literature dealing with com plex issues and research
programmes can be approached (e.g., Feshbach & Zagrodzka, 1997;
Huesmann, 1994; PotegaI & Knutson, 1994). Because of the availability
of several excellent earlier volumes, one ptiority of the present volume
is to concentrate on the most recent research not covered by these
previous sources. As the reader will notice, a large proportion of

INTRODU.CTlON 3
 studies quoted in this book were pubhshed in th second half of tlle
1990s and th us represent the current state of socia] psychological
knowledge on aggression, its causes, and its consequences.
The topic. addressed in this volume reflect the fact that progress in
aggression research has been sti muJa ted by two d i s ti nct but com­
pleOlentary sources. On the one hand, there has been a long-standing
theoretical interest in how to conceptualise, explain, and predict the
occurrence of aggression as a particular form of (a n ti ) socia l behav­
iour. On the other hand, applied psychologiSts and practitioners in a
wide range of fields have become increasingly concerned about the
damaging effects of aggression on individuals, groups, and society at
la rge. They have been lookin g to p sych ol ogy in general and social
psychology in particular ior guidance in the search for a systematic
understanding of the incidence and determinants of aggreSSive
behaviour as well as for the development of successful intervention
strategies. The challenge to psychology of providing a sound and

systematic knowledge bas for tackling the problems of aggreSSion

and viole nce has recently been picked up by the two major pro­

fessional organisations in psychology. It ha stimulated the develop­

ment of a "behavioral science research plan for violence" as part of
the Hllmall Capital initiative launched by the American Psychological
Society (1997) and also features prominently in the Decade of Behavior
campaign initiated by the American Psychological Association (Azar,
1998). These initiatives are built on the conviction that

basic researdl should be aimed at obtaining a better

understanding of the causes of violent behavior. [ .. ,1
Applied prevention research should be directed at devel­
oping the tools to prev�nt and treat violent behavior
within the framework of knowledge on causation pro­
vided by basic research. (American Psychological Society,
1997, p. 5)

The dual role of social psychological aggression research as a basic

and an applied discipline. is reflected in the organisation of the
present volume: In the first five chapters, basic issues of definition,
measurement, and explanation will be discussed that are of general
significance to the understanding of aggressive behaviour irrespec­
tive of its specific manifestations. In Chapter 1, issues of defining and
measuring aggression will be discussed to provide a platform for
presenting research findings based on different conceptualisations
and methodologies. The advantages and limitations of studying

THE SOCIAL PS'(CHOLOGY OF AGGRESSION

aggression in the artificially o'eated settings of the psychological
laboratory or in the realistic contexts of naturall y occurring situations
p]ay an important part in this discussion. Chapter 2 p resents an o ver­
view of theories explaining aggressive behaviour, dividing them into
approaches that stress the biological foundations of aggressive
behaviour and those that explain aggression as the result of psycho­
logical processes. It will become clear that there is a considerable
diversity of views on the causes of individuals' aggressive response
tendencies and the processes that lead to aggressive behaviour.
Chapter 3 is concerned with the development of individual differ­
ences in aggressive behaviour and the stability of such differences in
aggression over the lifespan. These issues are important because
common-sense discourse .i& quick to point to adverse social con­
ditions, slIch as poverty, media influences, or poor parent-child
relationships, as explanations of aggression and violence without
paying sufficient attention to the fact that not all individuals exposed
to these adverse conditions show the same response to them.
Furthermore, gender will be discussed as another variable associated
with stable individual differences in aggression. Tradi ti onally , the
working hypothesis underlying this line of research has been that
men are more aggressive than women. This has led to a focus on
male aggression and an almost total neglect of women's aggressive
behaviour. There are signs, however, of an increasing interest
in female aggression, stimuJated in p art by a perceived increase in
female participation in domestic violence and by a growing number
of girls involved in juvenile delinquency.
In Chapter 4, situational factors will be discussed that are assumed
to facilitate aggression. The discussion includes the role of aggressive
cues enhancing the salience of aggression as a potential responseJ the
disinhibiting effects of alcohol, and the role of living conditions, such
as spatial density and high temperature. Throughout this chapter, it
w ill be shown that no matter how powerful situational factors are as
determinants of behaviour, they do not affect individuals in a
uniform way. Therefore, for a proper assessment of the determinants
of aggression, the impact of situational factors needs to be considered
in interaction with individual difference variables.
Both short-term and long-term factors enhancing the probability of
aggressive behaviour are addressed in Chi/pter 5, which is devoted
to the effects of viol ent media contents on viewers' aggressive ten­
dencies. This chapter picks up an issue that has attracted intense
controversy, particuJarly in public debate and in confrontation
between social scientists and the media industry. Two aspects ""Till.

ItHFlODUGTI ON 5
 be at the focus of the analysis: (a) a discussion of the evidence
addressing the general question of whether exposure to aggressive
media contents leads to increased ,aggression in v:iewers, in particular
children and adolescentsi and (b) an examination of the role of
pornography as a causal factor in aggression generally and sexual
aggression in particular.
In sum, the first five chapters provide a review of issues tha t
belong to the standard repertoire of any introductory text on
a ggression. They are indispensable for providing a comprehensive
pictu re of the s tate of knowledge in aggression research and for
establishing an understanding of basic concepts and processes
a gainst which to look a t specific forms of aggressive behaviour.
Examining these manifestations of aggress i ve behaviour in different
social domains, whim-with the possible excep tion of sexual
aggression-go largely unmentioned in the textbook litera ture, will
be the objective of the second part of the book.
The next three chapters are devoted to specific manifestations of
a ggress i on in society. Despite COIIUllon underlying mechanisms i n
the manifestation o f aggression in a varie ty o f contexts (such a s the
imi tation of aggressive role models), more specific ex planations are

required to understa nd different forms of aggressive behaviour.

Thus, the dynamics of intergroup behaviour are essential to under­
stand gang violence, and sexual aggression cannot be properly
understood without taking gender socialisation and prevailing sex
role stereotypes i n to account.
In Chapter 6, differen t forms of aggression w i ll be examined that
take p l a ce in the public sphere and, unfortunately, are part and parcel
of everyday life: bull ying at school and at the workplace, aggression
motivated by ethnic prejud ice and poli tical interests, and Clggression
arismg out of confrontations between hostile groups, such as football
hooliganism or gang fighting. In addition, this chapter w ill review

ev id ence on homicide as the most extreme form of aggreSSion.

Chapter 7 deals with aggression in a domestic context and covers
issues such as child abuse, spouse battering, and elder abuse. Unlike
aggression in the public domain, these forms of aggressive behaviour
occur in the confined sphere of the home, making it easier for per­
petra tors to conceal their aggression and more difficult for their
v ictims to attract attention to their plight. At the same time, they are
particu l a rly traumatising because they involve a breach of trust by
the very people the victims love and depend on.
The same holds true for sexual aggression, which is the topic
of Chapter 8. the majority of sexual assaults take place between

6 T H E S O C I A L f> S Y C H O l O G Y O F A G G R E S S I O N
individuals who know each other, often in the context of dating
relationships. We will review a rapidly grow ing body of evidence
that has established the w idesp read prevalence of sexual aggression
in different pop u l a tions. Moreover, research will be p resented tha t
examin ed causal explanations of male sexual aggression, and identi­
fied risk markers of female sexual victimisation in the form of
behavioural patterns and biographjcal v a riables associated with an
increased risk of victi.misation. Finally the chapter will discuss
,

evidence on the consequences of sexual assault for the victim and

briefly explore a new and controversial issue on the a genda of sexual
aggression research: women's sexual aggression against men .
The last chapter, Chnp/t'r 9, will be d ev o ted to strategies aimed at
controlling and preventing aggressive behaviour. Given the scope of
aggression and violence, stoppi ng individuals and groups from
acting a ggressivel y towards others is a daunting task and, as annual
crime statistics reveal, success has so fa r been li m ited . First, proposals
for controlling ag gression will be reviewed refer to general
tha t
to many forms of
principles of interven tion poten tially app U cable
aggreSSive behaviour. In terms of general strategies, the rev ie w will
incl ude measures targeting the indrviduaJ aggressor in an attempt to
change his / he r emotions, cogni tions, and behaviou r. Moreover, we

will look a t societal-level interventions, in p articular with respect to

the deterren t function of capital punish ment and the potent ial effec­
tiveness of tighter gUll control legisla tion. The perspective will then
shift to measures custom tailored to deal with speci fic forms of
aggression, such as bullyi ng and gang violence, do m esti c violence,
and sexu a l ·aggt·ess.ion. It is evident that this chapter in particular will
have to look beyond the boundaries of social psychological research
to include relevant contribu tions from sociology, criminology, and
other related fields.
In conclusion, the pr€sent volume aspires to p resent an up-to-da te
account of curren t social psyc.hological knowledge on aggreSSion. It
will add ress the prevaJencl:!, causes, and consequences of aggressive
behaviour in i ts n um.erous manifestations and illustrate strategies for
prevention and i n tervention; I t w i l l become dear in the course of the
book that not all the condusions generated and supported by this
research will be gladly acc.epted outside the academk debate. This is
true, for examp le, for evidence on the detrimen tal effects of media
violence or on the positive effects of tightening gun control legis­
lation, neither of which has been, or will be, transl a ted into pol icy
responses w ithout strong opposition from the respective interest
groups involved. In addition to accumula ting knowledge about the

INTRODUCTION
 different facets of aggression, psychological aggression research is
therefore faced with the challenge of promulgating this know l edge
beyond the scienti fic commwtity to influence both policy makers and
public opinion.

8 T H E S O C I A L P S I' C H O L O G I' O F A G G R E S S I O N
 Concepts and 1
Ille asures of a ggression

The purpose of this chapter i s t o address two fundamental issues to

set the stage for the discussion of social psychological research on
aggression in the chap ters to foU ow . First, the meaning of our key
concept, i.e., aggression, m ust be defined to delineate the phenomena
falling within the boundarie of thi construct. It is important to
establish a consensus about the basic criteria for deciding whether or
not a given behaviour should be classified as a ggressive, an d to have
a typology of different forms of a ggression for coming to grips with
the m ul tipl icity of forms in which aggressive behaviour presents
itself. Second, an examination of the prevailing research methods
used to study aggression is essential in order to .facili tate a critic<).L
appraisal of the current body of knowledge. Amongst psychologists,
it is trivial to state that research findings are dependent to a large
extent on the specific measures by which they arc obtained. However,
in public debate about aggression, conc,lusions about causes and
consequences of aggression are typically traded wi thout much
concern for their methodological found a tions. A case in point is the
controversy abo u t detrimental effects of media violence, in which
each side refers to select research results to corroborate their views
without reflecting 'that differences from
in concl usjon often res u l t
differences in methodology. Therefore, it seems a ppropriate that a
review of the scholarly literature on aggress ioJ;l should start by
examin ing the advantages and limitations of the main methodolo­
gic a l strategies used in this researc h .

Defining aggression

As an academic discipl ine, social psychology is concerned with file

many facets of people's social livesj their thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours towards other peop le, and the impact of those others on

9
 the way they themselves feel, think, and act. Describing and explain­
ing these social processes is by no means the pre.rogative of the
scjenti t but an inte8"(al part of everybody 's psychological function­
ing. ThereJore, it is not s u rprising that both Deia} psychology and
everyday discourse often use the same terms to describe social
phenomena. This is certainly true for the term aggression, which is as
firmly established in ordinary language as it i in the technical
vocabulary of social p ychologists. Unfortunately, using the same
term does not necessarily impJy agre ment on the exact meaning that
it is meant to denote. For examp le, when prompted for their u nd er­
standing of aggression, lay persons often talk abou t "good" or
" healthy" aggression in contrast to "ba d " aggression, a distinction
that most socia l psychologists would reject. Instead, there is a con­
sensus in the academic field to d efine aggression as a negative or
antisocial behaviour that has little to do w ith psychological health

and w lI-bein g,
Beyond this basic consensu , there is, however, a need to define
more p recisely the criteria that have to be met by a specific behaviour
to be categorised as "aggressive". A classic definition 'Nas proposed
by Buss ( 196 1, p. 1 ), who cha racterised aggression as "a res pollse that
delivers noxious stimuJi to another organism." However, it has been
pointed out tha t this purely behaviourist definition is too broad in
some ways. It includes many forms of beha v iour tha t should not
be categorised as aggression, w hile being too narrow in other
respects, for exa mple exclud i ng a l l non-behavioural processes, such
as thoughts and feelings. A d d itional a peets were subsequently
induded to a rrive at a more ba lanced definition (see a lso Tedeschi &
Felson, 1 994, Chapter 6, for a comprehensjve diSCUSSion) : For a
person's bellaviour to qualify as aggression, the behaviour must be
carried out with the il1telltioll to inflict negativeconsequences on the
target, which, in tum, presuppose the expectancy that the action w ill
produce a particular outcome, This specification excl udes behaviours
tha t resu l t in unintended harm or injury, e.g., by accident or through
negligence or incompetence. A 't the sam time, it includes behaviours
aimed at harming another person which, for whatever reason, do not
lead to the intended consequences: a gunshot that misses its target
'represents an aggressive act even though no hair may have been
ha rmed on the target's hea d . FOCUSing on the person's intention to
ha r m also allows for non-action, such as failure to help a person in
need, to be classified as aggressi e. A further specification refers to
the w illingness on beha H of the target person to avoid the harmful
treatment. This is to exclude the case of self-cfuected aggression in

1 0 T H E S O C I A L P S Y C H O L O G Y O F A G G R 'E S S I O N
 TABLE 1.1
Aspects 0 1 a typology 0 1 aggressive behaviour
Response modality Verbal \IS, physical
Response qualily Action VS, fail ure to act
Immediacy D irect VS, Indirect
Visibility Overt VS, covert

Ins/igalion Unprovoked VS, retaliative

Goal direclion Hostile VS, instrumental
Type of damage Physical vs_ psychological
Dura/Ion of consequences Transien! vs. long-term
Social unils involved Individuals vs. groups

which the roles of a ggress o r and target coincide, such (is suicide or
injury inflicted in the context of sadomasochistic sexual practices.
A concise definition that takes the e considerations into account is
offered by Baron and Richardson (1994, p. 7) . They suggest to use the
term aggression to describe "mlY /orl1l of be/1Qvior directed toward the
goal of liarmillg or injuring another IiVi/1g being who is motivated to avoid
such treotment." This defin ition has also been adopted for the present
volume. It represents a kind of minimal consensus in social psy­
chological aggression research and lea ves room for a variety of
ad d itional dimensions, summari ed in Table 1.1, for characterising
different forms of aggression.
Although most of the distinctions in Table 1 .1 are sel f-explanatory,
the dillerentiation between hos ti le and wstrumental aggression
requires some further comment. This distinction Tefers to the psy­
chological function of the aggressive behaviour for the actor. The
primary motive for the aggreSSive behaviour may be either the desire
to harm another person as an expTession of negative feelings, as in
hostile aggression, or the aim to reach an intended goal by means of
the aggressive act, as in instrumental aggression. The two types of
motiva tion for aggressive behaviour may frequently coexist. Never­
theless, we shall see in discussing th eories of aggressive behaviour
that it makes sense to tease them apart because different psycho­
lOgical processes may be involved.
An additional featu re to be considered in definiIlg aggression
refers to the normative appra is-al of the behaviour in question. There
has been some controversy as to whether or not the aspect of norm
violation should be included among the defining features of
aggression. DiScipl inary measures taken by teachers or acts of
physical self-defence are examples- of behaviours that satisfy the
criteria of intention, expectancy, and target's desire to avoid them and

1 . CONCEPTS A N D M E A S U R E S O F AG G R E SSION l '

 should, accord ingly, be clas ified as aggressive. Yet Uley are covered
by social normS that turn them into accepted forms of sodal
behaviour. Therefore, it has been argued, behaviour should only be
considered aggressive if it inv ol ves the violation of a socia] norm.
However, as Berkowitz (1993) has pointed out, defining aggression i.n
term s of norm-violating or socially di. approved behaviollr ignores
the p rob l em that the normative evalua tion of a behaviour frequently
d i ffers depending on the perspectives of the partjes involved. For
example, some people regard corporal punishment as an acceptable
and effective ch i ld-rearing practice, while others con i d er it to be an
unacceptable form of aggression.
A related poin t can be made w i th rega rd to the d istinction between
legitimate and illegitimnte aggressi on . Capital punishment, for
example, satis6es a.1l the elements in B a ron a nd Richardson 's defi­
ni tion: Actions are ca rried out with the intention and expectancy to
inflict harm on the convicted person, who is motivated to a v oi d such
treatment. However, these actions are iegitirnised in the laws of many
countries. Therefme, is it appropriate to regard them as aggressfon­
prov ided the legal procedu res a re properly conducted? Although
many people will reject this idea, others may have a d i fferent v iew. [n
the absence of explicit legal regulations, the question of legitimacy
becomes even more difficult. Are violent acts commi tted by separatist
movement or marginalised m inori ties legitimate at' illegitimat
forms of agg ression? It is obvious that the answer to this question will
be affected to a large ex tent by the position a person take. in the
underlying controversy. Therefore, while issues of norm violatio n

and legitimacy are highly relevant, for example when it comes to

analysing d ynamics of intergroup encounters or justifications for
aggressive behaviours, they are difficu l t to accommodate as critical
fea tures in a basic definjtion of aggression .

Before turning from the definition to the measurement of aggres­

si.ve behaviour, we should briefly look at the meanings of two reJated
terms: coercion and violence. Coercion is defined by Ted esch i and
Felson ( 1 994, p. 168) as " an action taken with. the inten tion of
imposing harm on another person or forcin g compliance." Coercive
action can take the form of threats, pun ishments, or bodily force.

According to Tedeschi and Fel on" there are several advantages in

replacing aggreSSion by the concept of coercion: (a) coercion incl udes
the use of contingent tlueats to gain another person's compliance,
which cannot easily be reconciled with th e minimal definition of
a ggressj on; (b) coercive actions are interpreted as a form of orial
influence, which high lights the social nature of th is type of behaviour

12 THE S O C I A L P S Y C H O L O G Y O F A G G R ES S I O N
and brings it conceptually closer to processes of communication and
interaction not previously examined in the context of aggression; (c)
coercion is recommended as 1ess value laden than aggression because
it avoids the issue of legitimacy. Accord ing to Tedeschi and Feison,
"the interactions and motives of parents who use coercive actions to
control or change the behavior of their children are not fundamen­
tally different from the actions of a robber who seeks compliance and
booty from a victim" (Tedeschi & Felson, 1994, p. 176). We will return
to their soda� intcractionist theory of coercion la ter in the next
chapter.
In contrast to coercion, which is b roader than aggression, the term
violence denotes a subtype of aggression referring to extreme forms of
physical aggression. Violence is defined as "the infliction of intense
force upon persons or property for the purposes of destruction,
punishment, or con trol" (Geen, 1 995; p. 669). Archer and Browne
(1989, p. 1 1 ) suggest to define as violence "physically damaging
assaults which are not SOcially legitimised in any way." These
definitions cover instances of personal violence, committed by an
individ ual actor or grou p of i d entifiab l e individuals. A functional
typo logy of violence is presen ted by Mattaini, Twyman, Chin, a nd Lee
(1 996), who iden. tify six potential functions of v i olent behaviour: (1)
change of, o r esca pe from, aver ive situations; (2) positive reinforce­
ment, i.e., attainment of a particul a r goal; (3) release of negative
affective arousal; (4) resolution of conflict; (5) ga ining of respect;
and (6) attack on a culturally defined "enemy", i .e., a member of a
deval ued outgroup.
A speciaJ form of violence has been called structu ral violence and
denotes societal cond i tions that entail harmful consequences for
certain social groups. Structural violence is seen as a latent feature
of socia l systems that leads to social inequa lity and injustice, e.g.,
through institutionalising a power hierarchy between men and
women that leaves women l arge l y unprotected against male sexuaJ
coercion (see a l so Lubek, 1995). tn the present volume, the focus will
be o n personal vi olence but issues o f structural violence w ill also be
,

touched upon in several places in the course of the analysis.

The measurement of aggression

Since aggression has been defined as a form of social behaviollr,

measuremen t s tra tegies are required that provide information at the

1. CON CEPTS A N D M EA S U R E S O F A G G R E S SiON 1 3

 TABLE 1.2
Summary 0 1 metholls lor studying aggression

Observation Naturalistic observation

Field experiments
Laboratory e�periments
• Teacher-learner paradigm
• Essay evaluation paradigm
• Competitive reaction time paradigm
I� • Sobo doll paradigm
I • Verbal aggression
I� Asklng Behavioural seH·reports
t Peer/other nominations
Archival records
Personality scales
Projective 'techniques

behavioural level. The range of methodologica l options for obtaining

such information is constrained by the inherently ha rmful nature of
aggressive behaviour: researchers are under the ob l igati on to ensure
at any stage of their investigations that no damage is caused to thei r
participants or another party . Records of aggressive behaviour can be
obtained through two general approaches: observation and asking
(Baron & Richardson, 1994). The va riety of specific approaches avail­
able lUlder these two headings are summarised in Table 1.2.

Observation
Observational measures facilitate the recording of aggressive
behaviour as it occurs in a natural context such as among children
in a school playground, or in a contrived laboratory setting, e.g., in
response to a staged provocation by an experimental confederate.
Observing aggression in natural contexts has the advantage thilt
behavioural information can be col lected in an unobtrusive way
wi thou t people realising thilt their behaviour is being recorded. W i th
a social behaviour like aggression known to be socially undesirable,
this is a particular asset because it avoids the problem of meas­
urement reactivity, i .e.,. respondents' adjustment of their behav iour to
the social norms perceived to be attached to that behaviour.

Natural observa tion. One a im of observa tion in natural contexts i to

obtain a picture of the various forms of a ggression in a particular
setting and the frequency with which they are performed. This

1 4 T H E S O C I A L PSYCHOLOGY O F AG G R E S S I O N
approach is commonly referred to as naturalistic observation. For
example, Humpert and Dann (1 988) recorded aggression-related
interactions d uring school lessons with a specifically devel oped
cod ing system comprising 10 categories of aggressive behaviour (e.g.,
d a \l1a ging classmates' belon gi ngs, sna tching things from others,
threatening and blackmailing fellow pupils). hl this type of research,
the natural flow of behaviour is first recorded, then broken down into
more fine-grained units of analysis, and finally assigned to the
predefined categories. Questions of when and where to sample
behaviour and how to define the basic units of analysis are central to
this methodological approach (e.g., Wehby & Symons, 1996). More­
over, it is important to check how reliably the units can be assigned to
the d i fferent categories by examining the correspondence achieved by
two independent coders.

Field experiments. Another line of research using observation in

n a tura l contexts is directed at exploiting inconspicuous everyday
situations to examine the link between certain antecedent cond i tions
and subsequent aggressive responses. These studies incorporate the
variation of an ind ependent variable (e.g., s trength of a frustration)
and its effect on a dependent variable (e.g., intensity of the aggressive
response) and thu.s meet the criteria of field experiments. Using a
common traffic sifuation, for example, drivers' aggreSSive reactions,
defined in terms of latency and d u ra tion of horn honking, was
studied in response to a fnlstration in the form of a confederate who
failed to move his car When the traffic lights turned green (Baron,
1976). Similarly, people waiting in a queue were frustrated by a
queue-jumping confederate, and their aggressive responses were
studied as a function of how c lose they had been to the head of the
queue (Harris, 1974).
Despite their advantages in terms of allowing the analysis of
naturally occurring behaviour uncontaminated by social desirabili ty
concerns, many additional variables may operate in field situations
that are not under the experimenter's control. Suppose, for example,
you were to use the queue-jumping approach to study the aggressive
responses of peop l e waiting for a bus. You would have a p roblem if
in some of your tri;;Jls the bus that people were waiting for was 1 5
m inutes late at the time o f the experimental intervention, crea tin g a n
additional and powerful source o f frustration.

Laboratory experiments. This lack of control over �traneous vari·

abies as well as over the assignment of respondents to experimental

1 . CONCEPTS AND M EASURES OF AGGRESSION 1 5

 treatments is the prime reason why fhe vast majority of observational
studies on aggressi ve behaviour have been conducted as laboratonj
experiments. Here, situations are created by the i nvestigator to meet
three essential criteria: that (a) respondents are expos ed to an experi­
mental manipulation aimed at influencing their aggressive response
tendencies; (b) they can be randomly assigned to one of the experi­
mental conditions; and (c) any distorting influences can be controlled.
A critical decision involves the choice of behavioural indicators of
aggression, which have to be valid measures of the underlying
construct and, at the same time, must not involve damage to the
target person . Five types of experimental proced ures have been par­
ticularly prominent in aggression research:

(1) The teacher-learner paradigm. This paradigm Uses the set-up

of an alleged learnjng exp eriment in which one person adopts the
role of a teacher an d presents a word association task to another
person, who is in the role of the lea.rner. Errors made by the lea rner
are punished by the teacher by administering adverse stimuli to the
leamer. In fact, the aSSignment to thetwo roles is rigged so that the
naive respondent always ends up as the teacher, whose choice of
punishment intensity is the critical inde of his or her aggressive
behaviour. In the most common version of this paradigm, punish­
ments are del ivered in the form of electric shocks whose strength is
determined by the teacher. This procedure, probably better known
from Milgram's (1974) famous study of obedience than hOUl the
contex t of aggression research, was pioneered by Bu s (1961). He
developed an "aggression machine", which enabled respondents to
choose the intensin) and the duration of electric shocks that they
thought wou l d be delivered to the learner (no shoc ks were actually
delivered, bu t respondents received mild shocks in a trial ru.n to
convince them that the device was genuine). The teacher-learner
paradigm thus provides an ex perimental framework in which a
variety of variables may be studied in their effects on aggression
(see Baron & Richardson, 1994) Differences in a ggressive resp o n d­
..

ing may be examined, For example, as a function of respondents'

group membershi p (male versus fema lei prisoners versus students)
or situational manipulations (dif ferent degrees of frustration or
physiological arousal). Some studies have used a slightly modified
proced ure in which electric shocks are replaced by other adverse
stimuli, such as loud noise or uncomfortable heat.
(2) The essay evaluation paradigm. This paradigm is used
primarily to investi g ate aggressive behav ioW" in response to prior

1 6 THE SOCIAL P SY C H O LO G Y OF AGG R e S S I O �

frustration or provocation and was first introduced by l3erkowitz
(1962). Subjects are told that they are to provide a written solution
to a problem-solving task, w h j c h will then be eva luated by a fellow
subject who is, in fact, a confederate of the experimente.r. They are
also informed that the evaluation w i ll be e.xpressed in terms of the
number of electric shocks deli vered by the eval uator, with one
shock indicating the best and ten shocks i ndicaHng the worst
possi ble evaluation. Irrespective of the qual i ty of their solution,
subjects then receive either one or seven shocks, depending on
whether they are in the provocation or control condition, respec­
tively. In the second and main phase of the experiment, roJes are
reversed and the subject gets a chance to evaluate the solution
provided by the other person. The number of shocks administered
by the sl)bjects is the dependent variable and indicates the trength
of their aggressive response. Typically, more shocks are adminis­
tered to a target person who is seen responsible for a negative
evaluation of the actor in the first round of the experiment. Beyond
addressing the role of p rovocation, this experimental design
allows researchers to examine additional variables moderating the
provocation-aggression l i n k. A case in point is Berkowitz and
LePage's (1967) well-known study on the so-ca lled weapons effect,
which will be examined in more detai l in Chapter 2. They s howed
that provocation leads to sh'onger aggression in the presence of an
aggression-related cue (such as a weap on ) than in the presence of a
neutral object (such as a badminton racket).
(3) The competitive reaetjo11 time paradigm. Like the first two
approaches, this paradigm, developed by Taylor (1967), also uses
el ectric shocks as indicators of aggression. Subjects are told tha t

they compete with a partner (again typically an experimental

confederate) on a reaction time task. The slower partner on each
trial receives an electric shock whose intensity is set by the faster
competitor. Since /:;uccess and fai l ure of the naive subjects are in
fact pTedetermined by the experjmenter, each genuine participant
receives as well as delivers a set n umber of shocks in the course of
the task. In order to make sure that the shocks received by the
subjects are aversi ve bu t not painful, each participant's threshold of
unpleasantness is established in a pilot phase. As the l,'Iajve subjects
are always allowed to win tJle first trial, their decision about the
first shock level reflects their unprovoked aggressive responses.
After they received the first shock from their opponent, subsequent
choic�s reflect the strength of retaliative aggression. This approach
also facilitates the examination of a variety of variables affecting

1 . CONCEPTS A N D MEASURES OF AGGRESSION 17

 aggressive res ponses, such as the wily in which subjects adjust theli
sh ock levels to the decisions
made by their opponents or the impac t
o f a n audience on the choice o f shock intensities.
(4) The Boba doll paradigm. In the paradigms discussed a far,
subjects a re lim.ited in the expression of their aggressive tendencies
to a single behaviour, e.g., the administration of electric shocks. Tn
contrast, the Bobo doll approach first used by Bandura, Ross, and
Ross ( 1 963) is designed to give children an opportunity to show a
range of aggressive behaviours towa rds a large, infla table clown
figure called Bobo. In a typical experiment, read iness to act aggres­
sively is first ind uced in the children. This is achieved most
com mon ly by exposing them to a model who acts aggressively

towards the Bobo doll. Subsequently, the children's behaviou r

towards Bobo is observed and asses sed in terms of the frequency of
aggressi ve acts. Differences in aggressive responses can th us be
studied as a function of a v a riety of variables, such as charac­
teristics of the model or the observed consequences of the model's
behaviour in terms of vicarious reinforcement or punishment.
(5) Verbal aggression . Apart from physical re ponses, verba l
measures have been used frequently as indicators of aggression (see
Baron & Richardson, 1994). Typically, subjects are £Ust exposed to a.
manjpulation designed to instigate aggressive responses. Then, thei r
verbal reactions are recorded , ei ther as free responses, which are
later analysed in terms of their aggressive conten ts, or as s tan­
dard ised evaluations of the person who provoked the aggressive
reaction. For these evalua tions to qualify as aggressive responses,
subjects must be led to bel i eve that their negative evaluation will
entail h.armful con.seque.nces lor the other person, such as curta iling
his or her chances of winning a job appointmen t or a promotion.

Finally, a new method has recently been introd uced to the experi­
mental stud y of aggression by McG rego r et al. (1998) and Lieberman,
Solomon, G reenberg, and McGregor (1 999). In their studies, subjects'
aggressive tendencies were measured in terms of the amount of
hot sauce administered to another person assumed to dislike spicy
food. The hot sauce measure yields an easily quantifiable index of
aggressi ve behaviour. Moreover, it is ethically feasible because it does
not lead to any harmful effects other than temporary discomfort.
Although the experimental procedures discussed in this section
account for a large majority of the avai lable evidence, the.iJ: pro­
minence has been by no means uncontroversial. The main chaUenge
refers to their validity, i.e., the extent to which (a) they represent the

1 8 T H E SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF AGGRESSION

underlying theoretical construct of aggression (construct validity),
and (b) they can explain aggressive behaviour occurring outside the
laboratory in the " real world" (externaJ validity). In terms of con­
struct validity, each of the four approaches using e1ecrric shocks is
potentially susceptibJe to al ternative interpretations of whatis ta ken
to be aggressive behaviour: in the teac.her- Learner paradigm, high
levels of shock may be chosen because subjects want to help the
learner to accomplish his Learning task mOre effec.tively. In the essay
evaluation task, ltigh shock intensities may simjJarLy reflect com­
pliance w ith the cover story: to provide critical feedback all a person's
problem solving success. In the competi tive reaction time task,
ubjects' responses may be motivated by competitiveness rather than
aggression, and fi l.laJly, behaviour against the Bobo d oll is directed
against an ina n i mate object a n d thus is not covered b y the standard
definjtion of aggression. As far as external validity is concerned,
critics point ou t that the artificial and impoverished nature of many
laboratory settings is a far cry from those contexts in which aggres­
sion manifests itself as a social problem in the outsid e world. Thus, it
has been que s tioned that evidence gained from l abora tory studies can
contribute to a better understanding of aggression as it occurs in
natural con texts.
Without having space to review the con troversy in detail (see
Anderson & Bushman, 1997i Berkowi�, 1 993; Lubek, 1995, for com­
prehensive trea tments), two main lines of argument have been
advanced in defence of labora tory experiments for the study of
aggression:

(1) Experimental proced ures for measuring aggression can be

said to have high construct validity, Le., to tap the same underlying
construct, to the extent th a t subject" responses to those procedures
are (a) correlated across different indicators of aggression, such a!S
duration, intensi ty, and number of shocks versus written expres­
sions of aggression, and (b) a ffected by the same set of antecedent
conditions. For example, if person A de l i vers more intensive
electric shocks than person B, then A should also score higher than
B in terms of shock duration or in written expressions of aggres­
s10n. In terms of the second requirement, if the ind uction of
negative affect is found to be an an tecedent condi tion of shock
intensities, then different strategies for inducing negative affect,
such as angering or frustrating s ubjects, should have pa rallel effects
on subseq uent aggressive ,responses. Moreover, they should have
similar effects on phys i ca l as well as verbal measures of aggression,

1 . C O N C E P T S A N D M E A S U H E S O F A G G" H E S S I O N 1 9
 Integrating results from over 100 published studies, Carlson,
Marcus-Newhall, and Miller (1989) supported these aspects of
construct validity and concluded that critics have gone too far in
"

rejecting outright the thesis that specific aggression measures

typically index a common behav ioral disposition" (p. 386).
(2) The seco nd cri ticism refers to a lack of ex ternal vaJjdity, i.e.,
the fail ure to generalise to aggression in the real world. Thi
criticism was tackled by Anderson and Bushman (1997; Bushman
& Anderson, 1998), They conduded a meta-analysis includ ing 53
sturues of laboratory and real wor ld aggression to explore the
-

correspondence between the two sources of data across a range of

independent variables. (Meta-analysis is a statistical procedure in
which the results from a number of individ ual studies are con­
verted to a common metric and then integrated into a quantitative
index of ·effect size, ind icating how large the difference between
two variables, such as location of a study in the lab ve.rsus the rea l
world, is across the entire range of studies; Glass, McGaw, & 5m.ith,
1 981 ).

More specifically, Anderson and Bushman looked for converging

evidence concerning the role of individual differ�ce v ariables
(sex, trait aggressiveness, and Type A personality) and ituational
variables (provocation, a lcohol, media violence, anonymity, and
tempera ture) as determinants of aggressive behaviour. With the
exception of temperature, w here the laboratory evidence was incon­
sistent both in itseU and with field research, they found substantia l
convergence across the two data sou r ces In both laboratory and field
.

research, a.ggression was found to increase as a function of provo­

cation, alcohol consum ption, anonymity, and exposu re to violent
media contents. Aggression was also found to be higher in both
settings for men (physical aggression only) and for individuals wi th
high trait aggressiveness and Type A behaviour patterns. It is worth
noting, however, that the magni tude of the effects varied across the
two approaches. For example, the effect of v ioLent media contents
was found fo be higher in laboratory experiments than in field
stud ies, while the link between trait aggressiveness and behavioural
aggression was stronger in field studies than in the laboratory.
As Bushman and Anderson (1998) po i nt out, these differences are
concep tually pIau ible. They argue that the stronger effect size for
the i m pact of trait aggressiveness on aggressive behaviour fo un d in
field studies was to be expected because laboratory studies mostly
involve relatively homogeneous samples of college students, whereas

20 THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF AGGRESSION

variab i l i ty
in trait aggressiveness is greater among the largely
unselected samples recruited in many iield studies. In contrast, the
effect of media violence on aggressive b eh a v iou r was expected to be
stronger in the laboratory because the time interval between exposure
to med i a violence and measurement of subsequent aggression is
typically shorter in laboratory experiments and extraneous influences
that might UJ;ldermine the impact of the media presentation can be
controlled more effectively i.n the lab.
In conclusion, An d erso n and Bushman's (1997) analysis shows
that the unquestionable advantage of laboratory experiments, i.e.,
their ability to test causal hypotheses in a custom-tailored context, is
not necessarily undermined by a tack of external validity (see
BerkOWitz, 1993, for a similar conclusion). Therefore, laboratory
studies are of prime importance in illuminating conceptual links
between eli c i tin g variables, aggressive behaviour, and consequences.
They are seriously limited, on the other hand, when it comes to
studying severe manifesta tions of aggressive behaviour that would
be unethical to instigate deli berately. Therefore, there is clearly a
place for both experimental and field approaches in the study of
aggression.

Asking
Obtaining behavioural records through direct observation is not
always feasible. As noted above, the dangerous and potentially
damaging nature of aggressive acts prevents researchers from
creating conditions under which such behaviours might be observed.
Moreover, many aggtess i ve acts occur without prior warning and /or
only come to light after they have been performed. This is typica lly
the case for acts of violence, such as physicaJ assault, rape, or
homicide. In these cases, researchers h ave to re ly on m e thods that ask
for reports of aggressi v e behaviours rather than gaining first-hand
evidence of their occurrence. In other contexts, research questions
may be focused not on behaviours, but on internal variables, such as
aggressive though ts and fantasies, which cannot be observed either.
An overview of diHerent strategies for asking about the commitment
of aggressive acts is presented in the lower half of Table 1 .2. Since
these strategies a re not specific to the aggression domain but rep­
resent methods of d ata collection employed in many areas of psycho­
logical research, they will be familiar to most readers. There fore a ,

brief description of each strategy, including illustrative examples

from aggression research, should be sufficient in the present context.

1 . C O N C E P T S A N D M E A S U R E S O F A G G R E:' S S I O N 21
 Behavioural self-reports. In this approach, subjects are as ked to
provide verbal accounts of thei r own aggressive behaviour, either in
the context of l arge-sca le surveys or as part of hypothesis-testing
research. Depending on the aim of the inquiry, they can be asked to
report general pattems of aggressive behaviour or specific act in a
particular domain. A general measure of aggressi ve behaviour is
provided, for example, by the physical and verbal aggression scales of
Buss and Perry's ( 1992) "Aggression Questionnaire", which is a
revised version of the earlier and w idely used Buss-Durkee (1 957)
Hostility Inventory (see also Archer, Kilpatrick, & Bramwell, 1995;
Blickle, Habasch & Senft, 1998). On the physical aggression scale,
respondents are required to indicate, for example, to what exten t a
statement like "Once in a whil e 1 can't control the urge to strike another
person" is characteristic of them. An example from the verbal
aggression scale is " I can't help getting into arguments when people
disagree with me:' Recording behavioural self-reports of aggression is
not lim ited to the perpetrator perspective. lt is also a viable strategy for
collecting evidence on vjctintisa tion by aggreSSive others. For example,
Mynard and Joseph (2000) developed a multid imensional scale
tapping different forms of children's victimisation by
aggressive peers.
An example of a domain-specific self-report measure is provided
by the "Sexual Experiences Survey" (Koss & Oros, 1 982), which elicits
self-reports of sexually aggressive acts (see also Chapter 8). For
example, male respondents are asked to answer "yes" or "no" to the
following q uestion: "Have you ever had sexual intercourse w i th a
woman when she didn't want to because you used some degree of
physical force (twisting her arm, h old ing her down, etc.}?"
Self-reports of aggressive behaviour can be combined with other­
reports (i .e., reports of another person 's behaviour) to e amine the
interdependency of aggressive actions and to assess the correspon­

dence between self- and other-reports. This type of approach is

prominently represented by the "Conflict Tactics Scales" developed
by Straus (1 979) to measure domestic violence. In their recently
revised version, tlle Conflict Tactics Scales 2 (CTS2), respondents a re
asked to i ndicate which of a list of behaviours representing psycho­
logical aggression, physical assault, sexual coercion, and negotiation
they inflicted on their parbler in the past year (Straus, Hamby, Boney­
McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996). In addition., they are asked to ind icate,
for th e samerange of behaV'iours, whether their partner showed the
respecti ve behaviour towards th em . A corresponding scale addres­
sing aggression in parent-child interactions has recen tly been pro­
Vided by Stra us et al. (1998).

22 THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF AGGRESSION

 Given that aggression is a negatively valued behaviour and
respondents aretyp ically aware of this, an obvious drawback of seLf­
reports is their suscep tibility to response biases in the direction of
ocial desirability. This drawback is most serious when the aim of the
research is to establish the frequency o£ particular a ggressive acts,
such as the number of rapes committed each year, and can only be
compensated by referring to other data sources. Unfortunately, as the
case of sexual violence illustrates, alternative sources, such as crime
statistics, are often affected by other, equally serious reporting biases,
which make it extremely di fficult to obta in valid estimates of the scale
of cerfain forms of aggression .

Peer/otlug l1ominafirms. The problem of social desirability is some­

wh a t less pertinent when informed others are asked to contribu te
behavioural information about a target person. Teachers, parents, and
peers, who have first-hand knowledge of a target person's aggressive
behaviour, are asked to provide behavioural records, w hi ch can then
be examined £OT their convergence with each other and with the
person's self-reports. Peer ratings have been used successfully in
personality measurement to provide independent ratings of person­
to complement self-ratings (see Krahe, 1992, for a sum­
ality traits
mary). In aggression research, this approach has been used by Eran,
Huesmann and their colleagues in a longitudinal study linking peer
nominations of aggression to preference for violent media pro­
gram mes (e.g., Eran, Huesmann, Lefkowitz, & Walder, 1972). For
each child, they obtained peer ratings of aggressiveness, mothers'
reports of most frequently watched TV programmes, and seij-reports
of programme preference. In add i tion, violence ratings for each TV
programme were determined independently. From th is database,
Eran et a1. were able to show for their sample of 8-year-old boys that
peer-norrUnated aggression was linked to the Jevel of violence inher­
ent in the.ir favouri te and most frequently watched TV programme
(Huesmann & Miller, 1 994). It is clear, th ough, that ·the use of ratings
by informed others is a time-consuming and expensive stra tegy.
Moreover, it has to be made s u re that nominations from different
raters show sufficient convergence to provide a rel iab le approxima­
tion to the target person's behaVIOur.

Archival records. Rather than asking individuals about their own or

others' behaviours, researchers ca n derive information about
aggressive behaviour from archival data ori.gin ally collected for
other purposes. Crime statistics and temperature records are

1 . C O NC E P TS A N D M EASU RES O F A G G R E SS I O N 23
 particularly relevan t in the context of a ggreSSion research . A series of
studies by Anderson and his collea gues have utilised these two d a ta
sources to explore the relationship between temperature and violent
behaviour (Anderson, 1 989; Anderson & Anderson, 1 996; Anderson,
Bushman, & Groom, 1997). They fOWld, for example, that the
incidence rates of se.rious and deadly assault were higher in years
with a higher average temperature, whereas robbeTY figures

,. rema i ned una ffected by tempera ture (Anderson, Buslunan, &

" Groom, 1997, Study 1; see Chapter 4 for a more detailed discussion
of this re sea rch ). T.rl the domain. of sexual violence, arch ival data has
been used in the United States to demonstrate a link, within differen t
states, between the circulation rate of pornographic magazines and
the incidence of rapes documented in annu al crime statistics (e.g,.,
Jaffee & Straus, 1 987; Scott & Schwalm, 1988). These studies, how­
ever, nicely illustrate the problem of inferring causal pa thways from
associa tions between frequency data of this kind: It may not be
unreasonable to suspect that both the popularity of pornographic
magazines and the incidence of rape are expressions of a third.

variable, such as the preva lence of a macho gender stereotype among

the male population, which was not caphlred by the design of the
study.

Personality scq/es and projective techniques. Beyond asking for reports

of aggression at the behavioural level, researchers have frequently
been interested Ln studying the cognitive and a ffectiv e concomi tants
of aggressi ve behaviour and in identifying stable indivi d u a l differ­
ences i n the disposi tion for aggressi\{e action. To meet these objec­
tives, tw approaches have been used. Th first consists in the
development of standardised personality scales in which respondents
are asked to describe their current internal states or their more
end uring dispositions. Buss and Perry's (1992) "Aggression Ques­
tionnaire" conta ins two such scales, measuring dispositiona l anger
(e.g.J "J sometimes feel like a powder keg ready to explode") and
hostility ("I am sometimes eaten up with jealousy" ). The d i stinction
the State-Tra i t
between current states and stable tra i ts is reflected in
Anger Scale b y Spielberger, Jacobs, Russell, and Crane (1983). 1t
yields two scores for each respondent, representing the in ten si ty of
currently experienced aIlger (sta te measu re) and the frequency w j th
which that state is experienced in general (tra it mea ure). The validity
of these personality scales has been establ ished by showjng thei r
convergence w ith other measures of aggres ion (see Bond et al .,
1997).

24 THE SOCIAL PSYC H O LOGY OF AGG RESSION

 The second approach for exploring the intra personal under­
pinnings of aggressive behaviour involves the use of projective
techniques. Subjects are provided w ith ambiguous stimulus materia\'
such as the welJ-known ink-blots of the Ror chach test, and asked to
provide the ir thoughts on the material. These are then scored for
aggressi ve contents by trained raters. In the case of the Rosenzwei g
Picture Frustration Test (Rosenzweig, 1981), developed specifica lly
for the measurement of aggression, respondents are p resented wi th
cartoons depicting situations invol v i ng some form of frustration. The
person who caused the frustration, e.g., by calling a wrong number i n
the middle of the night, makes a comment that i s designed to
attenu a te, or add to, the initial frustration. The subject, adopting the
perspective of the frustrated recipient of the call , has to suggest a
verbal response. Responses are coded for directi on and type of
aggression. Apart from the time-consuming task of coding free-·
response sta tements in to a manageable set of categories; the reliability
of such codings, i .e., their consistency across independen t raters and
across repea t d coding by the same rater, has been difficult to
achieve, Moreover, re ponses to the Picture Frustration Test have
been found to be affected by social desirability concerns. Taken
together, these problems expl ain why the use of projective techniques
is no longer widespread in the social psychological a n a ly sis of
aggression.
This chapter was designed to create a basis for the understanding
and cdoca! appra isal of empirical research to be discussed in th
course of this vol u me. Moreover, a typology was outlined that high­
acts and provides
lights centraL dime.nsions for classifying aggressive
a framework for the systematic description of different forms of
aggressive behaviour. The bod y of research strategies reviewed in
thischap ter clearly shows that a variety of methods is available for
the socialpsychological analysis of aggression . Wh.ich method will be
chosen is determined by the specific questions researcher want to·
address and by the ethical constrarnts imposed on them by the
inherently negative quality of aggressive behaviour.

Summary

• A d e finition of aggression was presented that focuses on the

three aspects of hannful consequences, intent and expectancy to
harm and desire by tlte target perSOI'! to avoid the harmful stimuli.

1 . C O N C E PT' S AND MEASURES OF AGGRESS10N 25

 • To mea ure aggression, a range of strategies for observing
behaviour in na tural contexts as
well as under controlled
laboratory cond itions have been developed and used in a large
body of research.
• Evidence was presented showing that findings from studies
conducted in the real world correspond in many a reas to
relationships obtained in contrived laboratory settings.
• Among strategies asking for information about aggressive
behaviour, self-reports, peer nomina tions, and the study of
archival records have a firm place in social psychological
aggression resea rch. Standardised personality scales and
projective techniques are designed to study the stability of
individual differences in aggressive tendencies.

Suggested reading
Anderson, CA., & Bushman, B.l . (1997). External valid ity of "trivial "
experiments: The case of l aboratory aggreSSion. Rrnif?'w of General
Psycholog1j, 1 , 1 9-41 .
Bond, A.]., Lader, M . H . , & D a Silveira, J.e. (1997). Aggression: Individual
differences, alcohol, and benzodiazepines (Ch. 3). Have, UK: Psychology
Press.
Tedeschi, J.I., & FelsoTl, RB. (1994). Violence, aggression, and caercil'c
actiO/IS (Ch. 6). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

26 n e E SOCIAL PSYC H O LOGY O F AGG R E S S I O N

 Theories of a ggressive 2
behaviour
Gi ven the harmfuJ nature of aggressive behaviour and its per­
vasiveness in human societies, it is not su rp rising thatthe search for
explanations of why people engage in such behaviour h a s always
been a top priority in aggre si on research. Rather than comjng up
with one all-inclusive theo re tical model, this search has prod u ce d a
variety of theoretical approaches, each focusing on different mech­
anisms involved in the manifestation of aggress .i ve behaviour. ft is
neither possible nor necessary to present these approaches in full
d etail (see Berkowitz, 1993; Ted eschi & Felson, 1994; Geen 1998a, for
,

detailed presentations, as well as any textbook of social psychology

for brief su mmaries) . However, it does seem importa n t at this point
to discuss their main ideas w i th two p rim a ry aims in mind: (a) to
document the range of avatlable exp lanati ons of aggressive behaviour
that account for a substantial p roportion of aggression research and
w i thou t which any i n trod uction to the field wo u l d be incomplete; and
(b) to establish a common stock of theoretical constructs that are
dra wn upon by researchers tryi ng to explain va stly different foans of
aggress ive behaviour.
As a starting point, Table 2.1 presents a list of the major theoretical
perspectives in aggression res earch denoting the way they con­
,

cep tual i se aggression and the emphasis they pl ace on the stability
versus variability of aggressive beha viour .

While the first three approaches are based on biological concepts

and p rinciples, the re m ai n ing explanations are located in a psycho­
logical frame of reference. Rather than seeing them as competing or
e ven mutually exclusive, in most cases they are best regarded as
complementary, stressing d ifferent aspects inv olved in aggression as
a complex form of social behaviour. The next sections will introduce
each of the approaches in tum, paying special a ttention to the
answers they entail to two closely related question s : (1) Is agg ession
r

an innate quality of human nature? and (2) Is there a chance for

aggressive behaviour to be p re-empted or controlled?

27
 TABLE 2.1

Theoretical explanations of aggression

Theoretical perspectiVe Aggression conceptualised as . . . Focus on stablmy (5)

vs. va(lability (v)
Biological explaoalions
'Elhology · . , Internal energy s
Sociobiology · . . product of evolution s
Behaviour genelics · . . heredhary disposilion s
Psychological explane/ions
Freudian psychoanalysis · . . destfuc�ve Inslinct s
Frustra�on�aggre5sion hypothesis · • . ,goal·directed drive v
CogRitive neoassociationism · . . response 10 negative affect V
Exc�ation transler model · . . reinforced through �eutral arousal V
Sooia]·oognnive approach . . funclton of inlormalion processing V
Learning theory · . . learned Ihrough reinforcement and
imilation v
Soclal lnteractionlst model · . , result of a decision·maklng process v

Biological explanations

In this section, we w ill look at three models that refer to biological

principles in explaining aggression: the ethological approach, the
sociobiological approach, and the behav iour genetic approach. A
fourth line of inquiry that i concemed w i th the influences of hor­
mones on aggressive behaviour is particularly relevant to the issue of
gender differe.nces in aggression and will be d iscussed in that context
(see Chapter 3). Biologica l approaches to aggression share the basic
assu.mption that the TOots of a ggressive behav iour lie in the bfologkal
na ture of humans rather than thei r psychological functioning.

The ethological view: AggreSSion as an intern a I energy

Among the biological approaches ,to aggres ion, an importa n t

con h'ibutlon came from the field o f ethology, which j s concerned
wjth the comparative study of animal and human behaviour. As one
(1974) offered a model of aggression
of the field's pioneers, Lorenz
that dealt specifically with the issue of how aggressive energy is
developed and set free in both animals and humans. His core
assumption is thatthe organism con ti.nuously builds up aggressive
energy. Whether or not this energy ""rU l lead to the manifestation of

28 TH E SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF AGGRESSION

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Josef (Lillian) 10 Hampden Indian Orchard (4) HALAMA Joseph
(Helen retired) retired 64 Devens Indian Orchard ® (2) 543-3910
HALAMA Mary L student 10 Hampden Indian Orchard (4) HALAMA
Richard (Maria emp Smith & Wesson Inc) mach opr Smith & Wesson
Inc 104 Enfield Indian Orchard (4) 543-5374 HALAMA Stanley (Jane)
mach opr Smith & Wesson Inc 91 Devens St Indian Orchard ® (2)
543-1026 HALAMA Steven S student 10 Hampden Indian Orchard (4)
HALAMA Theresa emp Sears Credit 91 Devens Indian Orchard 543-
1026 HALAWA Abdelhadi student Springfield Coll 19 Salem 733-2421
HALBARDIER Josephine wtrs McDonald's 224 Wildwood Av ® 782-
4609 HALBERSTADT Lilli retired 34 Parkwood St ® 732-9888 HALE A
teller Community Savings 45 Willow (#403) 737-2130 HALE Alan dir
of institutional Western New England Coll advancement (ofc) 782-
3111 HALE Beverly K mach opr U S Envelope Co 52 Colonial Av 739-
3206 HALE BRIAN F 75 Berard Cir 782-3381 HALE Brian F (Maryann)
self emp sign works 826 Wilbraham Rd (3) 783-8086 HALE Carolyn
retired 38 Regal St ® . . . . 783-5298 HALE Christine grad student
212 Locust . 739-7147 HALE Deborah 289 Wilbraham Rd 782-2573
HALE Everett P (Judith G retired) retired 47 Melville St ® (2) 734-
4440 HALE Gerald (Doris) parts mgr Lincoln Mercury 552 Plumtree
Rd ® (2) 782-6159 HALE Mary ofc elk Central Chev 552 Plumtree Rd
782-6159 HALE Robert (Mary emp Milton Bradley Co) punch press
opr Sterling Radiator 127 Governor St (3) 737-3888 HALE Sandra
dental asst Dr Cohen 233 Arthur St 788-4049 HALE Vivian E retd 201
Arcadia Blvd ® . 734-8954 HALEY Angelina C elk Grace Food Serv 96
Garfield St ® 732-0458 HALEY Constance B RN Shriners Hosp for
Crippled Children 185 Roy St® 739-3771 HALEY Dan student
Western New England College 856 Worthington 781-2059 HALEY
Daniel student 491 Roosevelt Av . 782-5498 HALEY Edward (Jean
eshr Zayre's) electn Spaldings 101 Manchester Terr ® (2) . . . 788-
8589 HALEY Henry T retired 24 Grove St ®. . . 739-5360 HALEY
James F (Frances M secy Bay Bank Valley) vice pres finance John
Hart Associates 211 Wildwood Av ® (3). . . . . 783-8633 HALEY John
T Jr (Evelyn R retd) retired 124 Oregon St ® (2) 782-5668 HALEY
Mark sis mgr Consolidated Freightways 96 Garfield 739-5242 HALEY
Mary W retired 38 Warner HALEY Richard D (Beverly A tchr St
Stanislaus) mkting mgr Hamilton Standard Div 491 Roosevelt Av ®
(3) 782-5498 HALEY Sister Helen C emp Mercy Hosp 315 Carew
HALEY Theresa M reg radiologic techn Bay State Medl Cntr 185 Roy
St 739-3771 HALEY Thomas advertising dept Atlantic & Pacific Tea
Co 491 Roosevelt Av 782-5498 HALEY Timothy F (Cheryl) elecl engr
Martin Inds 322 Oak Indian Orchard (5) 543-6746 HALEY Tom
advertising A&P 856 Worthington 781-2059 HALFIDE Gregory
systems analyst 173 Buckingham 734-2883 HALHAWAY Harold 27
Michigan Indian Orchard 543-5431 HALJAR John self emp 10
Chestnut 739-2041 HALKERSTON Georgina retired 39 Bellamy Rd®
782-4105 HALL A C elk Spfld City Hall 42 Fenwick ® 783-8011 HALL
Alice 26 Lively Ln HALL Arline S 42 Kipling St ® 782-5532 HALL
Belinda L elk NE Tel 90 Waldorf St (3) 782-3734 HALL Bernard 25
Athol 732-4545 HALL Brower L (Alice P retd) retired 18 Northway Dr
® (2) 783-6785 HALL C M ofc secy MA Mutual Life Ins Co 872
Beacon Cir (2) 782-9836 HALL Christopher D (Barbara) attndt
Holyoke Soldier's Home 27 Edgemont St (2) 732-5209 HALL Claribel
retired 1190 Liberty HALL Colon 15 Girard Av 737-4862 HALL D 101
Washington (2) 733-1498 HALL Daniel craftsman Syncom Intnal 84
Rittenhouse Terr (2) HALL David student STCC 27 Edgemont . 732-
5209 HALL David drvr Commonwealth Coach 111 Berkshire Indian
Orchard 543-1399 HALL David A Jr retired 310 Stafford St (#1102)
736-4736 HALL David J 42 Kipling St 782-5532 HALL David L printer
Printer's Inc 42 Dartmouth St ® 736-6067 HALL Derek C serv techn
Bay State Gas 78 Maynard St 788-8210 HALL Donald emp Merit Gas
Station 111 Berkshire Indian Orchard 543-1399 HALL Donald J
(Debra M) sis William J Harper Co 91 Mobilehome Way ® (2). . .
783-2251 HALL Donald T (Veronica S retd) retd 96 Grenada Terr (2)
734-1545 HALL Dwight 67 Cass 734-4947 HALL Elizabeth unit secy
Baystate Medl Cntr 51 Wrenwood St ® 782-3888 HALL Ella retired
310 Stafford St (#1500) 739-0952 HALL Estelle retd 774 State 736-
2082 HALL Francis C (Martha S) foreman Tel Co 59 Emmet St ® (4)
783-1316 HALL GALLERIES Dee Cleary, mgr. -4th floor Steigers,
china, silverware, gifts- 1477 Main 781-4211 HALL Gary E 2058
Wilbraham Rd ® (2). . 782-9647 HALL Gary R pharm techn Sterling
Health 38 Grant St® 733-7715 HALL George A (Kathleen A EKG
techn Baystate Medl Cntr) loan ofer Multi-Bank 104 Entrybrook Dr®
(5) 734-6815 HALL Gretchen A student 8 Commonwealth Av HALL
Henry Jr (Nina M suit presser Bosbach's) correctional atndt Somers
State Prison 37 Cortland St ® (2) 739-7527 HALL Howard A elk
Springfield Newspapers 94 Federal St 781-5873 HALL Irving W Mrs
retd 200 Locust St. . 733-7338 HALL James trk Drvr Milton Bradley
Co 14 Woodlawn 737-8447 HALL James I emp Pratt & Whitney 90
Waldorf 782-3734 HALL John retired 32 Clifford St (3) 733-8418
HALL John T (Florence G retd) retd 38 Berkeley St ® (2) 734-6260
HALL Joseph student Springfield Techl Comm Coll 59 Emmet St 783-
1316 HALL Kathryn L bkpr Halmar 25 Athol St ® (2) 732-4545 HALL
Kenneth J emp 227 Starling Rd ® (4) 783-4974 HALL Lawrence K Jr
retd 72 Nassau Dr ® 782-5833 HALL Lillian emp Medical Pool 111
Berkshire Indian Orchard 543-1399 HALL Lois Maxine retd 683 Union
739-2360 HALL Lorenzo M (Juanita) PSM opr US Post Office 34
Albemarle St ® (2) 739-2854 HALL Lottie admitting rep Mercy
Hospital 415 Tiffany St ® 733-2725 HALL Mark emp Edward's Food
Whse 111 Berkshire Indian Orchard 543-1399 HALL Mary E payroll
Fleming Trkg 59 Emmet St 783-8045 HALL Maureen slsmn House of
TV 59 Emmet 783-1316 HAITHWAITE - HALLOCK 165 Springfield
City Directory © 1988 U S WEST Marketing Resources Co HALL
Michael F (Christine A) sis rep Consolidated Freightways 76 Magnolia
Terr ® (8) 733-6867 HALL Michelle K student Classical HS 14
Woodlawn 737-8447 HALL Mildred 69 Maynard HALL Nancy K emp
Milton Bradley Co 38 Felicia St ® (3) 732-0854 HALL Ophelia retd
161 Oak Grove Av ® . . 734-3251 HALL Peter R 120 Davenport®
782-4104 HALL R M elk Springfield Newspapers 29 Yale 733-4960
HALL Raymond (Geneva mach opr Gemini Co) 64 Norfolk St ® (2)
782-3845 HALL Richard E (Jeanne museum asst City of Spfld) co
supvr New England Tel 37 Pidgeon Dr ® (3) 782-5759 HALL Richard
Jr student 37 Pidgeon Dr . 782-5759 HALL Sidney (Janis) emp
Atlantic Gelatin 174 Chapin Terr ® (4) 733-3217 HALL STEPHEN
anesthesiologist333 E Columbus Av PO Box 1330 (#7 ofc) 732-5139
HALL Steve 105 Union 733-0615 HALL Steven (Siobane) air traffic
controller Bradley Intnatl Airport 55 Ralph ® (4) . 788-9215 HALL
Theodore Cowing (Sara P Palin-Hall bten self emp) tour supt US PS
32 Clifford St ® (2) 733-8418 HALL V L conslr Shorsleen Cole & Bros
144 Spring 733-2526 HALL Wayne E (Janet E) interviewer
Commonwealth of MA 42 Heiberg Rd ® (4) 782-3616 HALL Wendell
A (Carrie B nurse Baystate Medl Cntr) supvr State of CT 71
Northampton Av ® (2) 739-2871 HALL William F Jr dentist 106
Wilbraham Rd (res) ® 732-0311 HALL WILLIAM F JR dentist 106
Wilbraham Rd (ofc) 734-8541 HALLAHAN Fred C (Mary A) pres Fred
C Hallahan Lumber Co Inc 195 Atwater Rd ® (2) 737-0581
HALLAHAN FRED C LUMBER CO INC Fred C Hallahan pres 2 Birnie
Av 739-3821 HALLAS Marilyn M switchboard opr Tele Service 9 York
St 736-5019 HALLBERG Clement F retired 152 Oak St Indian Orchard
543-4569 HALLEIN Alice R retired 1480 Page Blvd ® 739-7632
HALLEIN Dorothy A retired 1480 Page Blvd ® 739-7632 HALLEIN
Louise M retd 1480 Page Blvd ® 739-7632 HALLEIN Sally B retd
1480 Page Blvd ® 739-7632 HALLEN Bettie 783-7878 HALLENBECK
Allen Ray sis Channell 6 Decker PI 734-7527 HALLENBECK Allen
Raymond 56 Glenvale 783-7069 HALLENBECK K L emp Baystate
Medl Cntr 6 Decker PI 734-7527 HALLENSTEIN Harry F (Pearl F retd)
retired 350 Gillette Av ® (2) 783-1730 HALLERAN IrjaT retired 209
Ellsworth Av ® 782-6870 HALLETT Jerome L Sr (Eva G retired)
retired 14 Gatewood Rd ® (2) 783-3351 HALLETT Paul F final inspr
Smith & Wesson 44 Melville St 733-7763 HALLEY Alfred W (Deborah
A tchr City of Chicopee) assoc mgr Wall Street Journal 419 Page Blvd
(3 ) 733-3799 HALLIGAN R J retd 34 Eloise 782-7252 HALLIHAN
Janet M mgr Singing Messenger Co 102 Vincent St ® (2). 783-9311
HALLMARK HOUSE Edward Block & Merrill L Block -retail sis.
electronics- 485 Central St 733-7986 HALLOCK C E dietary dept wkr
Springfield Municipal Hosp 7 Better Way® 783-1760 HALLOCK Edith
M retired 9 Keith St (#4) 732-7546
 166 HALLORAN • HAMPDEN Springfield City Directory ©
1988 U S WEST Marketing Resources Co HALLORAN Daniel J retired
41 Cunningham St 788-4269 HALLS Gordon H (Dolores A) pres
Highland Machine 153 E Allen Ridge Rd ® (2) . . . 783-8837 HALLS
Gunar retd 124 Eddywood ® 783-6654 HALLS Norman T (Jean L
secy Friendly Corp) admn City of Springfield 1353 Plumtree Rd ® (3)
783-5583 HALLSTROM Everett 1 (Iris M retd) retired 14 Brookside
Cir ® (2) 782-4759 HALLUMS Calvin (Hazel D lunch mother
Springfield Bd of Educ) retd 123 Bristol St ® (2) 782-3775 HALLUMS
Glen (Tamara) trk drvr UPS 48 Meadowlark Ln ® (2) 783-4417
HALLUMS Larry test techn Digital Equipt Corp 123 Bristol St 782-
3775 HALLUMS M J retired 169 Andrews. . . . 788-0559 HALLY David
J (Mary Anne retd) retired 134 Linnell St ® (2) 736-6489 HALPERIN
Leon (Elsie) retd 174 Abbott ® (2) 783-1063 HALPERIN Norman
(Minna J retd) pharmacist Blanc McCarthy Pharmacy 66 Rencelau St
® (2) 736-3972 HALPERN Richard (Susan A) 45 Willow (3) 733-8378
HALPERN SUSAN K atty 1380 Main St 5th Floor (ofc) 781-0750
HALPY Marion RN Mercy Hosp 696 Carew ® 739-4855 HALUCH
Edward J (Sharon) tree serv self emp 24 Newhouse St ® (4) 783-
4717 HALUCH V (S C retd) retd 30 Putnam Cir ® (2) 739-1984
HALVORSEN John A (A) retired 1730 Wilbraham Rd ® 782-2660
HAM J W exec secy Martin Lumber 76 Acushnet Av ® 732-7284 HAM
Peter M (Debra J dental asst) sis self emp 76 Acushnet Av (2) 734-
5791 HAMBORG Mildred A retd 142 Santa Barbara ® 788-7175
HAMBRO Ethel E 30 Terrace Ln ® 783-5022 HAMBRO Helen M sch
bus drvr Comm Coach 56 W Alvord St ® 733-6307 HAMEL Albert
emp Micron Co 36 Montmorenci 734-3907 HAMEL Arthur N (Norma
computer opr Stop & Shop) emp City of Springfield 20 Banbury St ®
(3) 732-0395 HAMEL Bertrand L (Eleanor R medl techn Springfield
Hosp) laborer City of Springfield 36 Montmorenci St ® (2). . . 734-
3907 HAMEL Clorinthe U retired 72 Bay St ® . 736-3117 HAMEL J H
'Maurice' (Wanda C retired) retd 129 Westminister St ® (2) 736-
2664 HAMEL Kathleen F elk Bradlees Dept Store 91 Ambrose HAMEL
Laurie A elk Gemini 129 Westminister St 736-2664 HAMEL Lenore M
elk MA Mutual Life Ins 129 Westminister 736-2664 HAMEL M painter
self emp 49 Prentice . 733-8990 HAMEL Michael drafting engr Stnd
Nap 30 Allen St 737-5666 HAMEL Paul A (Elenanor) retd 87 Saint
James Av ® (2) 737-6580 HAMEL Raymond (Linda emp Springfield
Bd of Educ) sis Porter & Chester Inst 30 Allen St ® (3) 737-5666
HAMEL Raymond J (Claire M) set up man Rexnord 38 Littleton St ®
(2) 736-4917 HAMEL Richard E (Kathleen) 74 Aspen Rd ® (3) 782-
8267 HAMEL Robert J mgr ABC Cleaners 77 Dorset 739-2600 HAMEL
Roger H (Rita C retd) retired 77 Dorset St ® (2) 739-2600 HAMEL
William E (Rita retired) retired 104 Huron ® 733-7606 HAMELIN Rita
M OR nurse Mercy Hosp 46 Colfax St ® (3) 736-7421 HAMER James
H Rev (Irma) pastor Faith Baptist Church 84 Westminister St ® (2)
732-9848 HAMER Justin (Clara retd) stock elk Bradlees 73 Tyler St ®
(2) 733-1324 HAMER Philip self emp 145 Sumner Av . 739-1872
HAMERLY John packager Pratt & Whitney 107 School St 785-5067
HAMILAKIS Anna M retired 127 Abbott St ® 783-1161 HAMILL
Barclay (Barbara C sis elk Fredericks Jewelers) serv techn Tel Co 76
Audley Rd ® (2) 782-0264 HAMILTON Ardelle retd 75 Hood St ®. . .
732-4636 HAMILTON Ardelle L asmblr Pratt & Whitney 21 Margerie
(2) 739-7672 HAMILTON Bernard L retired 193 Warrenton St ® 782-
0653 HAMILTON Bert F (Josephine S retd) retired 320 Island Pond
Rd ® (2) 788-7262 HAMILTON C S secy MA Mutual 18 Benton 737-
1823 HAMILTON Carol elk MA Mutual 53 Dickinson HAMILTON
Deborah L nursing supvr 27 Anthony 734-4499 HAMILTON Edward D
emp Diesel Sys Div UTC 15 Edwards 739-9722 HAMILTON Edward T
III (Marianne nurse Western MA Hosp) sis self emp 59 Pennsylvania
Av ® (4) 783-2639 HAMILTON Edward T Jr (Claire A retd) retired 35
Keith St ® (2) 736-9208 HAMILTON Edwin A (Dorothea W retd)
retired 280 W Allen Ridge Rd ® (2) 783-1026 HAMILTON Elizabeth
35 Cambridge .... 737-6078 HAMILTON Gary J 32 Longview 733-
8080 HAMILTON Jacqueline grocery elk Big Y 333 Commonwealth Av
732-1796 HAMILTON Jeffrey tlr Bank of New England 77 Westford
Cir 733-5310 HAMILTON John (Patricia A elk Monarch Life Ins)
master mech Monsanto Co 333 Commonwealth Av ® (2 ) 732-1796
HAMILTON John (Emma E stock elk Hallmark Cards) auditor
Hallmark Cards 489 Newbury St ® (2) 732-0836 HAMILTON L 1083
Sumner Av 782-3642 HAMILTON Leo F 533 Canon Cir 783-1764
HAMILTON Margaret M housekeeping Mercy Hosp 35 Keith St 736-
9208 HAMILTON Margarite M retd 32 Williamsburg Dr 732-7548
HAMILTON Redell (Pamela J asmblr K & M Elec) wldr Ace Metals 47
Mapledell ® (8) 737-7093 HAMILTON Robert A C (Doris T retd) retd
165 Gresham Av ® (2) 782-7850 HAMILTON Robert E (Juliette) carp
self emp 84 Edgewood ® (4) 737-5973 HAMILTON Robert S Jr
(Christine R) buyer Pratt & Whitney 69 Leyfred Terr ® (3). . 788-
6610 HAMILTON Robert S Sr (Helen A assember Milton Bradley)
supvr Sunshine Art Studios Inc 32 Longview ® (2) 733-8080
HAMILTON WILLIAM A MD pathologist 759 Chestnut St (ofc) 784-
4500 HAMLIN Ronald & Christine (Christine elk J C Penney Co Inc)
mgr Longhill Bus Co 54 Washington Rd (5) 736-1543 HAMM Jean B
bkpr Big Y Foods Inc 50 Middle St® 733-6906 HAMMARLOF Jerry R
(Kerry T RN Inst of Living) trk drvr John C Otto Printing Co 13 Plum
® (3) 783-2297 HAMMARLOF Mary L retd 74 Plumtree Rd ® 782-
5624 HAMMARSTROM Peter (Linda M emp Millbrook Distributor)
Arnold Bread Route self emp 132 Riverton Rd ® (2) 783-5735
HAMMER Ralph E (Marguerite J) retd 365 Gillette Av ® (2) 782-5584
HAMMERLE Christopher emp Stop & Shop 161 Dorset St 788-9356
HAMMERLE Colleen student Westfield State Coll 161 Dorset St 788-
9356 HAMMERLE John R (Patricia A patient account Mercy Hosp)
claims mgr & admiralty law Continental Ins Co 161 Dorset ® (5)
788-9356 HAMMERSLEY Charles H 76 Kent Rd ®. 543-6867
HAMMETT Berlyn E (Bertha E) retd 1041 Carew ® (2) 788-7915
HAMMILL-McCORMICK ASSOCIATES INC Gerald F McCormick, pres.-
treas. Eric Allum, v. pres, -heating & air conditioning- 165 Stafford St
PO Box 195 737-1196 HAMMILL Raymond (Catherine T retired)
retired 24 Puritan Rd ® (2) 782-4277 HAMMOND John (Cynthia) 7-
Up Distr self emp 73 Canterbury Rd ® (4) 782-6343 HAMMOND
John F (Florence R senior mkt analyst US Envelope Co) lab techn
Magmatech 216 E Allen Ridge Rd ® (2). 783-1826 HAMMOND John
J (Dorothea F overseas opr AT&T) retd 22 Canterbury Rd ® (2) 783-
1377 HAMMOND Kenneth L laundry man Baystate Medl Cntr 100
Beaumont St . . 732-8459 HAMMOND Phyllis E dir of CDE South
Congregational Church 10 Riverview ®. . 788-7578 HAMPDEN
CARPET LEASING DIVISION OF AMERICAN WINDOW CLEANING
COMPANY INC Stuart E Simonoff, pres.50 Howard 733-2146
HAMPDEN COLOR & CHEMICAL CO INC Phillip Bendheim Jr, pres, -
chemical distr.126 Memorial Dr Industrial Pk 732-2112 HAMPDEN
CORNICE WORKS INC Carl F Fisher pres Rudolph J Fisher treas
James Burney elk drapery & curtain fixtures 42 Wilcox 736-3661
HAMPDEN COUNTY ASSOCIATION FOR THE RETARDED Robert
Agoglia, exec. dir. -care for the retarded- 33 School St 732-0531
HAMPDEN COUNTY BAR ASSOCIATION Judith K Potter, dir.- 50 State
732-4648 HAMPDEN COUNTY EMPLOYMENT & TRAINING
CONSORTIUM Ray A Jarvis, exec. dir. -Employment Agency1176
Main St 781-6900 HAMPDEN COUNTY GYNECOLOGISTS &
OBSTETRICIANS INC Frank E Kachinski, MD David F Booker, MD
Irwin A Pahl, MD 110 Maple St (3rd Floor) 732-2126 HAMPDEN
COUNTY MEDICAL GROUP INC Antonio Dores, MD Marc Goldman,
MD Peter Levine, MD Subrhta Ray, MD 222 Carew St 732-4210 44
Sewall St Ludlow 583-2274 HAMPDEN COUNTY NURSING SERVICES
Pamela Dean, dir. of nurses- 87 Mill Park 737-6756 HAMPDEN
COUNTY OF . County Ofcs Commissioners 50 State Springfield . . .
781-8100 District Attorney 50 State Springfield . 781-8100 District
Court-Clerk's Ofc Springfield Div 50 State St 781-8100 Jail 79 York
Springfield 781-1560 Registry Of Deeds 50 State Springfield . 781-
8100 Treasurer 50 State Springfield 781-8100 Hampden County
Sheriffs 100 State Springfield 732-5772 HAMPDEN COUNTY SPECIAL
OLYMPICS 733-8267 HAMPDEN DISTRICT MEDICAL SOCIETY Carol
Nystrom, exec, secy.- 1414 State . . 736-0661 HAMPDEN DISTRICT
MENTAL HEALTH CLINIC INC Dr Robert Beauvais, exec. dir. -mental
health clinic- 367 Pine 734-3151 HAMPDEN DODGE INC Joseph D
Gentile, pres. -Omni, Colt, Daytona, Diplomat, Aries, Dodge 600,
Caravan, Sales & Service, Dodge Vans & Pickups Sales &
Service1515 State St PO Box 306 ’Highland Station’ 734-8251
HAMPDEN DODGE INCORPORATED PARTS DEPARTMENT Domenick
Checitelli, mgr. -parts dept.1515 State 785-1621 HAMPDEN
FURNITURE SHOWCASE Eugene Baker, ownr. Albert Baker -furniture
store- 1055 Main St 736-8258 or 732-2945
 NATURAL GAS tail IMPORTANT PHONE NUMBERS Customer
Info. Center 781-3610 Sales General Offices 781-9200 A. Bay State
Gas HAMPDEN GYNECOLOGISTS ASSOCIATES 110 Maple St (2nd
Fir) 732-1620 Or 732-2103 HAMPDEN HAMPSHIRE HOUSING
ASSISTANCE William Breitbart, dir. -housing- 145 State 785-1251
HAMPDEN HAT & CAP CO Mike Godek ownr hats retail 189 Taylor St
734-0415 HAMPDEN HOUSE RETIREMENT HOME 190 Kendall 733-
6617 HAMPDEN LAW LIBRARY Kathleen M Flynn, law librarian50
State St PO Box 559 Hall Of Justice (3rd fir) 781-8100 HAMPDEN
MEADOW CONDOMINIUM SALES OFFICE 690 Nassau Dr 782-8066
HAMPDEN REALTY Sid Silverman 781-2505 HAMPDEN RUG &
CARPET CLEANING Stuart E Simonoff pres carpet cleaning 50
Howard 733-2148 HAMPDEN SAVINGS BANK Main Office 19 Harrison
Av PO Box 2048 .... 736-1812 Branch Offices 217 Elm St West
Springfield 781-3360 475 Longmeadow St Longmeadow . . 567-3321
1363 Allen St 782-5291 HAMPDEN ZIMMERMAN ELECTRIC SUPPLY
CO Robert P Sanborn, pres, -electrical supplies, wholesale & retail-
721 Worthington St . 739-5619 or 734-6407 HAMPF FREDERICK DR
JR radiologist 780 Chestnut (#1 ofc) 781-1123 HAMPSHIRE HILLS
INC dba GENDEN AUTO PARTS Francis Lamoureux, pres.620 Page
Blvd 781-2353 HAMRATTIE Etta A retired 46 Trafton Rd ® 788-6282
HAMRE A M retired 1475 Roosevelt Av . 734-1796 HAMRE Daniel E
fireman Springfield Fire Dept 61 Mooreland 739-8118 HAMRE
Deborah L legal secy Ely King Corcoran Milstein & Beaudry 59
Berkshire Indian Orchard 543-1672 HAMRE Elizabeth A reg mgr
Corset Shop 50 Manor Ct 782-2028 HAMRE Frederick C 61
Mooreland 739-8118 HAMRE Frederick E (Frances R retd) retired 61
Mooreland ® (2) 739-8118 HAMRICK Helen 159 Massachusetts Av
HANCHETT Richard N 45 Willow 732-2173 HANCHETT Theodore H
(Edna C retired) retired 32 S Tallyho Dr ® (2) 783-1967 HANCOCK
Gerald L (Jacqueline A) sis mgr 1862 Parker ® HANCOCK Glenn C
serv parts elk Package Machinery 49 Fort Pleasant Av 788-9837
HANCOCK WELDING Anne Arment, ownr.140 Tyler 739-8431 If No
Answer 525-6325 HAND Bernetta G retired 310 Stafford (#1506)
736-5714 HAND Helen C retired 439 Union (#4) . . 737-6726 HAND
Kevin A (Rebecca graphic designer self emp) elec Milton Bradley 38
Brighton (2) 783-8398 HANDFORD OIL & ASPHALT COMPANY INC
Leo Handford, pres. Clint Mitchell, genl. mgr. -heating oil50 Chapel
St or HANDLEMAN Dora S retired 215 Fort Pleasant Av (#1E) (2)
HANDLER Mort hypnotist self emp 75 Mulberry St ® HANDY BEER &
WINE 733-7703 733-7738 732- 9348 733- 7700 James Zollo, ownr. -
package store475 Boston Rd 783-8861 HANDY CORNER VARIETY
David Befford, ownr. -variety store477 Boston Rd 783-8226 HANES
Thomas E (Sandra) 54 Albert Av Indian Orchard (4) 543-6822
HANEY J K inspector Milton Bradley Co 15 Armory St 736-2486
HANEY LeRoy D (Carol A) retd 90 Middle ® (2) 734-1492 HANEY
Norman C (Clara B retd) retired 77 Laurence ® (2) 736-8717 HANEY
Roger C retd 149 Seymour Av ® . 783-9823 HANEY Terry E dental
techn Dental Lab 158 Warrenton St 782-4095 HANEY Thomas E
(Pauline A mach opr Dye Electrics) press opr Boxmakers 158
Warrenton St ® (2) 782-4095 HANEY Timmy student 158 Warrenton
. . 782-4095 HANIFAN James M student Wentworth Coll 175 StJames
Blvd 732-2974 HANIFAN Mary emp Pratt & Whitney 175 St James
Blvd 732-2974 HANIFAN Thomas A (Kathleen E bus monitor
Springfield Sch Sys) emp Baystate Medl Cntr 175 St James Blvd ®
(3) 732-2974 HANIFIN Carla waitress Salvatore's Restr 332 Canon
Cir 783-9638 HANIFIN Patrick engr Eastern Container 321 Holcomb
Rd ® 782-9074 HANIFIN Thomas retired 1475 Roosevelt Av 732-
9162 HANKE Robert self emp 36 Sumner Terr . 736-5745 HANKE
Robert W (Maria A) mach opr S & W Inc 33 Acushnet Av ® (5) 733-
7120 HANKIE Marjorie Mrs retd 114 Byers . . 737-2821 HANKIN
James E 76 Pendleton Av HANKINS Lloyd retd 414 Chestnut 737-
6755 HANKS Richard C (Lena E retired) retired 36 Gerald ® (2) 783-
8826 HANLEY Ann E retired 185 Dwight St (#308) 733-5861
HANLEY David student 695 Plumtree Rd. 783-5754 HANLEY Esther H
student Western New England Coll 695 Plumtree Rd 783-5754
HANLEY J J retired 57 Freeman Terr ®. . 734-5442 HANLEY James
emp Dreikorn's 65 Holly Indian Orchard 543-1079 HANLEY James S
Sr (Marie A retd) retd 159 Patricia Cir ® (2) 782-2985 HANLEY Marie
E eshr A & P Food Store 57 Freeman Terr 734-5442 HANLEY Richard
J (Ethel M retd) retired 15 Wood Ridge Dr ® (2) 783-3044 HANLEY
William J (Dorothy G secy Monsanto Co) slsmn Albert Steigers 695
Plumtree Rd ® (2) 783-5754 HANLON Helen retired 190 Kendall
HANLON Lydia nurses aide 321 StJames Av HANMER HENRY F Field,
Eddy & Buckley959 Main (ofc) 733-3131 HANNA Gertrude M retired
44 Trafton Rd ® 732-2508 HANNA Samuel J Jr (Claire A head admv
elk District Court) retired 53 Aldrew Terr ® (2) 782-4453 HANNANT
Kenneth R (Helen) elk Waldbaum Inc 66 Foster St ® (2) HANNIFAN
James M (Sally S dietn Boston Medl Cntr) atty City of Springfield 54
Meredith St (res) ® (4 ) 732-5682 HANNIFAN JAMES M atty 1500
Main St PO Box 15629 (ofc) (#2500) 739-6971 HANNIFAN M retd 20
Harkness Av .... 783-2088 HANNIFIN Edward J Jr (Louise T exec
secy MA Mutual Life Ins Co) claims rep Social Security 2494
Wilbraham Rd ® (2) 783-3263 HANNIGAN James Louis (Barbara
Jean) sr store detective Ames Dept Store 30 Wallace St ® (5)
HANNIGAN Joseph group leader Westvaco 117 Manor Ct 782-4530
HANNIGAN M J retd 117 Manor Ct 782-4530 HANNIGAN See Also
Hanigan HANNON Dorothy Griggs retired 307 Chestnut (#325) 788-
7125 HANNON G M RN BMC ® 733-1811 HAMPDEN - HANSON 167
Springfield City Directory © 1988 U S WEST Marketing Resources Co
HANNON INVESTIGATION & SECURITY INC Thomas E Hannon,
pres.-treas.44 Verona St -Westfield 562-9977 HANNON Martha A
librarian Springfield Public Lbry Brightwood Br 41 Grover . . 736-
2649 HANNON Thomas E pres-treas Miller Detective Agency Inc
(ofc) 732-8560 HANNON Thomas J retired 72 Harmon Av ® (2) 782-
3801 HANNOUSH Danielle hair dresser Masters 177 Balboa Dr 783-
5045 HANNOUSH David E (Josephine) emp Kay Jewelers 177 Balboa
Dr ® (3) 783-5045 HANNOUSH Emily 177 Balboa Dr 783-5045
HANNOUSH JEWELERS Tom Hopper, mgr. -jewelry store- 1500 Main
781-5446 HANNOUSH JEWELERS INC Joseph Hannoush, pres, -
jewelers1655 Boston Rd Eastfield Mall 543-5225 HANNOUSH Joseph
A (Sultane A) pres Hannoush Jewelers Inc 148 Patricia Cir® (6) 783-
0483 HANNOUSH Louisette emp Hannoush Bros Jewelers 177 Balboa
Dr 783-5045 HANNOUSH Tony (Susan self emp) self emp 17 Patricia
Cir ® (4) 782-4257 HANO BUSINESS FORMS INC Phil Hano, pres.-
ownr. -business forms99 Guion PO Box 199 781-7800 HANOFEE
Joseph (Barbara tchr-coach UN EC) atty self emp 127 Bellwood Rd
(res) ® (4) 782-3466 HANOUSEK Joyce emp Commonwealth of MA
96 Redfern Dr 734-2674 HANS LYNNE any.- 1139 Main (ofc) . . . 781-
6370 HANSCOM C F31 Biltmore St® (2) 732-5476 HANSCOM Clinton
F Jr (Patricia A) tchr John J Duggan Jr HS 31 Biltmore ® (2) 739-
1052 HANSEN Andrew J (Michaelene retired) retired 120 Ashbrook
® (2) 782-5823 HANSEN Beverly 61 Manor Ct 782-3365 HANSEN
Edna P elk Shawmut First Bank 49 Yamaska Rd ® (2) 783-9364
HANSEN Ernest R (Emiline M retired) retd 51 Atwater Rd ® (2) 737-
9758 HANSEN NOBLE M phys.300 Stafford (ofc) 788-7321 HANSEN
Ralph Q (Esther F retd) retd 37 Gillette Av ® (2) 782-6142 HANSEN
Richard F printing techn Amer Intnatl Coll 37 Gillette Av 782-6142
HANSEN S 53 Baldwin (3) 737-4946 HANSON David P machst
Hamilton Standard-Div 723 Carew St 733-0813 HANSON JEWELERS
Thomas Midura & Maria Midura, ownrs. -jewelers- 479 Main Indian
Orchard . . . 543-3112 HANSON John A retd 107 Cloran ® 788-4684
HANSON Josiah labr Wilfred Mini 222 Oak Grove Av 737-0401
HANSON Kathleen student Springfield Techl Comm Coll 499 Plumtree
Rd 783-5117 HANSON Louise waitress 65 Ardmore HANSON M L
Bishop mach opr Smith & Wesson 53 Ringgold 739-2642 HANSON
Marshall S (Mildred E retired) supt Longuiel Transp 27 Thorndyke ®
(2) 736-0028 HANSON Mary E student Westfield State 499 Plumtree
Rd 783-5117 HANSON Patricia secy Blvco Corp 499 Plumtree Rd
783-5117 HANSON Raymond F (Anna P) rep Baystate Gas Co 499
Plumtree Rd ® (2) 783-5117 HANSON Rose B retired 43 Gillette Av
® . 783-7681 HANSON S 66 Mattoon 788-0817 HANSON Suzanne J
wtrs The Nook 18 Isabel St ® 733-9762 HANSON SYSTEMATION -
SERVICE M R Hanson -management information serv.35 Warwick
737-5830 HANSON Terry machst Hamilton Standard Div 723 Carew
St 733-0813
 168 HANSON - HARRINGTON Springfield City Directory ©
1988 U S WEST Marketing Resources Co HANSON Willie Andrew retd
53 Ringgold ® 739-2642 HANST Harry M (Georgene D retired) retd
23 Graham ® (2) 783-6724 HANUSZCZYK John janitorial crew
worker Adidas 385 Maple St 734-7568 HAPCO AUTO PARTS Richard
Halpern, pres.727 Main 736-7275 HAPCO AUTO PARTS Herbert
Halpern, pres.-treas. -automotive parts retailers- 226 Boston Rd 782-
2348 HAPCO AUTO PARTS Herbert M Halpern pres treas 154 Main St
Indian Orchard 543-3242 HAPCOOK CHARLES DR orthodontist125
Liberty (#301 ofc) 733-6600 HAPCOOK Manser P (Josephine E
retired) retired 27 Elwood Dr ® (2) 734-1360 HAPCOOK Mary F retd
310 Stafford (#710) 733-8636 HAPCOOK Mary R retd 26 Wayne ®
732-9211 HAPGGOD James (Etta postal elk USPS) asst golf pro
Cedar Golf Course 38 Battery Indian Orchard (2 ) 543-5313
HAPGOOD Miles M Jr pres-genl mgr W J Foss Co (ofc) 737-0206
HAPPYLAND RESTAURANT Raymond St Jacques & Drew
Ronaldson684 Page Blvd 736-0935 HARABIN Julia retired 3291 Main
HARASIK Anne J case wkr Welfare Dept 19 Bellamy Rd ® 782-2681
HARATY John (Irene R) gardener Springfield Cemetery 299 Bay St ®
(2) . 732-9420 HARATY Todd J retd 27 Van Buren Av . . 736-2587
HARBECK Robert T (Mary Ellen T tchr Springfield Techl Comm Coll)
club mgr Longmeadow Country Club 107 Palo Alto Rd ® (2) 783-
1037 HARBISON WILLIAM A MD physician-cardiology2 Medical
Center Dr (ofc) 781-5735 HARBOUR Cindy eshr Shwarts Parking 133
Bloomfield (2) 739-8852 HARDEE FELICITY atty 1500 Main St
'Baybank Tower' (ofc) (#2700) 781-2820 HARDEN James II
communications techn AT&T 49 Blodgett 737-6979 HARDENBERGH
Daniel K (Mary Ann emp State of MA) cnsltnt self emp 141 Union®
(2) 781-3669 HARDER Eric (Lee tchr Holyoke Sch System) carp
Kitchens By Curio 21 Montclair ® (3) 788-7838 HARDER Judith area
rep Child Care Program 70 Finch Rd ® (3) 782-3373 HARDER Kari
student North Adams State 70 Finch Rd 782-3373 HARDER Susan A
teller Bay Bank Valley 368 Roosevelt Av 782-6569 HARDIN K mail
carrier USPS 347 Oakland St 737-0547 HARDINA William V (Eileen R
retd) retired 445 Sunrise Terr ® (2) 782-4506 HARDING Edward P Jr
Rev pastor self emp 10 Chestnut 739-0801 HARDING Ellen A retd 57
Shaine Cir ®. . 788-9047 HARDING Faith 105 Division 733-3681
HARDING George H Sr (Mary F) retired 166 Nottingham ® (2) 737-
3989 or 733-5697 HARDING Michael K (Ann Marie manicurist Perfect
Nails) plasterer A & M Ceiling Co 111 Fort Pleasant Av ® (2) 733-
1624 HARDING Scott student 24 Clantoy 737-5549 HARDING
Thelma A Mrs nurse aide Shriners Hosp 24 Clantoy 737-5549
HARDWICK Ted 248 Pearl 733-4897 HARDY Alton R (Vivian P asmbly
line wkr Digital Corp) mach adjuster US Env Co 15 Florida ® (2)
734-0454 HARDY Beatrice C retd 190 Kendall .... 736-2549 HARDY
Eldee 0 Sr (Odessa retired) retd 10 Lindsay Rd ® (2). 783-6524
HARDY Kenneth 9 Irvington 733-4362 HARDY Lonnie serv rep W MA
Elec Co 32 Pear ® (2) 783-0353 HARDY Lucille 467 Hancock St ®
(2) 736-7418 HARDY Michael emp Kinney Shore Store 15 Florida
734-0454 HARDY Ronald J (Betty Ann tchr Mary 0 Pottenger Sch)
pastor East Springfield Baptist Church 952 Carew ® (5) 739-3296
HARE Catherine 370 Pine HARE DOROTHY G atty.- 411 Dickinson
(ofc) 732-3103 HARE Norman B (Dorothy G retd) retired 161
Cheyenne Rd ® (2) 782-4821 HARER Glen C (Elba social security U
S Govt) systems engr Continental Cablevislon 120 W Alvord (3 ) 739-
4830 HARGER Linda student Springfield College 425 Eastern Av 737-
8367 HARGRAVES Darlene D shoeman Steigers 18 Cedar 788-4958
HARGRAVES Marjorie A retired 101 Lowell (#311) 788-4900
HARGRAVES William R (Joyce M) util man Sterling Radiator 18 Cedar
® (2) 788-4958 HARGREAVES E S retired 30 Halifax Ct 737-7204
HARGROVE Gertrude retired 500 Hancock ® 734-6234 HARING
PAULT James C Haberman Inc -insurance agent146 Chestnut St (ofc)
781-7000 HARKIN John J comp programmer Monarch 127 Lumae ®
783-6215 HARKIN Josephine P 127 Lumae St® (2) 783-6215
HARKINS Kevin P (Dorothy E elk Milton Bradley Co) mech Hallmark
Cards 90 Seymour Av ® (2) 782-6719 HARKINS Leon E retd 97
Knollwood St . 733-7629 HARKLESS Dallas (Elizabeth V tchr aide
Springfield Sch Dept) millwright Primus Inds 143 Kimberly Av ® (4)
788-8052 HARKLESS Norma tel opr NE Tel 1106 Carew® 732-8852
HARLAMBAKIS Doris retd 107 Carr St . 783-4373 HARLAMON John L
(Mary J tchr aide Liberty Street Sch) trk drvr H P Hood Inc 21 Lang®
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