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EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PETER W. HAWKES
CEMES-CNRS
Toulouse, France
 Advances in
IMAGING AND
ELECTRON PHYSICS
VOLUME 167

Edited by

PETER W. HAWKES
CEMES-CNRS, Toulouse, France

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

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11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Preface

The history of the imaging instruments that are often discussed in the
pages of these Advances and the lives of the scientists who have played
large parts in that history are always welcome subjects here and the
present volume opens with an excellent example. E. de Chambost, who
retired from the Cameca company after 40 years’ service, has compiled
a complete and fascinating account of the instruments developed by that
company over the decades. The principal actors are brought vividly to life
and the interplay of character and market forces emerges clearly. Very few
of the companies in the area of charged particle optics have commissioned
histories of their activities and E. de Chambost’s effort is therefore all the
more welcome, to be placed alongside “The story of European commercial
electron microscopes” by A. Agar (vol. 96, 1996, 415–584,).
This is followed by an account of GANIP – general adaptive neigh-
bourhood image processing – by J. Debayle and J.-C. Pinoli, pioneers of
this approach. They address the important subject of context-dependent
image processing, which is required for many types of image. A long
section is devoted to GAN-based mathematical morphology and in the
final section, several of the major themes of image processing are exam-
ined: multispectal decomposition, restoration, enhancement and segmen-
tation. Their comment on the relation to space-variant tempates in image
algebra (cf. G.X. Ritter, Advances in Electronics & Electron Physics, vol. 80,
1991, 243–308 ) is very pertinent.
Shape is a difficult concept. Eye and brain have no difficulty in recog-
nizing and classifying shapes (provided they are not too complicated) but
the mathematics of shape recognition is far from straightforward. A recent
book by P.K. Ghosh and K. Deguchi (Mathematics of Shape Description,
Wiley (Asia), Singapore 2008) is devoted entirely to shape in mathemati-
cal morphology. In the third contribution, M.B.H. Rhouma, M.A. Khabou,
and L. Hermi discuss shape recognition. The tools adopted are the eigen-
values of four familiar operators. A part of this work is very new and
this account, which is written in clear and accessible language, will surely
attract many readers. It is safe to say that shape will occupy a substantial
part of the image processing literature in the coming years.
Chapter 4, Point set analysis by N. Loménie and G. Stamon, brings us
back to mathematical morphology. Their introductory section gives a full
(and daunting) picture of the difficulties encountered when image infor-
mation in the form of point sets (or clouds) is being analysed. They build

viii
 Preface ix

the necessary bridge between such sets and mathematical morphology

and apply mesh morphology to a number of practical cases.
The volume ends with an article by L.P. Yaroslavsky on another aspect
of image manipulation: the recovery of images from sparse samples and
related problems. The appropriate transforms are studied and the basis
functions to be used with sharply bounded signals are presented.
I am most grateful to all the contributors for the efforts they have made
to ensure that their chapters can be understood by non-specialists. A list
of contributions planned for future volumes follows.

Peter W. Hawkes
 Contributors

Emmanuel de Chambost 1
49, rue des Cendrières, 91470 Limours, France
Johan Debayle and Jean-Charles Pinoli 121
Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines, CIS-LPMG/UMR CNRS 5148, 158
cours Fauriel, 42023 Saint-Etienne cedex 2, France
Mohamed Ben Haj Rhouma, Mohamed Ali Khabou, and Lotfi Hermi 185
Sultan Qaboos University, Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
Alkhod 123, Muscat, Oman; University of West Florida, Electrical & Com-
puter Engineering Department, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA; University of
Arizona, Department of Mathematics, Tucson, AZ 85721-0089, USA
Nicolas Loménie and Georges Stamon 255
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, France;
IPAL CNRS UMI 2955 (I2R/A*STAR, NUS, UJF, TELECOM, UPMC/
Sorbonne); University Paris Descartes, LIPADE
Leonid P. Yaroslavsky 295
Department of Physical Electronics, School of Electrical Engineering, Tel
Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel, and Tampere International Cen-
ter for Signal Processing, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere,
Finland
 Future Contributions

S. Ando
Gradient operators and edge and corner detection
I. Andreadis, K. Konstantinidis, and G. Syrakoulis
Ant colony methods and image retrieval
D. Batchelor
Soft x-ray microscopy
E. Bayro Corrochano
Quaternion wavelet transforms
C. Beeli
Structure and microscopy of quasicrystals
C. Bobisch and R. Möller
Ballistic electron microscopy
F. Bociort
Saddle-point methods in lens design
E. Buhr and T. Klein
Transmission scanning electron microscopy
A. Cornejo Rodriguez and F. Granados Agustin
Ronchigram quantification
T. Cremer (vols. 169 and 170)
Neutron microscopy
M. El-Gomati
Quantitative scanning electron microscopy
G. Esser and W. Becken
The generalized Coddington equation and related topics
R.G. Forbes
Liquid metal ion sources
L. Geretti and A. Abramo (vol. 168)
The synthesis of a stochastic artificial neural nework application using a genetic
algorithm approach

xi
xii Future Contributions

A. Gölzhäuser
Recent advances in electron holography with point sources
P. Han and H.E. Hwang
Phase retrieval in the Fresnel domain
M. Haschke
Micro-XRF excitation in the scanning electron microscope
A. Heuer and D. Hovis
Laser scanning confocal microscopy
M.I. Herrera
The development of electron microscopy in Spain
R. Hill, J.A. Notte, and L. Scipioni
Scanning helium ion microscopy
D. Ioanoviciu and K. Tsuno
Wien filters
M.S. Isaacson
Early STEM development
K. Ishizuka
Contrast transfer and crystal images
A. Jacobo
Intracavity type II second-harmonic generation for image processing
M. Jourlin, J. Breugnot, F. Itthirad, M. Bouabdellah, and B. Closs (vol. 168)
Logarithmic image processing for color images
L. Kipp
Photon sieves
T. Kirk and D. Pescia
Fundamental aspects of near-field-emission scanning electron microscopy
T. Kohashi
Spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy
O.L. Krivanek
Aberration-corrected STEM
L.J. Latecki
Contour grouping and the particle filter distribution approximation
S. Lefevre and J. Weber
Mathematical morphology, video and segmentation
R.A. Leitgeb (vol. 168)
Current technologies for high-speed and functional imaging with optical coher-
ence tomography
B. Lencová
Modern developments in electron optical calculations
 Future Contributions xiii

H. Lichte
New developments in electron holography
M. Matsuya
Calculation of aberration coefficients using Lie algebra
P. Midgley
Precession microscopy
J.A. Monsoriu
Fractal zone plates
L. Muray
Miniature electron optics and applications
S. Nepijko and G. Schönhense (vol. 168)
Analysis of optical systems, contrast depth and measurement of electric and
magnetic field distribution on the object surface in mirror electron microscopy
S. Nepijko and G. Schönhense
The use of electron holography to measure electric and magnetic fields and other
practical applications
N. Neskovic
Rainbow lenses
M.A. O’Keefe
Electron image simulation
H. Ott
Scanning electron microscopy of gaseous specimens
D. Paganin, T. Gureyev, and K. Pavlov
Intensity-linear methods in inverse imaging
N. Papamarkos and A. Kesidis
The inverse Hough transform
C.M. Parish (vol. 168)
Multivariate statistics applications in scanning transmission electron microscopy
x-ray spectrum imaging
J.L. Prince, Y. Bai, and X. Han
Adaptive octree grids
P. Rocca and M. Donelli
Imaging of dielectric objects
J. Rodenburg
Lensless imaging
K. Sato
Electron microscope studies of FePd particles
H. Sawada, F. Hosokawa, T. Sasaki, T. Kaneyama, Y. Kondo, and K. Suenaga (vol. 168)
Aberration correctors developed under Triple C project
xiv Future Contributions

M. Setou and K. Shrivas

Imaging mass spectroscopy – instrumentation and applications
K. Schultheiß and R.R. Schröder
Phase plates for the electron microscope
T. Schulz, M. Albrecht, and K. Irmscher (vol. 168)
Spatially resolved thermoluminescence in a scanning electron microscope
R. Shimizu, T. Ikuta, and Y. Takai
Defocus image modulation processing in real time
T. Soma
Focus-deflection systems and their applications
P. Sussner and M.E. Valle
Fuzzy morphological associative memories
R. Thompson and S. Cummer
Transformation optics
J.-M. Tualle
Radiation transfer and geometrical optics
 Chapter 1
A History of Cameca
(1954–2009)
Emmanuel de Chambost

Contents 1. Genealogy of Cameca 2

1.1. Scope of Electron and Ion Optics from the Origin
to 1945 2
1.2. What Happened in France? 4
1.3. The Castaing Thesis (1947–1951) 7
2. From Radio-Cinéma to Cameca (1954) 12
2.1. The Spectro-Lecteur 12
2.2. The Aftermath of the Castaing Thesis 14
2.3. MS85, the First Castaing Microprobe at Cameca 16
2.4. The Scopitone 17
3. The MS46, First Microprobe Designed at Cameca (1964) 19
3.1. The Pack of Castaing Microprobes 19
3.2. The Competition with ARL (1960–1974) 19
3.3. 1964: The MS46 20
4. Launching the SMI 300 (1968) 23
4.1. The Slodzian Thesis 23
4.2. The Castaing Ion Microscope (1965) 25
4.3. The Liebl and Herzog Ion Probe (1963) 27
4.4. The Patent War 28
4.5. 1968: Launching the SMI 300 (or IMS 300) 29
4.6. The First Steps of the SMI 300 and the Early
Development of Semi-Conductor Applications
(1970–1971) 32
4.7. The Performances of SMI 300 in 1974 34
4.8. Through the Other Side of the Mirror 35
5. The Adult Age (1975) 36
5.1. The Camebax (1974) 36
5.2. The IMS 3F 40
5.3. Cameca International 49

49, rue des Cendrières, 91470, Limours, France, http://siteedc.edechambost.net/Histoire de Cameca/

History of Cameca.html

Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics, Volume 167, ISSN 1076-5670, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-385985-3.00001-8.
Copyright c 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1
2 Emmanuel de Chambost

6. Taking Wing (1987) 52

6.1. Sarfati Rule (1976–2001) 52
6.2. Projects Outside the Field of EPMA and SIMS 53
6.3. Electron Microprobes after the Camebax 60
6.4. Expansion Beyond Thomson-CSF 60
6.5. Liquidation of Riber (1989–1990) 62
6.6. SIMS at Cameca after the IMS 3F 63
7. Predominance of Sims (1990–2000) 65
7.1. The IMS-5-6-7F (1990–2009) 65
7.2. The Large-Radius SIMS: The IMS 1270–1280
(1992–2009) 68
7.3. The Hesitations of 1994–1995 75
8. Star Dusts and Fab Dusts (2000) 77
8.1. The NanoSIMS (2000–2009) 77
8.2. IMS Wf and SC-Ultra (2000–2009) 83
8.3. Diversification of the SIMS Catalog (2000) 91
8.4. Cameca without Sarfati (2001–2009) 92
8.5. The Shallow Probe (2001–2009) 92
9. Ametek and the Atom Probe (2007) 98
9.1. Ametek Acquires Cameca 98
9.2. A Short History of the Atom Probe 99
9.3. Introduction of the Atom Probe at Cameca 101
9.4. Competition with IMAGO 103
10. Epilogue 106
11. Appendices 108
11.1. EPMA 108
11.2. SIMS 109
11.3. Comparison between SIMS and EPMA 110
11.4. Atom Probe, FIM 111
References 113

1. GENEALOGY OF CAMECA

1.1. Scope of Electron and Ion Optics from the Origin to 1945
1.1.1. The Early Electron Microscope
It is well known that research on electron microscopes began at the Berlin
Technische Hochschule at the turn of the 1930s. As he was finalizing his
thesis on cathode ray tubes (1924–1926), Denis Gabor became interested in
electron beam focusing. Then, Hans Bush investigated more thoroughly
the working of what would be called magnetic lenses. Introducing the con-
cept of lens in the field of electron physics opened the road toward electron
microscopy. This was the road taken by Ruska, under the supervision of
Max Knoll (Ruska, 1980, p. 13).
Ruska wrote that he failed to relate his own research to Louis de
Broglie’s theory until attending a conference in 1932 (Ruska, 1980, p. 29).
As he discussed this issue with Knoll, the possibility that an electron
wavelength could limit microscope resolution troubled him. It is only
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 3

after he computed the Abbe formula with a 70-kV electron wavelength

that he concluded he could obtain a resolution fairly better than the light
microscope.
In 1932, Ruska obtained a grid image resolution as good as that with
light microscopes and left the Technische Hochschule for another job. Col-
leagues improved the intrument according to the recommendations of
Ruska and finally, Friedrich Krause demonstrated a resolution of 130 nm
for real biological images only in 1937. Ruska was then involved in the
development of the electron microscope manufactured by Siemens &
Halske, which was marketed in 1939.
In North America, James Hillier and Albert Prebus at the University of
Toronto completed a prototype of an electron microscope with resolution
that was also better than that of light microscopes. Later, Hillier joined
RCA to develop an electron microscope that would also be marketed.
In all three cases, the instruments were transmission electron micro-
scopes (TEMs). Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) were first inves-
tigated in 1938 in Berlin by Manfred Von Ardenne, but several projects
were abandonned since the obtained resolution was not as good as with
the TEM. SEMs were eventually produced in great numbers in the 1960s
only after a secondary electron detector was proposed by Everhart and
Thornley at Cambridge.

1.1.2. Early Mass Spectrometry

Before any e-beam devices or instrument developments were available,
Joseph J. Thomson and other scientists had pointed to evidence of elec-
trons at the turn of 1900. Thomson had also highlighted ions in tubes
under vacuum; by applying a magnetic field onto moving ions, he suc-
ceeded in characterizing the m/e ratio. In 1912, he demonstrated that
elements such as helium or neon could have several isotopes.
Mass spectrometry was therefore born, and it appeared that an applied
magnetic field was insufficient for precisely measuring m/e as soon as
the ion energy spread to some extent. Different methods of compensa-
tion involving an electric field were proposed by Thomson and then by
Francis W. Aston, who had helped Thomson design his instrument at
the Cavendish Laboratory and who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in
1922 for identifying 212 isotopes of the 267 so-called stable isotopes—or
in other words, existing at the natural state.
In the United States, the University of Chicago became a holy place of
mass spectrometry. Arthur J. Dempster took advantage of the magnetic
field boundary effects to focus on an ion beam homogeneous in mass.
Some years later, at the Vienna University, Joseph H. E. Mattauch and R. F.
K. Herzog combined Aston energy focusing and Dempster aperture focus-
ing to design, in 1932, a “double-focusing” mass spectrometer (Mattauch
and Herzog, 1934).
4 Emmanuel de Chambost

During the same period, Herzog understood that the magnet bound-
ary tilting angle with respect to the beam axis has a balance effect on
focusing effects in both the transverse and radial planes and that a
“magic” angle exists—close to 27◦ —that would allow giving a magnet the
same properties as a stigmatic lens.
From the end of the 1930s to the beginning of the 1950s at the Uni-
versity of Minnesota, O. C. Nier and some of his students improved the
technique of mass spectrometry, the services of which would later be
called upon for the Manhattan Project. In 1953, they published a sketch
of a double-focusing spectrometer slightly different from that of Mattauch
and Herzog.

1.2. What Happened in France?

1.2.1. French Science in the Interwar Period
Until the beginning of the Second World War, apparently there was no
instrumental project for electron microscopy or mass spectrometry in the
framework of any French university, research institute, or private com-
pany research lab. Generally speaking, the first half of the twentieth
century was a period of decline for French science, particularly physics,
and this decline was aggravated by WWII and the Occupation. Four
French physicists won the Nobel Prize between 1900 and 1929, which is
not many, but French physicists were entirely absent as winners between
1930 and 1965.
Independent of this issue of the decline of French science over a given
period, the science historian Dominique Pestre has highlighted some of
its distinctive features during the interwar period and until the end of the
1940s:
French science is the kingdom of a small group of members of Uni-
versity whose symbolic status is high and who are often considered as
“intellectuals” whose mission is the scientific truth but also the progress
of social justice. They are living in a world apart from the one of engineers
and businessmen. The academic physicist etablishment is dominated by
the so-called “Normaliens”, i.e. alumni of the École Normale Supérieure
de la rue d’Ulm (ENS-Ulm), the most highly regarded course of study
within the French academic world, typical of academic elitism. In the
industrial field, the French system of innovation is based on a continu-
ous process of adaptation rather than integration of scientific knowledge
and in electrical industry where knowledge is completely new, the strat-
egy of French firms generally consists of purchasing patents and licences
in order to have them adapted by engineers (Pestre, 1996).
So far it can be considered that the French scientific decline was curbed,
the beginning of this revival arises probably during the thirties with a
dramatic increase of the public funding of research (Pestre, 1980).
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 5

1.2.2. The Compagnie Générale de la Télégraphie Sans Fil (CSF)

According to Dominique Pestre again, only two French companies can
be considered exceptions since they developed basic research laborato-
ries. One of these two companies was the Compagnie Générale de la
Télégraphie Sans Fil (CSF), whose workforce was slightly larger than
4,000 in 1939. “Sans fil” means “wireless.” SFR (Société Française de
Radiotéléphonie), the predecessor of CSF, was founded in 1910 to pro-
vide French administrations (namely, the army) with systems and devices
for radio communications. After World War I, CSF was created to deal
with the civilian radio broadcasting market. It should be noted that this
company was small compared with other similar foreign companies, such
as Telefunken in Germany, Marconi in the United Kingdom, RCA in the
United States, or Philips in the Netherlands.
In 1929, the chairman and founder of CSF, Émile Girardeau, entrusted
to a young 27-year-old physicist, Maurice Ponte, the leadership of both the
department of vacuum tubes originating from SFR and a new research
lab, the Laboratoire de recherches generals. Pointe was given carte
blanche to appoint young physicists specializing in electronics and elec-
tromagnetic radiation. As a matter of fact, Ponte was an alumnus of
the École normale Supéririeure (ENS)-Ulm. According to Pestre (1990),
at the end of the 1940s, some fifteen men controlled appointments to
the main academic chairs and the primary positions in big research
labs in the field of physics. Among them, half a dozen controlled elec-
tronic and solid-state physics. Three were alumni of both ENS-Ulm
and CSF laboratoire général: Maurice Ponte, Yves Rocard, and Pierre
Grivet.
Yves Rocard, one of the fathers of the French atomic bomb, joined CSF
during the same period as Ponte. Grivet was appointed by Ponte during
WWII to the research lab of Levallois-Perret, the historical plant of CSF,
in the Paris area. He was involved in a project of a 60-kV oscilloscope
required for studies related to television (Grivet, 1985). This project led
Grivet to develop some skills in electron optics and to get an order for
an electrostatic electron microscope to meet the needs of different French
administrations (Brenot, 1945). I am quite aware that it may seem surpris-
ing that in this period, during German occupation, a rather small company
would have enough resources to initiate such a project. The history of CSF
during German occupation is a very complicated issue, all the elements of
which are not yet perfectly clear.

1.2.3. Radio-Cinéma
Before it was called Cameca, the company based at 103 boulevard Saint-
Denis at Courbevoie, some kilometers from the center of Paris, was named
Radio-Cinéma. It was not involved in scientific instrumentation but both
6 Emmanuel de Chambost

FIGURE 1 The Radion 2 film projector of Radio-Cinéma.

hardware for big cinema screening rooms (Figure 1) and 16-mm projector
for more modest rooms such as parish halls.
Since its inception (June 21, 1929), Radio-Cinéma was a subsidiary of
CSF. Of note, the year 1929 coincides with the beginning of the talkies.
The name Radio-Cinéma is composed of “Radio,” which is the prefix for
all subsidiaries of CSF at that time, and “Cinéma,” which is the specific
trade of this subsidiary. At its very beginning, Radio-Cinéma’s job con-
sisted of installing sound systems in cinemas. Frédéric Mathieu, who was
still technical director of Cameca in 1960, was reported to have been at
the origin of the talkies in France. The head office of Radio-Cinéma was at
the same address as CSF’s head office—boulevard Haussman in Paris—
while the first workshop was located in the 20th arrondissement, 17–19
villa Faucheur. After the Second World War, it moved to Courbevoie (see
Figure 10), close to Levallois, an area where CSF has several factories.
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 7

In the early 1950s, Radio-Cinéma took over the company of André

Charlin, a gifted sound engineer with recognized experience in the talkies,
loudspeakers, and stereophony (de Chambost, 2009, p. 44).

1.3. The Castaing Thesis (1947–1951)

At the end of the 1940s in France, the revival of physics occurred mainly in
recently created research organizations such as CEA, an agency devoted
to nuclear science, or Centre National d’Etudes de Te’lecommunication
(CNET), devoted to telecommunications. These organizations were not
controlled by the university but directly by the government. Their cre-
ations were approved by all political sides, which had some strength after
the Liberation of France, including the Gaullists and the Communists
(Pestre, 1996). Raimond Castaing’s thesis work took place in one of these
agencies, Office national d’études et de recherches aérospatiales (Onera),
devoted to aerospace.

1.3.1. The Discovery of X-Rays and the Early Development of X-Ray

Spectroscopy
Very shortly after their discovery by Wilhelm Röntgen at the end of the
nineteenth century, X-rays were used in the medical field. Since their
wavelength is of the same order of magnitude as the interatomic dis-
tance, they were then integrated into early atomic physics but their main
application field was crystallography, a science of interest for metallurgy
people who are not very concerned by modern physics. Max von Laue,
who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1914 for his work on X-ray
diffraction, continued his research about interactions between X-rays and
crystals at the University of Berlin after 1919; this was the same topic that
Lawrence Bragg and his father pursued at Cambridge and Henry Mose-
ley pursued at Oxford. Both the son (Lawrence) and the father (Sir William
Henry Bragg) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915.
In 1913, good use was made of the Bragg diffraction to measure the
wavelength spectrum of X-rays emitted by different samples impinged
by an electron beam. The so-called Moseley law, which stems empirically
from the father’s observations, states the frequency ν of the characteristic
X-ray’s spectrum peak depends on the atomic number Z of the measured
sample atoms. The square root of the frequency is proportional to the
atomic number increased by a constant.
√
ν = k1 · (Z + k2 )

Moseley died during WWI. Before his work, “atomic number” was merely
an element’s place in the periodic table and was not associated with
any measureable physical quantity. The so-called Bragg’s law (Figure 2),
8 Emmanuel de Chambost

λ3

Bragg λ2 Detector
Bragg’s law reflected
2d.sin aθ = kλ X-rays
(k = 1, 2, 3...) λ1

2θ

Incident X-rays

Analyser
crystal

FIGURE 2 Bragg’s law sketch: Bragg reflected X-rays are those verifying the Bragg
relationship where d is the interatomic distance.

established in 1915, states that X-rays of wavelength λ hitting a crystal are

reflected providing the angle θ between the incident ray and the scattering
plane verifies the condition:

2d sin θ = kλ

where k is an integer (k = 1 or 2 or 3) further giving the “order” of the

reflection, and d is the spacing between the planes in the atomic lattice. As
is well known, it can easily be demonstrated that this apparent reflection
stems actualy from a diffraction phenomena.
After the work of von Laue, Bragg, and Moseley on X-ray emission
and diffraction, other researchers attempted to focus X-rays in the same
way light rays are focused by glass lenses or charged particle trajectories
are focused by magnetic or electrostatic lenses. They found a solution by
using curved crystals.
Curved crystals have been proposed for refocusing X-rays emerging
from a point. The names of Johann (in 1931) and Johansson (in 1933)
are associated with two types of slightly different geometries (Figure 3):
Johansson geometry crystals are more difficult to make because they are
curved with a 2R radius, as for Johann geometry, but they must then
be cut because the inner radius is only R. The advantage of Johansson
geometry is that it makes possible the use of large crystals (i.e., to capture
X-rays with a large aperture angle and refocus them without too much
aberration; see Heinrich, 1981).

1.3.2. Castaing Thesis Adventure

Raimond Castaing (Figure 4) was 26 years old when he joined ONERA in
January 1947 with the position of research engineer to prepare a thesis
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 9

Johansson
Johann crystal crystal
Focal
circle
θi θr R
+ +
c c
R 2R 2R
s I s I

c¢ c¢
(a) (b)

FIGURE 3 Curved crystals for X-ray spectrometers. In the case of Johann geometry (a), a
crystal layer is curved with a 2R radius and in the case of Johansson geometry (b), it is
also curved with the same 2R radius but also cut with an R radius. The “focal circle” is
also called the “Rowland circle”.

FIGURE 4 Raimond Castaing (1957).

under Professor Guinier. Castaing entered ENS-rue d’Ulm in 1940 and

finally left the university to avoid the so-called STO (Service du Travail
Obligatoire—the Compulsory Work Service) in Germany. He took up his
studies again after the Liberation of France and passed the agrégation,
a high-level civil service competitive examination for the recruitment of
teachers (Castaing, 1975).
10 Emmanuel de Chambost

André Guinier, Castaing’s professor, was born in Nancy in 1911. He

was also an alumnus of ENS-rue d’Ulm and presented his thesis on
crystallography in 1939. While studying crystalline defects, Guinier dis-
covered (at the same time as George D. Preston) what would later be called
Guinier-Preston zones, which are actually zones of concentration for one
type of atom that make up an alloy (the first example was Al-Cu). These
Guinier-Preston (G-P) zones are of great interest in metallurgy.
The ONERA is a government research institute devoted to aeronauti-
cal applications created by a law of May 3, 1946, under the Communist
minister of the Air Minister Charles Tillon (Rossi, 1995). In 1947, ONERA
had just been endowed with two electron microscopes. As Philibert
(2001) wrote, it was a real luxury in 1948. Guinier used the first one, an
RCA instrument, to investigate the G-P zones, which were known only
by their diffractograms and which Guinier hoped to observe in the real
space.
Castaing was therefore asked by Guinier to consider the possibility of
bombarding an alloy specimen with electrons and detecting the X-ray’s
resulting signal. Castaing reported he replied that “It was very easy to do
and it was surprising that no one had done it before” (Castaing, 1975).
Castaing was actually partially right. Hillier had filed a patent in 1947
(Hillier, 1947) without attempting any project. In the U.S.S.R., it seems
that Borowsky had the same idea as Guiner and Castaing. He produced an
apparatus, RSACh-1, and claimed to have published it in 1951 (Borowsky,
1953, 1959; Borowsky et al., 1956).
The first problem to be solved was producing a fine electron probe.
Castaing did not hesitate to tinker with the second electron microscope. It
was actually a CSF, designed by Grivet, with electrostatic lenses (Figure 5).
For dealing with lens aberrations, he learned the basics of electron optics
in Zworykin publications, but he would have to learn by himself and
solve all the practical problems more or less related to vacuum technology
(Philibert, 2001).
At the beginning of 1949, Castaing obtained a few nanoamperes in an
electron probe of 1 µm in diameter. Note that since 1939, there had been
several projects of electron probe instruments and that five times finer
probes had already been demonstrated.
Then, Guinier provided Castaing with a precious quartz crystal, espe-
cially cut and ground of the Johansson type. This Johansson crystal
allowed him to build a spectrometer (Figure 6) that fit well on the out-
side of the main column. With this setup Castaing obtained his first X-ray
data which were presented at Delft at the First European Conference on
Electron Microscopy (Castaing & Guinier, 1950).
The setup consisting of the cannibalized CSF microscope and the
Johansson spectrometer allowed Castaing to accumulate an impressive
series of data so that he could submit his thesis in 1951 with the
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 11

FIGURE 5 Castaing thesis CSF microscope.

FIGURE 6 Thesis spectrometer equipped with the “Johansson”crystal.

12 Emmanuel de Chambost

title “Application des Sondes Électroniques à une Méthode d’Analyse

Ponctuelle, Chimique et Cristallographique” (“Applications of the Elec-
tron Probes to a Localized, Chemical and Crystallographical Analysis
Method”). This thesis covered both instrumental issues, such as lens aber-
rations and optimization of the electron probe, and more fundamental
issues, such as X-ray emission modelization, correction calculations, some
applications to metallurgy, and some Kossel diagrams (Castaing, 1951).
All the bases of what would be called EPMA are contained in the 1951
thesis, which was very rapidly translated into English by David Wittry.
The modelization proposed by Castaing for the different physical pro-
cesses involved in EPMA—namely, the electron penetration, the emission,
and absorption of X-rays—have not aged after 60 years. The power of
EPMA lies in the fact that it makes it possible to measure the concentra-
tion of a given element in a sample by simply calibrating the instrument
with a bulk sample. A presentation of the implementation of the Castaing
principles in the future EPMA instruments at Cameca is detailed further
in the first appendix.

2. FROM RADIO-CINÉMA TO CAMECA (1954)

In 1954, CSF subsidiary Radio-Cinéma became C.A.M.E.C.A. (Com-
pagnie des Applications Mécaniques et Électroniques au Cinéma et à
l’Atomistique) (see Figure 7; the 1954 logo includes both names). While
keeping to its core business, Cameca diversified toward precision engi-
neering for aerospace radars and scientific instrumentation. Indeed, as
early as 1947, the first project in this field, the Spectro-Lecteur, was initi-
ated at the request of Pechiney, a French metallurgical company (Télonde,
1956). We owe to Maurice Ponte, director of CSF and a future member
of the French Academy of Sciences, the entry of Cameca into scientific
instrumentation.

2.1. The Spectro-Lecteur

In 1955, Cameca was organized into three departments: Cinema with both
the Radio-Cinema and Charlin film projectors, mechanical production
done on a contract basis with CSF business units, and last, scientific instru-
mentation. This last department was engaged in the Spectro-Lecteur (de
Chambost, 2009, p. 49). A medium-sized building had recently been built
on the spot where the two-tower bulding was later erected, with a view to
hosting the production of electron microscopes based on studies directed
by Pierre Grivet at CSF. However, the electrostatic microscope failed to
be developed because it was found to suffer a definitive handicap with
respect to the magnetic microscope.
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 13

FIGURE 7 The Cameca logo in 1954 still contained the old logo of Radio-Cinéma.

An article published in January 1954 by a German review documents

the delivery of a Cameca Spectro-Lecteur before 1954 (Rosendahl and
Kaiser, 1954). The photographic spectral method was frequently used
for the analysis of alloys in the metallurgical industry. This method—
still used in the twenty-first century—involves bringing forth a succes-
sion of sparks between two electrodes in metal collected for analysis.
The radiation is dispersed by a prism into its spectral components. Before
1951, the spectrum was simply recorded on a photographic plate.
Cameca’s “Spectro-Lecteur automatique” (Figure 8; “Lecteur” means
“Reader”) introduced new devices that allowed nearly automatic mea-
surement. A pair of photomultipliers (PMs) was substituted on the pho-
tographic plate and the ratio of the intensity of rays received by the two
PMs was recorded continuously.
In the Spectro-Lecteur, the optical spectrometer was provided by Jobin-
Yvon, a French company specializing in optical spectrocopy, which was
bought by Japanese Horiba early this century. The mechanical movement
of this spectrometer was developed thanks to Cameca’s expertise gained
from the projection apparatus.
The Spectro-Lecteur was given a code name, SL15, which suggests
that it could have been developed in 1951 (Mathieu, 1950). Its design
was the work of Dr. Orsag at the Pechiney Research Lab in Chambéry,
Savoie (Orsag, 1948). Cameca patented the PM amplifier (Radio Cinema,
1951) and 120 to 130 copies were delivered to foundries for “good/not
good” manufacturing control. It took two to three weeks to achieve the
installation.
14 Emmanuel de Chambost

FIGURE 8 The Spectro-Lecteur (1954).

As it became involved in the Spectro-Lecteur, Cameca met for the

first time with Applied Research Laboratories (ARL), which remained its
most ferocious competitor until the late 1970s. The two companies shared
the market almost equally. The difference between their products lay in
the choice of measurement, which was either direct or integrated. The
fact that, ultimately, a significant portion of the added value lay in the
Jobin Yvon spectrometer, which also aimed at developing such products,
penalized Cameca and led to its decision to exit this market (de Chambost,
2009, p. 47).

2.2. The Aftermath of the Castaing Thesis

During the years following Castaing’s thesis, ONERA developed a scien-
tific instrument based on the experimental setup that had been used in the
thesis. Two identical prototypes were built (Figure 9a); the first one was
delivered to ONERA’s and the second one to Institut de Recherches de la
Sidérurgie (IRSID), a French research institute for metallurgy, which was
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 15

Electron gun

Magnetic
condenser

Metallographic Electrons
microscope
and illuminator

Magnetic
objective
X- y
spec ray X-ra eter
trom trom
eter spec

X-rays
Reflecting
Specimen
objective
(a) (b)

FIGURE 9 (a) The 1958 ONERA prototype operated by Castaing. (b) The MS85
schematics.

FIGURE 10 The Cameca plant in Courbevoie, as it is on the picture, with two towers,
was built in 1956. The photograph dates from 1960.
16 Emmanuel de Chambost

convinced by Guinier to fund the project. Within IRSID, Jean Philibert,

who had developed metallurgical applications under Charles Crussard,
was in charge of this operation (Castaing, 1960). Different from the experi-
mental setup of Castaing, which was electrostatic, the electron microscope
was magnetic (Agar, 1996).
At the same time, the company built five CAMECA copies, which were
available in 1958 and delivered, respectively, to International Nickel in
Elizabeth, New Jersey; CEA-Saclay (French civil nuclear research center);
CNET (French Telecommunication research Institute); CEA-DAM (French
military nuclear center); and BRGM (French geological survey institute).
Then, 24 other machines would be delivered by Cameca until 1964, when
it was replaced by a new model. In 1960, the CNET machine was borrowed
for exhibit in Moscow.
In addition to the two prototypes built by ONERA, 29 copies were
produced by Cameca between 1958 and 1964. The plans developed by
the department of mechanical engineering of ONERA are quite compre-
hensive and testify to a very high quality of execution. Unfortunately, the
drawings of the electron gun originating from CSF were lost and had to
be redrawn.
The most remarkable feature of the microprobe developed in the engi-
neering department of ONERA is probably the light microscope with
the Cassegrain mirror objective, crossed by the electron beam, allowing
precise viewing of the area analyzed (Figure 9b). Designed by Castaing
and Georges Nomarski, Institute of Optics, this very original provision
was replicated by major competitors of Cameca, including ARL and JEOL
as no patent had been filed.

2.3. MS85, the First Castaing Microprobe at Cameca

Maurice Ponte, general director of CSF at that time, was well connected
with Guinier and they discussed the Castaing microprobe. Ponte intro-
duced Castaing to Mathieu. The latter served as a director or technical
director and had pioneered the development of projection of talkies in
France (CSF, 1955).
In the mid-1950s, Jacqmin, CEO of Cameca and commercial director at
CSF, appointed Jean Michel Rouberol, a graduate of École Centrale (an
elite engineering school) to strengthen its engineering team. After suc-
cessfully completing various tasks of minor importance, Rouberol was
in charge of the developement of the MS85, which was actually a copy
of two machines that Castaing had developed for ONERA and IRSID. In
2009, Rouberol remembered to personally bring the records of the MS85
from ONERA to Cameca (de Chambost, 2009, p. 48).
A little later, Rouberol was joined by Mathias Tong, who shared a
similar background (he had studied in a Jesuit college in Shanghai) and
became the project manager of the MS46 that replaced the MS85 in 1964.
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 17

Rouberol quickly became responsible for research and development

(R&D) and, starting in 1964, was personally in charge of developing the
ion analyzer. At that time, the head of mechanical engineering was Jacques
Guernet who, in the sixties, filed several patents for the improvement of
the Scopitone, which is mentioned a little later.
Although very different from each other, Rouberol and Tong formed a
team that lasted from 1964 until 1988, when Rouberol left Cameca. Dur-
ing these 24 years, Rouberol seamlessly slipped into the role of a classic
technical director of CSF and of Thomson-CSF, a Responsibility that Tong
was unable to play because of the apparent confusion of his speech. This
impairment, which hid a very imaginative spirit, was accepted by those
who knew that he never made a mistake in his calculations.
The mechanics of the test batch of five instruments manufactured by
Cameca was a true copy of the two prototypes designed by the mechanical
engineering department of ONERA. The electronics were rather radically
changed by Tong to improve performance and to take into account the
evolution of components.
In 1960, Frédéric Mathieu, who never held the position of CEO, served
as technical director of Cameca, and Jacqmin headed CSF’s “Consumer
Electronics” department, which controlled Cameca. From 1962 onward,
Jacqmin was actively involved at Cameca. According to a legend, during
the French debacle in 1940, Jacqmin (Figure 11), who was an employee,
was noticed by the president of CSF as they all fled somewhere south of
the Loire as he proposed to convert factories in the manufacture of bicycle
carrier.

2.4. The Scopitone

In the late 1950s, Cameca was no longer involved in upscale movie pro-
jectors, but a 16-mm cinema projector (Figure 12a) was still manufactured
until 1962. At this date, the final product more or less connected to the
cinema was the scopitone.
The scopitone (Figure 12b) was a type of jukebox that featured a
16-mm film component. It was actually a forerunner of music video. Its
inventor is not known. Presented to the press on March 28, 1960, and at
the Paris fair in May, the STl6 model was based on a patent of the Italian
Dessilani (Cameca, 1959; Dessilani, 1958) and the continuous motion was
based on a previous Radio-Cinéma patent (Radio-Cinéma, 1934).
Two models were launched, the ST16 and ST36 (the 16 and 36 des-
ignated the number of movies that each scopitone model could handle).
The scopitone activities were located in the basement of the factory in
Courbevoie. It was a large machine shop, as most mechanical parts were
made locally.
Since the scopitone offered huge benefits to Cameca, the CEO, René
Jacqmin, searched for investment ideas in order to pay less tax. Rouberol,
18 Emmanuel de Chambost

FIGURE 11 The management team of Cameca in the United States in 1963, who
negotiated with Bowmar for the scopitone and with Acton for the MS46. From left to
right are Janichewski, the Bowmar chairman, Jacqmin, a Swiss businessman, and Mathieu,
Rouberol.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 12 (a) 16-mm film projector (1960); (b) ST16 Scopitone (1960).

who had just seen at the Salon de la Physique a poster on the Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) “ion microscope,” pro-
posed investigating this matter. Castaing judged the ion microscope was
 A History of Cameca (1954–2009) 19

not sufficiently mature to be transferred to Cameca (de Chambost, 2009,

pp. 51–52).
The scopitone was a movie viewer. In the sixties, Cameca devel-
oped another viewer that targeted U.S. supermarkets. This apparatus was
named Came-Scope. It was intended to pass in a loop mode a movie
singing the praises of the product exposed on the same stand.
Sales of the scopitone collapsed and the activity ceased in 1968. It could
not compete with television and color CRT. Production of the Came-scope,
which had never really started, was discontinued in 1968.

3. THE MS46, FIRST MICROPROBE DESIGNED AT CAMECA (1964)

3.1. The Pack of Castaing Microprobes

Castaing’s thesis had a high profile. Many teams in the world were ready
to embark on similar research. The American David B. Wittry, who trans-
lated the dissertation of Castaing, built a slightly different spectrometer
within the framework of his own thesis. The American company ARL,
which was seen above as competing with the Spectro-Lecteur and already
was proposing instruments involving XRF, operated some Wittry patents
to develop a machine competing with the Cameca MS85. The model
EMX was marketed in 1960. A few years later, ARL eventually recov-
ered the SIMS project that Liebl would develop on the East Coast, at GCA
(Geophysics Corporation of America, Bedford, MA).
In the early sixties, 12 different models of Castaing microprobes
were offered on the market, targeting primarly metallurgical applications
(Conty, 2001). Soon, three actors shared most of the market: Cameca,
ARL, and the Japanese company JEOL, which launched into the elec-
tron microscopy field in the immediate postwar period and marketed its
first microprobe in 1960. This marked the beginning of a fierce competi-
tion with Cameca that lasted over 40 years, but in the early sixties, ARL
remained the No. 1 enemy of Cameca.

3.2. The Competition with ARL (1960–1974)

Shortly after the marketing of the MS85, ARL released its own model, the
EMX (Davidson et al., 1964). It was more efficient than the MS85, which
was simply the industrialized Castaing prototype. The ARL instrument
had four or six wavelength-dispersive spectrometers (WDS), while the
MS85 only had two. The emergence angle of the EMX was 52.5◦ , while
that of the MS85 was 18◦ . For years Cameca would fight with ARL about
the angle of emergence, but Cameca reacted immediately to the EMX by
releasing the more modern MS46, with four WDS instead of two but still
an emergence angle of 18◦ .
20 Emmanuel de Chambost

For years the angle war would continue for both overt and unacknow-
ledged reasons. Cameca proclaimed that a too-low emergence angle lim-
its the depth of analysis and reduces the uncertainties due to fluorescence
caused by elements not belonging to the analyzed point and developed
beneath the surface, and therefore not visible. Castaing developed such
an argument that is true in the case of analysis of elements of medium
atomic number—typical of the metallurgical applications at the time—but
he did not say that the choice of emergence angle was a mechanical puz-
zle: Virtually, either X-rays pass under the pole piece, at less than 18◦ , or
they go inside, at more than 52.5◦ . ARL’s choice was risky with regard
to the metallic samples but provided a more intense signal for analy-
sis of lighter elements (typically, geological samples), which also posed
a lower risk of errors due to fluorescence emission. As long as the market
for steel industry and nuclear research was still developing, Cameca was
evenly matched with ARL and even better if one includes the U.S.S.R.
(de Chambost, 2009, p. 54). Behind the technical problems that could
be solved lay a problem of industrial property: ARL had patented the
solution to get the X-ray beam through the lens (Wittry, 1960).
During the same period, JEOL and Cambridge Instruments were
developing SEMs. Before launching its first scanning microscope—
the famous Stereoscan—in 1965, Cambridge Instruments released the
Microscan, which had mediocre X-ray spectrometers but the capabil-
ity of achieving images with a fast and automatic scanning mode. To
counter Cambridge Instruments, Tong and Rouberol successfully adapted
the MS85 with a moving mechanical stage propelled by speaker electro-
magnets that allowed fast motion without play by rastering the stage
over a frame size of several hundreds of microns. This ensured achieving
mechanical scanning X-ray images without defocusing spectrometers.

3.3. 1964: The MS46

In November 1960, Claude Conty, just graduated from the École des Arts
et Métiers, had done an intership of six months at Cameca. He returned
two years later after his military service in Algeria and was appointed to
draft the electron probe MS46, which was planned to replace the MS85.
This project had been overseen by Tong and Rouberol. Everybody at
Cameca was convinced that a market actually existed in the United States
for an electron microprobe, but in view of its competition with ARL, the
MS85 was unsellable there, penalized by its design principles that prohib-
ited, for instance, having more than two spectrometers or improving the
vacuum quality. The design of the MS46 originated from this assessment
(Figure 13).
The MS46 had four spectrometers. First, MS46 instruments were not
automated, but some customers such as Claude Lechêne at Harvard had
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
an unjustifiable limitation in contradiction with practice. All the other
forms given above, and many others besides, are permissible, and,
from an esthetic point of view, justifiable for a detached movement,
or for a movement of a work in which there are several movements.
Works consisting of several movements [cyclic forms) are in similar
manner compounded of movements of different character, key, and
measure ; for example (S = slow, Q = quick) : (i)S-Q. (4) Q-S-Q-Q.
(2) Q - S -y. (5) Q-Q-S-Q. (3) b - Q -bQ(6) Q_S-Q-bQ. It is not usual
to end with a slow movement;
 Form, Musical 246 Forster Beethoven, however, in his
sonata in e (Op. 109) has obtained by that means a magnificent
effect. (7) S-Q-S. (8) Q— S - Q — S, etc. By using these one-
movement and cyclic abstract forms in music, differing according to
the number and character of instruments employed, and according
to the aim and style, there arise many concrete forms, of which the
name already awakens a different conception, viz. : A. for purely
instrumental music : Etudes, prelude, fantasia, song without words,
air, theme with variations, etc., dances (allemande, bourree, branle,
chaconne, czardas, gaillarde, galop, gavotte, gigue, hornpipe, loure,
mazurka, minuet, passacaglia, passamezzo, passepied, pavana,
polka, polonaise, rigaudon, sarabande, schottisch, siciliana,
tambourin, waltz, etc.), march (funeral march, etc.), fugue, toccata,
suite, partita, sonata, fantasia, duo, trio, quatuor (quartet), quintuor
(quintet), sextuor (sextet), septuor (septet), octet, nonet,
divertissement, serenade, cassation, concerto, overture, symphony.
B. for vocal music : Song, part-song, canzone (chanson), romance,
ballad, bicinium, tricinium, duet, terzet, quartet, etc., antiphon,
psalmody, sequence, hymn, chorale, motet, madrigal, ode, mass,
requiem, etc. C. for accompanied vocal music for stage or otherwise
: recitative, arioso, cavatina, aria, concerto, cantata, oratorio, opera,
Passion, romance, ballad, legend, etc. (C/. articles under respective
names.) Formes, the name of two brothers, celebrated opera-singers
— (i) Karl Joseph (bass), b. Aug. 7, 1816, Miihlheim, on the Rhine, d.
Dec. 15, 1889, New York ; he made his dt'but in 184 1 as Sarastro at
Cologne, and was engaged in 1843 at Mannheim, where he was very
popular ; but in 1848 he took part in the revolution, and was forced
to flee. From 1852 to 1857 he was engaged at the Royal Italian
Opera in London, and afterwards divided his time between America
and Europe. As late as 1874 he met with great success in Berlin. (2)
Theodor (tenor), b. June 24, 1826, Miihlheim, d. Oct. 15, 1874,
Endenich, near Bonn ; made his debut in 1846 at Ofen, was then
engaged at Vienna, Mannheim (1848), and at the Berlin Court Opera
(1851-66), and travelled with his brother through America. After a
temporary loss of voice, he appeared once again at Berlin, and with
brilliant success, but lost his reason, and had to be placed in an
asylum. Taubert and Dorn wrote roles for him. Another, belonging to
the same family, was ihe baritone singer, Wilhelm F., b. Jan. 31,
1834, at Miihlheim, d. March 12, 1884, New York. Formschneider.
{See GraphIus.) Forner, Christian, b. 1610, Wettin, d. there, 1678,
was a famous organ-builder, whose instruments at Halle-a.-S.
(Ulrichskirche) and Weissenfels (Augustusburg) still exist. He was the
inventor of the " Windgange " (q.v.). Forster, (i) Georg, physician at
Nuremberg, and editor of collections of songs and motets, b.
Amberg, and entered the University of Wittenberg on Oct. 15, 1534,
practised first in Amberg, then in Wiirzburg ; he was appointed by
the Duke of Bavaria physician at Heidelberg, and went through the
French campaigns. After 1544 he settled in Nuremberg, and d. there
Nov. 12, 1568. The principal service which he rendered to music was
the collecting and editing of secular songs with harmonies (five
parts) ; they appeared at Nuremberg between 1539 and 1556, and
form a real treasury of choice melodies entitled " Volkslieder." (2)
Georg, for a short time, deputy capellmeister at the Saxon court at
Dresden, was, according to Walther, cantor in Zwickau (1556), and
in Annaberg (1564). In 1568 he went as performer of the double-
bass to Dresden, became vice-capellmeister in 1581, principal
capellmeister in 15S5, after the departure of Pinelli, and d. Oct. 16,
1587. He has hitherto only found a place in dictionaries by being
confounded with the physician (i) [see Monatshe/.'e fiir Musik-
Gcschichte, I. i, etc.) (3) Nikolaus (Fortius), celebrated contrapuntist
of the i6th century at the court of Joachim I. of Brandenburg, but
only a mass a 16 of his is known by name. (4) Kaspar (also written
Forster), b. 1617, Danzig, d. March, 1673, at the Olivan monastery,
near Danzig ; he was for many years capellmeister at Copenhagen,
lived for a time also at Venice, and was famous as a composer and
theorist. His works, however, have completely disappeared. Forster,
(i) William, English violin-maker, b. May 4, 1739, Brampton,
Cumberland, d. 1808 ; he was also the publisher of many of Haydn's
works (eighty-three symphonies, twenty-four quartets, etc.). (2)
William, English violin-maker, son of the above, b. Jan., 1764,
London, d. July 24, 1824; some of his instruments are of a high
order of merit. Forster, (i), Christoph, b. Nov. 30, 1693, Bebra
(Thuringia), d. Dec. 6, 1745 ; for many years he was ducal Saxon
capellmeister at Merseburg, in 1745 capellmeister at Rudolstadt, and
was a very prolific composer (symphonies, organ pieces, pf. pieces,
cantatas, etc.). (2) Emanuel Aloys, b. 1757, Neurath (Austrian
Silesia), d. Nov. 19, 1823, Vienna, where he lived for many years as
a teacher of music. He published many instrumental works (pf.
sonatas, variations, stringed quintet, stringed quartets, pf. quartets,
a pf. sextet, Notturno conco'tante for strings and wind), some songs,
a " Huldigungskantate," and published an " Anleitung zum
Generalbass " (1805). (3) Adolph M., a well-known American
 Forster 247 Franchomme composer and conductor, b. Feb.
2, 1854, Pittsburg (Pennsylvania), pupil of the Leipzig
Conservatorium ; he lives at Pittsburg. Forsyth Brothers, English
music-publishing firm, established at London and Manchester. They
publish, besides many works by various composers, Charles Halle's
arrangements for the pianoforte. Fort (Fr.), strong; an organ term
used in connection with mixture stops ; it is equivalent to " fold," for
example : fourniture 4 tuyaux fort =z 4 -fold mixture. Forte (Ital.),
abbr. /, loud ; fortissimo {ff), very loud; mezzofovte (mf),
moderately loud; fortepiano (fp), loud, and directly afterwards, soft;
poco forte (pf), rather loud ; pin forte (pf), louder — (//) must not
be understood as meaning/'/rt;!o/ci;'2'«. {Cf. Sforzato.) Fortepiano,
pianoforte. {See Pianoforte.) Fortlage, Karl, writer on esthetics, b.
June 12, 1S06, OsnabriJck, d. Nov. 8, iSSr, Jena; in 1829 he was a
private teacher of philosophy at Heidelberg, 1845 at Berlin, from
1S46 professor of philosophy at Jena. He published, besides several
important philosophical works : " Das musikalische System der
Griechen in seiner Urgestalt " (1847), an investigation of the old
Greek system of notes and theory of scales, etc. — the best work on
the subject ; yet, as F. Bellermann's monograph ("Die Tonleitern und
Musiknoten der Griechen"), arriving at nearly the same conclusions,
appeared at the same time, it was almost entirely overlooked.
Fortsch, Johann Philip p, b. May 14, 1652, Wertheim (Franconia), d.
Dec. 14, 1732, as Aulic counsellor at Eutin, studied medicine, but
turned to music, and in 1671 was tenor singer at the "
Rathskapelle," Hamburg. In 1680 he became successor of Theile as
capellmeister to the Duke of Schleswig at Gottorp, but, owing to the
political events, he soon lost the post, whereupon he returned to
medicine, and in 1694 became body physician to the Bishop of Eutin.
F. wrote, during his musical career, twelve operas, clavier concertos,
etc. Mattheson praises him highly in his " Musikalischer Patriot."
Forza (Ital,), force, vigour. Forzato, same as Sforzato. Foundation
Stop is a stop in the organ which on the key c also gives the note c
or one of its octaves. The term is used specially for the 8-ft. and for
pedal i6-ft., from which the smaller octave stops are distinguished as
secondary stops (Seitenstimmen). In a further sense the foundation
stops are opposed to the mutation stops, i.e. the quint-, tierce-stops,
mixtures, etc. Fouque, Pierre Octave, b. Nov. 12, 1S44, Pau (Lower
Pyrenees), d. there April 21-22, 1883 ; he went, when young, to
Paris, became a pupil of Reinhold Becker (harmony) and Chauvet
(counterpoint), and was received in 1869 into A. Thomas's
composition class at the Conservatoire. F. was active as a composer
of pf. pieces and songs, also of some small operettas. He was still
more important as a writer. He published the following: "On Music in
England before Handel," "J. F. Lesueur, the Predecessor of Berlioz,"
and " M. J. Glinka" (biography), " Histoire du Theatre Ventadour "
(1881). F. was librarian of the Conservatoire, musical critic of the
Republique Franqaise, and wrote for the Menestrel and the Revue et
Gazette Musicale. Foumier, Pierre Simon, type-founder, b. Sept. 15,
1712, Paris, d. there Oct. 8, 176S. In place of the note types of
Pierre Hautin (q.v.), which the Ballards, by virtue of their patent, had
used for 225 years, F. introduced types more suitable to his day, i.e.
of a shape (round heads) agreeing with written and engraved notes.
{C/. Breitkopf.) F. described his improvements in his " Essai d'un
nouveau caractere defontepour I'impressiondelamusique" (1756) ;
he also published a " Traite historique et critique sur I'origine et les
progres des caractcres de fonte pour I'impression de la musique "
(1765). Fourniture (Fr.), same as mixture in the disposition of a
French organ. Franqaise (Fr.), (i) a lively dance in | time. — (2)
Instead of Contredanse fvangaise, the former word being
understood. Francesco cieco (Ital. " the blind "), also called degli
organi. {See Landing.) Franchinus. {See Gafori.) Franchi-Vemey,
Giuseppe Ippolito, Conte della Valetta, b. Feb. 17, 1848, Turin, writer
on music, and critic ; he studied law at Turin, passed his examination
in 1867, and entered state service. But in 1874, after suffering from
severe pains in the head, he gave up jurisprudence and devoted
himself to musicoliterary pursuits, receiving at the same time further
musical training from good teachers (Marchisio, Stefano Tempia).
Already in 1872 he had taken great interest in the establishment of
the " Popular Concerts " at Turin. In 1S75 he and several friends
started a Quartet Society for the performance of comparatively
unknown works, and in 1876, jointly with his teacher Tempia, the "
Accademia di canto corale." F. is an active and distinguished musical
critic (from 1875 to 1877 of the Gazetta del Popolo, under the name
Ippolito Valetta, and since then of the Risorgimento, etc.). F. is
favourable to Wagner's musico-dramatic reforms. Some years since
he married Teresi n a Tua. Franchomme, Auguste, b. April 10, 1808,
Lille, d. Jan. 21, 1884, Paris; in 1825 he was pupil of the Paris
Conservatoire (Levasseur and NorbUn), received, already in 1826,
the
 Franchomme 248 Franco first prize of the 'cello class, and
appeared as 'cellist in the orchestra of the Ambigu Comique, in 1827
at the Theatre Italien ; together with D. Alard and Ch Haile he
established chambermusic soirees, and was an intimate friend of
Chopin's. In 1846 he was appointed teacher of his instrument at the
Conservatoire. After Duport's death he bought his Stradivari 'cello for
25,000 francs. F. was known as one of the most distinguished
'cellists of this century. He composed a few solo pieces for 'cello (a
concerto, Adagios, sets of variations, etc.). Franck, Melchior, (i) an
exceedingly prolific composer of church music, b. about 1573, Zittau,
d. June i, 1639, as court capellmeister at Coburg. He published : "
Melodiae sacrse " (a 4 — 12, 1600-7, three parts) ; " Musikalische
Bergreyen" (1602) ; " Contrapuncti compositi " (1602) ; " Teutsche
Psalmen und Kirc'nengesange " (1602); " Neue Paduanen,
Galliarden, etc." (1603) ; " Opusculum etlicher newer und alter
Reuterliedlein" (1603) ; "NeuesQuodlibet " (1604); "Farrago 4 voc."
(1604); "Teutsche (weltliche)GesangeundTantze" (1605); "Geistliche
Gesange und Melodien " (1608); " Newes Echo" (1608); " Cantica
gratulatoria " (and some other pieces d'occasion, 1608-9); "Neue
musikalische Intraden " (1608) ; " Flores musicales " (1610);
"Musikalische Frohlichkeit " (1610) ; " Tricinia nova" (1611); "
Vincula natalitia" (1611); " Sechs deutsche Konzerte von acht
Stimmen " (161 1); " Suspiria musica " (1612) ; "Opusculum etlicher
geistlicher Gesange" (1612) ; " Viridarium musicum " (a 6 — 10,
1613) ; " Recreationes musicse " (1614); " Zween Grabgesange "
(1614) ; " Zwey newe Hochzeitsgesange" (1614) ; " Threnodiae
Davidicffi " (1615) ; "Die trostreichen Worte aus dem54. Kapitel
Esaia " (a 7 — 15, 1615) ; " Deliciae amoris " (1615) ; " Fasciculus
quodlibeticus " (1615) ; " Geistlicher musikalischer Lustgarten " (a 4
— 9, 1616) ; " Lilia musicalia " (1616) ; " Teutsches musikalisches
frohliches Konvivium " (162 1) ; " Laudes dei vespertinae " (1622) ; "
Newe teutsche Magnificat " (a 2 — 8, 1622, four parts) ; "
Gemmulse evangeliorum musicse" (1623 and 1624, two parts) ; "
Newes liebliches musikalisches Lustgartlein " (a 5 — 8, 1623) ; " 40
Teutsche lustige musikalische Tantze" (1624); "Newes musikalisches
Opusculum" (1624); " Sacri convivii musica sacra" (1628); "
Rosetulum musicum" (1628); " Cithara ecclesiastica et scholastica "
(without date); " Psalmodia sacra" (1631) ; "Dulces mundani exilii
deliciae " (1631) ; " Der 51. Psalm fiir vier Stimmen " (1634) ; "
Paradisus musicus " (1636) ; "2 neue Epicedia" (1639). A careful
description of his printed works, also of those preserved in public
libraries, is to be found in vol. xvii. of the Monatshejte fur Musik-
Geschichte. (2) Johann Wolfgang, b. 1641, Hamburg, physician, and
opera capellmeister there ; he published sonatas for two violins and
bass ; he also produced a series (fourteen) of operas at Hamburg
(1679-86). Of his sacred compositions there are preserved "
Geistliche Melodien " with general bass (16S1, also 1685, 1700),
with new text by Osterwald, lately published by D. H. Engel (1857).
In 1688 he went to Spain, found favour at court, but is said to have
died of poison. (3) Cesar August, b. Dec. 10, 1822, Liege, d. Nov. 8,
1890, Paris ; he attended, at first, the Liege Conservatoire, and then
the one at Paris, where he was a pupil of Zimmermann (pianoforte),
Leborne (counterpoint), and Benoist (organ). After Benoist's
retirement (1872), he became his successor as professor of the
organ at the Conservatoire, and organist of Ste.Clotilde. Of his
compositions F. published an oratorio (Ruth), a symphonic poem
with chorus (" Les beatitudes"), pf. works, chamber-music, songs,
etc. His brother, (4) Joseph, teacher of music at Paris, has published
masses, cantatas, motets, songs, instructive pianoforte pieces, also "
Manuel de la transposition et de I'accompagnement du plain chant,"
" Traite d'harmonie," " L'art d'accompagner le plain chant," "
Nouvelle methode de piano facile," etc. (5) Eduard, b. Dec. 5, 1817,
Breslau, was at first teacher of pianoforte-playing at Cologne
Conservatorium, 1859 at the I3erne School of Music, from 1867 al
the Stern Conservatorium at Berlin, and since 1886 taught at Emil
Breslaur's Klavierlehrer-Seminar. F. published a large number of
instrumental compositions (symphony. Op. 47 ; pf. quintet. Op. 45 ;
sextet, Op. 41 ; 'cello sonata, Op. 42 ; duets for two pianos. Op. 46 ;
six sonatas. Op. 49 ; three ditto. Op. 44, etc.). Died Dec. i, 1893,
Berlin. Francke, Augustus Hermann, founded in 1865 at Leipzig a
pianoforte manufactory, which has gained great prosperity. Franco, a
name which has a distinguished sound in the history of measured
music, for under it have been handed down to us sevecal of the
most famous treatises on Discant ; yet a great uncertainty prevails
respecting the period at which F. flourished, the place of his birth,
and his position. He has been set down as a scholastic of Liege in
the nth century ; but this is a thoroughly untenable supposition,
since his theory of measured music is too far developed for this
period. A passage in an anonymous treatise belonging to the first
half of the 13th century, printed in Coussemaker's " Script." I.
(Anonymous 4), brings bright light into what had hitherto been
darkness. In it is written : " Mark, that Magister Leoninus was
distinguished as a composer (organista), and had written a great
work in Organum style based on the Graduale and Antiphonarium to
obtain variety in Divine service ; and that this work was in use up .to
the time 'A the great Perotinus, who himself made an
 Franco 249 Franz epitome of it, and aHded many new and
better compositions, inasmuch as he had an excellent knowledge of
Discant, and in that matter surpassed Leoninus. Magister Perotinus
himself wrote some fine compositions in four and three parts (on a
Cantus planus) and also threefold, twofold, and single Conductiis.
The book, or the books, of Magister Perotinus were in use in the
choir of Notre-Dame Cathedral at Paris, and, indeed, up to the time
of Robert of Sabilon, and from him, in like manner, up to recent
times, when men arose such as Petrus, a distinguished composer
(notafor), and Johannes the Great {Pri mar ills), and, in the main, up
to the time of Magister Franco the Elder, and of the other Magister
Franco of Cologne, who, partly in their works, introduced a changed
notation, and, on that account, established rules applying specially
to their works." From that passage it is evident that there were two
Francos, viz., F. of Paris and F. of Cologne, and that the former was
older than the latter ; but they were, approximately, contemporaries,
and, as it appears, both acted as maitre de chapelle at Notre-Dame,
Paris. Anyhow, it is quite possible that the Cologne F. did not live at
Paris, but, during his lifetime, was celebrat£d there. Then it could be
assumed that the F. born at Dortmund, who in 1 190 was prior of
the Benedictine Abbey at Cologne, wrote the treatise commencing "
Ego Franco de Colonia " (in Gerbert, " Script." II., and Coussemaker,
" Script." I.) ; for the monks were not named after their place of
birth, but after their cloister. On the other hand, F. of Paris wrote the
treatise which Johann Ballox has given in condensed form. {C/.
Coussemaker, " Histoire de I'harmonie," etc., No. V., and " Script." I.,
p. 292.) Francoeur, (i) Francois, b. Sept., 1698, Paris, d. there Aug.
6, 1787, violinist ; he became a member of the Opera orchestra in
1710, where he made the acquaintance of Frang. Rebel, with whom
he stood during his whole life on terms of the closest friendship.
Gradually he rose to be chamber musician (member of the 24
violons du roi, chamber composer, opera inspector, director of the
Opera, and finally (1760) royal principal intendant. F. wrote two
books of violin sonatas, and, jointly with Fr. Rebel, ten operas. (2)
Louis Joseph, nephew of the former, b. Oct. 8, 1738, Paris, d. there
March 10, 1804, likewise violinist ; he pursued the same career as
his uncle, but, owing to the Revolution, lost his appointments of
director of the Opera and chief music intendant. He also wrote
several operas (only one produced) ; likewise a good treatise on
wind-instruments. Frank, Ernst, an eminent conductor and
composer, b. Feb. 7, 1847, Munich, d. Aug. 17, 1889, Oberdobling,
near Vienna (of unsound mind). lie attended the Gymnasium at the
Metten Cloister, and also the Munich University, but the study of the
pianoforte under Mortier de Fontaine and of composition under
Franz Lachner soon became his chief occupations ; and, as court
organist and conductor of the rehearsals at the Opera, F. made a
firm start as conductor. In 1868 he was capellmeister at Wijrzburg,
1869 chorus-master at the Vienna Opera, and afterwards conductor
of the " Singverein" and of the " Akademischer Gesangverein " ; he
ably discharged the duties of court capellmeister at Mannheim from
1872-77, where, among other things he produced in 1874 Gotz's Der
Widerspenstigen Zdhmung [The Taming of the Shrew), and in 1877
Francesca da Rimini, the opera which the composer left unfinished
(completed by F.). In 1S77 he received a call to the Frankfort
Theatre as principal capellmeister, where, under Otto Devrient as
intendant, a new era for the encouragement of true art was
expected to begin. Unfortunately, the good resolutions did not last ;
when Devrient, who, owing to his earnest efforts, proved
inconvenient, was removed, F. resigned. At the end of 1879 he was
richly compensated by being called to Hanover as Biilow's successor.
Of F.'s compositions his songs and partsongs have become especially
well known (Duettinos for two female voices from Kate Greenaway's
"At the Window," and " Rattenfangerlieder," from Wolff's " Singuf,"
with violin obbligato). F. wrote the operas Adam de la Halle
(Carlsruhe, 1880) and Hero (Berlin, 1884), and translated into
German Stanford's The Veiled Prophet, and Savonarola, also
Mackenzie's Colomba. Frankenberger, Heinrich, b. Aug. 20, 1824,
Wiimbach, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, d. Nov. 22, 1885,
Sondershausen, was trained by the StadtmusikusBartel (orchestral
instruments), and his son Ernst (instrumentation and theory), the
organist Birnstein (organ), and capellmeister G. Hermann
(pianoforte) at Sondershausen, also, afterwards, by L. Plaidy, K. F.
Becker, and M. Hauptmann at Leipzig. Hewas appointed in 1847
violinist in the ducal band at Sondershausen, in 1852 teacher of
music at a seminary, and later on, sub-conductor of the court band.
F. was a distinguished performer on the harp. During the yearly
leave of absence he worked as opera-conductor at Erfurt, Halle,
Frankforton-the-Oder, etc. F. was an able composer and teacher.
Three operas, Die Hochzeit zu Venedig, Vineta, and Der Giinstling,
were produced with success, and some numbers printed. He wrote
also: an " Anleitung zur Instrumentierung," a " Harmonielehre," an "
Orgelschule," a " Choralbuch," preludes and postludes, a Vocal
Method, pf. pieces, songs, etc. Framko. [See Franco.) Franz, (i)
Robert (von Knauth),b. June 28, 1815, Halle-a-S., died there Oct. 24,
1892; one of the most thoughtful song-composers and, generally,
one of the best musicians of our
 Franz 250 Frescobaldi time. His parents were at first
opposed to his leaning towards music, but finally allowed him to go
to Dessau to complete his musical knowledge under Friedrich
Schneider (1835). He remained there for two years, making a
thorough study of counterpoint, although the dry lessons of
Schneider were by no means to his taste. In 1S37 he returned to
Halle, and, as he could not obtain any post nor find a publisher for
his compositions, he devoted all his time to the study of Bach and
Handel, whose works, by masterly revision of the instrumental
portion, he rendered more accessible to our time. After many years
of waiting, he at last became organist of the Ulrichskirche (organ by
Forner), then conductor of the " Singakademie," and, finally, "
Musikdirektor " of the University. In 1843 his first set of songs
appeared ; at first their merit was acknowledged by a few only ; but,
among these were the important names of Schumann and Liszt.
Further sets quickly followed, and F. became one of the most
distinguished lyrical writers, combining Schumann's romanticism with
a contrapuntal method of composition reminding one of Bach. In all
he published over 250 songs. Already in 1841 his sense of hearing
began materially to decline, and this, aggravated by a general
disorder of the nerves, reached such a pitch that he was compelled
to resign his posts in 1868. His anxiety with regard to the
maintenance of his family was removed by a magnanimous gift from
Freiherr Senfft von Pilsach, J. Schiiffer, Otto Dresel, Frau Magnus,
Liszt, and Joachim, the profit resulting from a concert tour
undertaken in 1872 for Franz's benefit. Among the most meritorious
achievements of F. are his revisions of Bach's and Handel's works,
especially of the former: the St. Matthew Passion, Magnificat,
Funeral Ode, ten cantatas, as well as many arias and duets ; and of
Handel : the Messiah, Jubilate, " L' Allegro, il Penseroso ed il
Moderate," operatic airs and duets. Of F.'s compositions may be
mentioned, in addition, the 117th Psalm for double choir, a Kyrie for
soli and chorus, and part-songs for male, and for mixed choir. Essays
on F. have been written by Ambros, Liszt, A. Saran, J. Schaffer, and
H. M. Schuster. (2) J. H., Pseudonym of Count Bolko von Hochberg
(q.v.). Franzl, (i) Ignaz, distinguished violinist, b. June 3, 1734,
Mannheim, d. 1803; he became, m 1750, a member of the famous
court band of the Elector Karl Theodor, afterwards leader, finally
capellmeister at Munich (after the band had been removed to that
city in 1778). He travelled with his son, from 1784, for several years,
and in 1790 undertook the direction of the Mannheim Theatre band.
Of his compositions there appeared in print violin concertos, trios,
quartets, etc. (2) Ferdinand, son of the former, b. May 24, 1770,
Schwetzingen (Palatinate), d. Nov. 1833, Mannheim, pupil of his
father, whom he surpassed both as a violinist and a composer; he
made concert tours with him to Munich, Vienna, and Italy, studied
composition under Padre Martini at Bologna, in 1792 became leader
at Frankfort, in 1794 private capellmeister of Bernard at Offenbach,
travelled in 1803 in Russia; and in 1806 became Cannabich's
successor as court capellmeister and director of the German Opera,
Munich, but frequently went on concert tours. On receiving his
pension in 1827, he first retired to Geneva, afterwards to Mannheim.
He composed nine violin concertos, a double concerto for two
violins, duets and trios for violin, overtures, a symphony, several
operettas, "Das Reich der Tone " (vocal solos, violin solo, chorus and
orchestra), etc. Frederic II., the Great, King of Prussia, b. Jan. 24,
1712, Berlin, d. Aug. 17, 1786, SansSouci. He was not only a zealous
dilettante, and a fairly accomplished flautist {c/. Quanz, Grau.n, Ph.
E. Bach), but also a composer (flute solos, arias, marches, opera, II
re pastore, an overture to Acis und Galatea). His musical biography
was written by K. F. Muller (1847) and W. Kothe. Breitkopf & Hartel
have published a selection of his compositions. Fredon (Fr.), a short
run, shake. Freiberg, Otto, b. April 26, 1846, Naumburg, where his
father was Musikdirektor ; from 1860-63 a pupil of the Leipzig
Conservatorium, in 1865 violinist in the court orchestra at Carlsruhe.
He studied afterwards under V. Lachner, in 1880 became
Universitats-Musikdirektor at Marburg, and in 1887 Musikdirektor
and assistant professor at Gottingen University. French horn, natural
horn (Waldhorn). French sixth, the chord of the augmented sixth,
with iourth and third e.g. a'?, c, d, and f|;. French violin clef, the g
clef on the first line. Freschi, Giovanni Domenico, b. 1640, Vicenza,
d. there 1690, wrote masses and psalms a 3-6, an oratorio {Judith),
and twelve operas (for Venice, 1677 to 1685). Fresco (Ital.), fresh.
Frescobaldi, Girolamo, according to the latest investigations of
Haberl (1886), was baptised Sept. 9, 1583, Ferrara (therefore
probably born a few days previously), and buried at Rome, March 2,
1644. His teacher was Luzzasco Luzzaschi at Ferrara. F. is said to
have been organist at Mecklin in 1607. In any case he seems to have
lived about this time in the Netherlands, for P. Phalese published his
first work at Antwerp (madrigals a 5, 1608). In 1608 he was elected
organist of St. Peter's, Rome (successor of Ere. Pasquini), and held
this post until shortly before his death (during the last years of his
life he played theorganof St. Lorenzo in nuntibus). From 1628-33 F.
obtained leave
 Frescobaldi 251 Friedlander of absence, and was
represented by a deputy, and during this period lived at Florence as
organist to the Duke ; but, finally, probably fled from the ravages
caused by the plague and by war. That F. was held in high esteem is
evident from the fact that Joh. Jac. Froberger, who was court
organist at Vienna, obtained leave of absence, from 1637-41, in
order to study under Frescobaldi at Rome. According to the
testimony of contemporaries, F. created a new style of playing,
which was generally adopted. As an organist he had no rival ; but
also as composer he was held in the highest esteem, and, in fact,
was a musician of very great importance. He helped materially in the
development of fugue. Besides the madrigals named, he published: "
Fantasie a quattro " (1608); " Ricercari e canzoni francese " (1615) ;
" Toccate e partite d'intavolutura di cembalo " (161516, which, while
they were being engraved, were given out in copies of various
compass [from fifty-eight to ninty-four pages]; new ed. 1637); "
Capricci et arie " reprinted together with the " Ricercari " at Venice,
1626) ; " II II. Libro di Toccate, Canzone," etc. (1627) ; " Canzoni a
1-4 voci " (1628) ; " Arie musicali " (1630, two books) ; " Fiori
musicali di toccate, etc." (1635, containing some compositions
printed in 1627). From the manuscripts left by F., Vincenti also
published a (fourth) book, " Canzoni alia Francese " (1645). Single
pieces are to be found in collections between 1618-25. Only a
Maundy Thursday Lamentation, and an " In te domine speravi " for
double choir, remained in manuscript. The second and third books of
the "Canzone" have hitherto not been discovered. (C/. Haberl's
monograph which preceded his edition of F.'s organ compositions
[selected] .) Frets (Ger. Bihide ; Fr. Touches: Ital. Tasti), small strips
of wood or metal fixed transversely on the finger-board of stringed-
instruments ; when the finger presses down the string over them
they become bridges and definitely fi.x the length of string which is
to vibrate — i.e. if the distances between the F. are correctly
calculated, pure intonation is rendered easy. F. are specially used for
instruments of the lute kind, and appear to have been introduced
into the West by the Arabians. [C/. Instruments, Stringed.). Fretta
(Ital.), haste; con f., frettando, same as Stringendo. Freudenberg,
Wilhelm, b. March 11, 1838, Raubacher Hiitte, near Neuwied, was
for a long time theatre capellraeister in various towns ; he went, in
1865, to occupy a post as director of the Cecilia Union and the "
Synagogenverein " at Wiesbaden, where, in 1870, he founded a
Conservatorium, which still flourishes ; and he was, at the same
time, director of the " Singakademie." In 1886 he moved to Berlin,
where, jointly W'ith K. Mengewein, he opened a school for music,
but soon gave over the directorship to Mengewein, and went to
Augsburg and Ratisbon as theatre capellmeister. He has published :
pf. works, songs, music to Romeo und Juliet, an overture (Durch
Dunkel zum LicJit), a symphonic poem (" Ein Tag in Sorrento "), and
produced the operas Die Pfahlbauer (1877), Die Nebenbuhler
(1879), Kleopatra (1882), Die Miilile tm Wisperthale (1883); Der St.
Katharinentag (Augsburg, 18S9), and Marino Faliero (Ratisbon,
1889). Friberth, Karl, b. June 7, 1736, Wullersdorf (Lower Austria),
d. Aug. 6, 1816; in 1759 tenor singer to Prince Esterhazy at
Eisenstadt, in 1776 capellmeister at the Jesuit and Minorite
churches, Vienna. He wrote sacred compositions (masses,
offertories, graduals, etc.). Fricasse (French), a jocular, and common
term in the i6th century for compositions in several parts, with
different words for each part. Frick (Frike), Philipp Joseph, b. May
27, 1740, Wiirzburg, d. June 15, 1798 ; he was court organist at
Baden-Baden, afterwards travelled as a performer on Franklin's
glassharmonica, and, in 1780, settled in London as a teacher of
music, and made fruitless efforts to improve the harmonica. Besides
some pf. works, he published "The Art of Musical Modulation," 1780
; (in French, " L'art de moduler en musique," without date) ; " A
Treatise on Thorough Bass" (1786); and "A Guide in Harmony "
(1793). Fricke, August Gottfried Ludwig, distinguished stage-singer
(bass), b. March 24, 1829, Brunswick, pupil of the baritone
Meinhardt there ; he made his debut in 1851 as Sarastro at
Brunswick, sang afterwards at Bremen, Konigsberg, and Stettin, and
from 1856-86 was principal bass at the Royal Court Opera, Berlin.
Frickenhaus, Fanny [nee Evans), b. June 7, 1849, Cheltenham, an
able pianist. She studied under Mr. G. Mount, M. Aug. Dupont, and
later, under Mr. W. Bohrer. She appears at the principal London
concerts. She played the pianoforte concerto of Goetz for the first
time in London. Friedheim, Arthur, pianist, b. Oct. 26, 1S59,
Petersburg, of German parents. He developed into'a virtuoso at an
early age, but attended the Gymnasium; and, after conducting small
theatre orchestras for several years, was taken up by Liszt. F. is
more especially an interpreter of Liszt. Friedlander, Max,
distinguished concertsinger (bass) and writer on music, b. Oct. 12,
1852, Brieg (Silesia), pupil of Manuel Garcia at London, and of J.
Stockhausen at Frankfort. He made his dcbtit in 1880 at the London
Monday Popular Concerts, and quickly obtained great fame. From
1881-83 he resided in Frankfort, and since then has hved in Berlin.
In 1882 the university of Breslau conferred on him the degree of Dr.
Phil. hon. causa. F. edited
 Friedlander 252 Frolich for Peters a new and complete
edition of the songs of Schubert, wrote a biography of this master;
and, in his prehminary work for the latter, proved himself an
excellent musical investigator, and made a number of highly
interesting discoveries. Besides a series of hitherto unpublished
songs, he has published varied readings of the words of the songs of
Schubert, Schumann, and Mendelssohn, and also rendered
assistance in Stockhausen's " Gesangstechnik." Frike. {See Frick.)
Frimmel, Theodor, b. Dec. 15, 1853, Amstetten (Lower Austria),
studied medicine, and took his doctor's degree at Vienna in 1879 ;
but occupied himself at the same time with the plastic arts and
music. He made extensive journeys for the sake of the history of art.
F. is " Custos-Adjunkt " of the Royal Library at Vienna, and " Dozent"
of the Society of Arts. He has written studies on the painters, K. F.
Lessing (1881) and Jos. Ant. Koch (1884). His first musico-historical
pamphlet was " Beethoven und Gothe (1883), and his most
interesting, the " Neue Beethoveniana " (1887, with an authentic
likeness of Beethoven ; a faithful representation of the man
Beethoven). A second and enlarged edition appeared in 1S89. Friska
(Fris), the principal section, in lively time, of the czarda. Fritze,
Wilhelm, gifted, but short-lived pianist and composer, b. Feb. 17,
1842, Bremen, d. Oct. 7, 1881, Stuttgart, attended the Gymnasium
at Bremen, and was then a pupil of E. Sobolewski for music. In 1858
he attended the Leipzig Conservatorium, and, on Liszt's advice,
studied again in Berlin under Hans von Biilow and Weitzmann. After
several concert tours in Italy and France, F. settled in Glogau, and in
1867 in Liegnitz, where he directed the " Singakademie " from 1867-
77, and then went to Berlin, and recommenced studying under Kiel.
In 1879 he went (without, however, any fixed appointment) to
Stuttgart. F. wrote works of all kinds (symphony, " Die Jahreszeiten "
; oratorios, Fingal and David; violin concerto, pf. concerto, music to
Faust, etc.), and also published much music (pf. sonatas, Op. 2,
Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus for mixed chorus, soli, and
orchestra ; pf. pieces 3 2 et 34; songs, vocal pieces) which bear
favourable testimony to his talent. Fritzsch, Ernst Wilhelm, b. Aug.
24, 1840, Lutzen, pupil of the Leipzig Conservatorium, founded in
1866 a music -publishing firm (works of Rheinberger, Svendsen,
Grieg, Herzogenberg, Cornelius ; Wagner's " Gesammelte Schriften,"
etc.), and edited Musikalisches Wochenblatt, which he had started in
1870. From 1883, for several years, F. managed a pianoforte
manufactory, jointly with Fischer, the inventor of the Adiaphon (q.v.).
Froberger, Johann Jakob, eminent organist and composer, whose
date and place of birth are unknown. F. studied, from 1637-41,
under Frescobaldi in Rome, but was already before that (Sept.,
1637), and afterwards again (from 1641-45 and 1653-57), court
organist at Vienna, and received from the court two hundred gulden
towards the expenses of his journey to Italy for the purpose of
study. He also appears to have been in Vienna in 1649. He died. May
7, 1667, at Hericourt, near Montbeliard, in the castle of the Duchess
Dowager Sibylla of Wiirttemberg, where he had gone in 1657. (C/.
Monatshe/te fi'ir Musikgeschichte, XVIII., 10.) Of his works the
following have been preserved: "Diverse ingegnosissime e rarissime
partite di toccate, canzoni, ricercari, capricci, etc." (1693 and 1696,
two parts ; the first part reprinted without any alteration, 1695 and
1714) ; " Suites de clavecin " (without date). Manuscripts of his
works are to be found in the libraries of Berlin (autographs of 1549
and 1656) and Vienna. E. Schebek published two letters from the
Duchess Sibylla to Chr. Huygens concerning F. (1874). F. is a
phenomenon of high importance in the history of organ and clavier
music. In power of invention he was German, but in workmanship he
showed the influence of his Italian training. Franz Beier wrote a
monograph on F. (Waldersee's " Samml. mus. Vortrage," Nos. 59,
60). Frolich, Joseph, b. May 28, 17S0, Wiirzburg, d. there Jan. 5,
1862 ; he attended the Gymnasium and University of that city,
became, in 1801, member of the Electoral court band, founded a
vocal and instrumental union among the students (" Akademische
Bande "), which was acknowledged in 1804 as the " Akademisches
Musikinstitut " ; at the same time he became private teacher of
music, and Musikdirektor at the University. Gradually, by the
admission of pupils of the Gymnasium and other young men
musically disposed, the Institute was enlarged : the seminarists were
also obliged to attend, and by that means the present Royal School
of Music sprang into existence. F. was appointed occasional
professor of esthetics, and, later on, of pedagogics and didactics. In
1820 a general school of singing was incorporated with the Institute.
In 1844 F. gave up conducting the orchestral rehearsals and
performances, and in 1854 resigned his post as professor at the
University, and finally, in 1858, the direction of the Institute. F. was
active as a composer : masses, a requiem, symphonies, an opera
(Scipio), sonatas, part- and other songs ; and he was known as a
writer of serious articles in Cdcilia, in Erk and Gruber's
Encyclopaedia, and in Mnemosyne (supplement to the N .
Witrzbuvger Ztg.), and as the biographer of Abbe Vogler. Besides
these, he wrote a " Musiklehre mit Anweisungen fiir's Spiel aller
gebrauchlichen Instrumente" (in four parts), also separate methods
for the various
 Fromra 253 Fuchs instruments, from the violin to the
serpent, and a Vocal Method. Fromm, Emil, b. Tan. 29, 1835,
Spremberg (Niederlausitz), pupil of Grell, Bach, and Schneider,
Berlin, in 1859 cantor at Cottbus, from 1869 organist at Flensburg ;
in 1866 he was named royal musical director, founder of a mixed
choral society ; he is also a composer (Passion-cantatas, organ
pieces, choruses for male voices). Froschauer, J oh an n, book
prmter in Augsburg at the end of the 15th century, also, so far as is
known, the first who printed music notes (examples) with types,
namely, in Michael Keinspeck's " Lilium musicae plans " (1498,
coarse chorale notes). In all earlier works (Missals, etc.) the lines
were printed, and the cotes written in by hand. {Cf. also Burtius.)
Frost, Henry Frederick, English musician and able musical critic
{Standard, Athenaum, etc.). He wrote the " Schubert " for the "
Great Musicians" series. He was for many years organist of the
Chapel Royal, Savoy. Frottole (Ital.), a species of dignified Italian
popular song of the i6th century, midway between the complicated
Madrigal and the simple note-against-note harmonized villanelle and
villote, and, having for the most part, words of an erotic character.
The poem has a four-line refrain, in rhyme order, abba; of which the
first, or second half returns after each of the five-line strophes
(rhyme order of the strophes, a b a c c). The verse measure consists
of four trochees in each line. From 1504 to 1509 Petrucci published
nine books of F., and Junta one book of the same in 1526. Rud.
Schwartz wrote a study on the F. in the 4th volume of the "
Vierteljahrsschrift f. Musikwissenschaft " for 1886. F sharp (Ger. Fis),
f raised by a 4; Fit major chord =:/i aS A ; f4 minor chord ^/^ ^ fit
; F^^ major key, with signature of six sharps ; f|; ininor key, with
signature of three sharps. {See Key.) Fuchs, (i) Georg Friedrich, b.
Dec. 3, 1752, Mayence, d. Oct. 9, 1821, Paris ; he studied under
Cannabich at Mannheim. He was at first military musician at
Zweibriicken, went to Paris in 1784, and, when the Conservatoire
was established in 1795, he was appointed teacher of the clarinet ;
he composed many works for wind-instruments. (2) Aloys, b. June 6,
1799, Raase (Austrian Silesia), d. March 20, 1853, as assistant-
draughtsman in the court council of war ; he was a distinguished
connoisseur of music, and an enthusiastic collector of musical
manuscripts and portraits of artists. He communicated the results of
his investigations to Vienna and Berlin periodicals dealing with
special branches of musical art. His collections, unique of their kind,
were scattered by sales after his death. (3) Karl Dorius Johann,
geniallydisposed pianist and intelligent writer on music, b. Oct. 22,
1838, Potsdam, as second son of the teacher of music and organist
to the cadet corps G.L.D.F., by whom the youth's talent was strictly
guided. At an early age F. lost his mother, and, as collegian
(Gymnasiast), was forced to give private lessons on the pianoforte.
In 1859 he attended the University at Berlin as student of theology,
but at the same time studied privately under Hans von Biilow, who,
when, after a year, F.'s pecuniary means did not admit of his paying
for further instruction, generously gave him lessons during a space
of four years. After long halting between theology and philosophy, F.
gave himself up entirely to music, and, amid a constant struggle for
mere existence, studied thorough-bass with K. Fr. Weitzmann, and
composition with F. Kiel. For two years he was private tutor at
Osdorf Manor, near Berlin, and for half a year at the house of
Steffeck the painter, working, at the same time, all the more
earnestly on h\6 own account. His first literary work was "
Betrachtungen mit und gegen Arthur Schopenhauer," in the N. Beil.
Musikzeitiing. In 1868 he entered into the teachers' college of
KuUak's " Akademie," but married in 1869, and took an organist's
post at the St. Nicholas' Church, Stralsund. In 186S he pubUshed "
Ungleiche Verwandte unter den Neudeutschen " (in defence of
Tappert), and " Hellas " (pf. pieces on modern Greek themes), in
i86g " Virtuos und Dilettant " (thoughts respecting pianoforte-
teaching), a small pamphlet which attracted attention. In 1870 he
took his degree of Dr. Phil, at Greifswald (thesis: " Praliminarien zu
einer Kritik der Tonkunst," a serious philosophical analysis of art
enjoyment in music, the ultra-philosophical conception of which
proved a barrier to a wide circulation ; and that such was the case
could easily be shown if the work were rewritten in plainer language.
In 1871 he returned to Berlin, appeared frequently in public as
pianist, and wrote various articles for the Mus. WochenUatt. A great
work on technique, written at that time, has remained in manuscript.
In 1875, while on a concert tour, he went to Hirschberg (Silesia),
where he founded a musical society, and proved successful as
conductor. In 1879 he exchanged Hirschberg for Danzig, conducted
the choral union there (1882-83) > became teacher of music at the
Victoria College, and, in 1886, organist of St. Peter's Church. F.
proved of material assistance to H. Riemann in his efforts to improve
musical notation by means of phrase marks, for he wrote " Die
Zukunft des musikal. Vortrags " (1884, two parts ; a third still in
hand), and " Die Freiheit des musikalischen Vortrags" (1885), and,
jointly with H. Riemann, he published " Praktische Anleitung zum
Phrasieren " (1886). As a pianist F. possesses a quality rarely to be
met with, viz., a faculty
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