Introduction to Material Handling

Definition
Material Handling is: “The movement, protection, storage, and control of
materials and products throughout the process of manufacture and
distribution, consumption, and disposal.” — Material Handling Industry of America (MHIA)

Key Goals of Material Handling

Material handling should be:
•Safe
•Efficient
•Low cost
•Timely
•Accurate (right material, right quantity, right location)
The position of material handling in the larger production system is shown
•Damage-free

Importance
•Accounts for approximately 20–25% of total manufacturing labor costs in the
U.S.
•Often overlooked, yet a significant cost factor
•Costs vary with production type and level of automation

Position in Production Systems

Material handling is part of internal logistics, within the broader logistics
system:
•Falls under the factory level of manufacturing
•Supports automation, control, and operational flow
10.1 Overview of Material Handling
Material Handling in Context
•Material handling is part of the larger distribution system.
•It deals with how materials, parts, and products are:
• Moved
• Stored
• Tracked

Logistics: The Bigger Picture

•Logistics includes all activities related to:
• Acquiring materials
• Moving them
• Storing them
• Distributing them
• Planning and controlling these operations

Two Types of Logistics

1) External 2) Internal

1) External Logistics 2 ) Internal Logistics (Material Handling) Scope of This Chapter

•Happens outside the facility 1. Happens inside a facility •Focuses on internal logistics only
•Involves long-distance transportation 2. Focuses on moving and storing
•Covers:
• Types of material
•5 traditional transport modes: materials within the factory or handling equipment
• Rail warehouse
• Design considerations for
material handling
• Truck systems
• Air
• Ship
• Pipeline
10.1.1 Material Handling Equipment
Five Categories of Material Handling Equipment
1.Transport equipment
2.Positioning equipment
3.Unit load formation equipment
4.Storage equipment
5.Identification and control equipment

1. Transport Equipment
2. Positioning Equipment
Used to move materials within a
Used to handle materials at a single
factory, warehouse, or facility.
location (e.g., loading/unloading parts).
Main types:
Examples:
•Industrial trucks
•Industrial robots
•Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)
•Parts feeders
•Rail-guided vehicles
•Hoists at a fixed location
•Conveyors
•Hoists and cranes
(Explained in Section 10.2) Purpose: Improve access, ergonomics,
and precision at workstations
Five Categories of Material Handling Equipment
1.Transport equipment
2.Positioning equipment
3.Unit load formation equipment
4.Storage equipment
5.Identification and control equipment

3. Unit Load Formation Equipment

Used to group items for efficient movement as a unit load.

Types:
•Containers (pallets, boxes, drums, baskets, etc.)
•Loading/packaging machines (e.g., palletizers and depalletizers)

Why important:
•Moves many items together
•Reduces trips, damage, and handling time •Palletizer: A machine that automatically stacks boxes or
cartons onto pallets and often wraps them with plastic film
•Standard container sizes improve compatibility with automated systems for shipping.

•Depalletizer: A machine that automatically removes boxes

4. Storage Equipment or cartons from pallets, usually for unpacking or further
Stores materials (RM, WIP, FG) temporarily before, during, or after production. processing

Two main categories:

•Conventional:
• Bulk storage
• Racks, shelves, bins, drawers
• Labor-intensive
•Automated:
• Uses machines to store/retrieve materials
• Reduces manual effort
(Covered in Chapter 11)
Five Categories of Material Handling Equipment
1.Transport equipment
2.Positioning equipment
3.Unit load formation equipment
4.Storage equipment
5.Identification and control equipment

5. Identification and Control Equipment

Tracks and identifies materials during handling.

Examples:
•Bar codes (most common)
•RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

Purpose:
•Ensures accurate tracking, faster retrieval, and inventory control
(More details in Chapter 12)
10.1.2 Design Considerations in Material Handling
Overview: System Design Approach
•Material handling equipment works as a system, not standalone.
•Design must match the specific needs of:
1. Materials being handled
2. Quantity and frequency of movement
3. Production process layout
4. Space constraints and budget

1. Material Characteristics
Design depends heavily on the nature of the material.
Characteristic Examples / Description

Key Characteristics Physical state Solid, liquid, gas

Size & weight Volume, dimensions, heaviness per unit

Shape Round, flat, irregular — affects handling

Condition Hot, cold, wet, dirty, sticky

Risk of damage Fragile (glass), sturdy (metal blocks)

Safety risks Flammable, toxic, explosive, corrosive

Design Insight:
•Bulk liquid → pipeline
•Fragile items → shock-resistant containers
•Hazardous items → special enclosures + safety systems
Overview: System Design Approach
•Material handling equipment works as a system, not standalone.
•Design must match the specific needs of:
1. Materials being handled
2. Quantity and frequency of movement
3. Production process layout
4. Space constraints and budget

2. Flow Rate, Routing, and Scheduling

Flow Rate = how much material moves over time

•Expressed as pieces/hour, tons/day, etc.
•High flow → needs high-capacity or automated
systems
•Low flow with varied items → flexible systems
needed

Routing Factors:
•Distance between points
•Number of pick-up/drop-off points
•Route conditions (turns, elevation, floor type,
indoor/outdoor)
•Affects equipment selection: e.g., AGVs for flexible
routing

Scheduling:
•Handling must align with production timing
•Rush jobs increase handling cost
•Buffer stocks near workstations reduce
scheduling pressure
•Delays can hurt throughput and productivity
Overview: System Design Approach
•Material handling equipment works as a system, not standalone.
•Design must match the specific needs of:
1. Materials being handled
2. Quantity and frequency of movement
3. Production process layout
4. Space constraints and budget

3. Plant Layout and Handling Integration

Material handling must fit the production layout.

Three Layout Types:

1.Process Layout
1. Used for varied products in small/medium batches
2. Needs flexible handling (e.g., forklifts, AGVs)
3. Common in job shops and custom manufacturing
2.Product Layout
1. Linear flow, high volume, standardized product
2. Uses conveyors, fixed routes
3. Common in automobile, appliance assembly lines
3.Fixed-Position Layout
1. Product doesn’t move (e.g., ships, aircraft)
2. Workers/materials move to the product
3. Uses cranes, mobile hoists, trucks

Design Insight:
•In new facilities, material handling and layout are designed together → better flow
•In existing plants, equipment may need to adapt to fixed layout constraints
Overview: System Design Approach
•Material handling equipment works as a system, not standalone.
•Design must match the specific needs of:
1. Materials being handled
2. Quantity and frequency of movement
3. Production process layout
4. Space constraints and budget

4. Unit Load Principle

Unit Load = the group of items moved as a single load

•Can be one item, a pallet of boxes, or a container of parts
•Includes the container or support platform (like a pallet)

Design Tip:
•Make unit loads as large as practical, considering:
• Safety
• Equipment capacity
• Ease of access

Why use unit loads?

1.Fewer handling trips
2.Faster loading/unloading
3.Less product damage
4.Lower labor cost and higher system efficiency

Examples:
•Pallet with 50 cartons
•Tote box with small metal parts

Standardization matters:
•Ensures compatibility with forklifts, AGVs, storage racks
•Enables automation in storage/retrieval systems
10.2 Material Transport Equipment
Overview
This section covers 5 main categories of material transport equipment used in factories and warehouses:
1.Industrial Trucks (manual & powered)
2.Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
3.Rail-Guided Vehicles (RGVs)
4.Conveyors
5.Cranes and Hoists
Each system serves a different level of capacity, flexibility, and automation
10.2.1 Industrial Trucks
When to Use Industrial Trucks
•High product variety, unstructured
routes
•Point-to-point transport between
• Industrial trucks are wheeled transport vehicles, either pushed manually or powered. workstations
• Used for flexible, short-distance material movement •Low to medium automation
environments

Industrial trucks are divided into two categories: nonpowered and powered

A. Nonpowered Trucks
Also called hand trucks – moved by human effort (Pushed / Pulled)
•Best for short distances and light to moderate loads

Types:
1.Two-wheel hand trucks
1. Easy to steer, but can carry only small loads

Multiple-wheeled hand trucks

1.Dollies (four-wheel carts)
1. Simple platforms, ideal for flat items
2. Can have fixed or swivel (caster-type) wheels
2.Pallet trucks (manual)
1. Two forks slide into pallet slots
2. Worker lifts load slightly using lever
3. Load is then pulled to the destination and lowered

Limitations:
•Labor-intensive
•Limited speed and capacity
•Suitable for low-volume operations
Industrial trucks are divided into two categories: nonpowered and powered

B. Powered Industrial Trucks

Powered by electric motors or internal combustion engines
•Used for heavier loads, longer distances, and reduced labor effort

Types:
1.Walkie Trucks
1. Battery-powered
2. No seat; operator walks behind and steers with a control handle
3. Speed: ~5 km/h (normal walking pace)
4. Used for pallet transport in tight spaces

2.Forklift Trucks (Rider Type)

1. Operator sits in a driving cab
2. Load capacity: 450–4,500 kg (can vary)
3. High-lift versions reach elevated racks
4. Operate in narrow aisles or wide-open spaces
5. Powered by:
1. Electric batteries (for indoor use)
2. Gasoline/LPG/CNG engines (for outdoor or heavy-duty use)

3.Towing Tractors (Tow Trains)

1. Pull multiple trailers or carts
2. Used for longer routes inside factories or warehouses (over the
relatively smooth surfaces)
3. Common at airports for baggage and cargo
4. Powered by:
1. Electric motors (quiet, clean)
2. Internal combustion engines (more power, longer range)
10.2.2 Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
Definition and Core Concept
•AGVS (Automated Guided Vehicle System) is a material handling system using self-propelled, battery-powered vehicles that follow
predefined guidance paths.
•Unlike conveyor or rail-guided systems, AGVs run on unobtrusive pathways (i.e., not fixed tracks)
The term automated guided cart (AGC) is used by some AGV
vendors to identify vehicles that are smaller and lighter weight than
Key Features of AGVs conventional AGVs and are available at significantly lower prices.

•Battery-powered: 8–16 hours of operation per charge

•Flexible routing: Easily reconfigurable path layout
•Automated navigation and transport of materials

Types of AGVs
1.Driverless Train (Towing AGV)
1. Tows 5–10 trailers in a train
2. Moves heavy payloads over long distances
3. Used in factories/warehouses

2.AGV Pallet Truck

1. Picks up palletized loads
2. Human helps initiate loading; then AGV proceeds automatically
3. Load capacity: Several thousand kg; can handle multiple pallets
4. Forklift AGV: Variant with vertical lift (like forklifts)

3.Unit Load Carrier

1. Moves unit loads between stations
2. Features auto-loading/unloading (rollers, belts, lifts)
3. Variants:
1. Light Load AGVs: Small parts (≤250 kg) in small/light manufacturing
2. Assembly Line AGVs: Carry subassemblies through workstations
3. Heavy-Duty AGVs: Handle loads up to 125 tons (e.g., steel coils, shipping containers)
Applications of AGVs (in production and logistics)
1.Driverless Train Operations
1. Long-distance movement of bulk materials
2. Efficient for repetitive routes How AGVs Work in Storage and Distribution

2.Storage and Distribution AGVs automatically transport unit loads such as pallets or tote
pans:
1. Interface with AS/RS systems (automated storage/retrieval system) •From receiving docks to automated storage systems (AS/RS) for
2. Deliver pallets or tote pans in manufacturing/warehousing organized storage
•From storage areas to workstations for processing or to shipping
3. Suitable for electronics and light manufacturing docks for dispatch

3.Assembly Line Applications This enables efficient, hands-free movement of materials within
warehouses or production facilities.
1. AGVs move with work-in-progress
2. Widely used in automotive and electronics assembly

4.Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)

1. AGVs deliver parts to CNCs, robots, etc.
2. Support dynamic, modular production setups
1. Imbedded Guide Wires
•Electrical wires are installed in shallow grooves cut into the floor, then covered with Vehicle Guidance Technologies
cement.
•A low-frequency signal (1–15 kHz) is sent through the wire.
•AGV has two magnetic sensors on either side of the wire.
• If the vehicle veers, sensors detect imbalance, and the AGV corrects its steering.
•Common in older systems, but not easily reconfigurable.

2. Paint Strips
•A line (sprayed, taped or painted) is applied to the floor; contains reflective or fluorescent
particles.
•Optical sensors on the AGV track the line by detecting reflected light.
•Simple and cheap, but:
• Needs regular cleaning
• Wears out over time
• Sensitive to lighting and floor conditions
3. Magnetic Tape
•A flexible magnetic strip is attached to the surface of the floor.
•Sensors on the AGV detect the magnetic field from the tape.
•Easier to install and modify than guide wires (no floor cutting needed).
•Also passive (doesn’t need power like guide wires).

4. Laser-Guided Vehicles (LGVs)

•Uses laser scanners to detect reflective beacons placed around the facility. Dead reckoning refers to the capability of a vehicle to follow a
•AGV calculates its position by triangulating between beacons. given route in the absence of a defined pathway in the floor
•Includes dead reckoning: movement estimated by tracking wheel rotations.
•High flexibility: no floor changes needed — paths are software-defined.
•Ideal for complex layouts or facilities that change frequently. Tech Flexibility Installation Effort Accuracy Best For

Fixed, repetitive
Guide wires Low High High
routes
5. Inertial Navigation Low-cost, simple
Paint strips Medium Low Medium
•Uses gyroscopes and accelerometers to detect movement and calculate layouts

position. Magnetic tape High Low Medium

Facilities needing
path flexibility
•Magnetic transponders embedded in the floor help correct accumulated Very Low (software Large, dynamic
Laser-guided (LGV) Very High High
errors. only) environments

•Very similar to tech used in missiles or aircraft. Inertial navigation Very High Medium
High (with
corrections)
High-tech, flexible
systems
•Highly suited for mission-critical navigation with no visible markers.
Dead reckoning is a method of estimating the current position of a moving object (like an AGV) based on its previous known position, the distance
it has traveled, and its direction of movement—without using external references.

In AGVs:
•The vehicle uses data from wheel rotations and steering angles to calculate its new position as it moves.
•This is done by the onboard computer, which continuously updates the position estimate.
•It's useful where no physical guide path exists (like in laser-guided or inertial systems).

Limitation:
•Small measurement errors accumulate over time, so the longer the AGV moves without checking its position, the less accurate the estimate becomes.

Solution:
•The AGV periodically corrects its position using: Example:
Imagine you walked 5 steps forward and then 3 steps left in a dark room—you
• Reflective beacons (in laser systems) could estimate where you are now based on where you started. That’s dead
• Floor transponders (in inertial systems) reckoning. But if you miscount your steps slightly, your position estimate becomes
• Other known reference points in the environment less reliable the further you go—hence the need for corrections.

AGV Routing at Junctions

1.Frequency Select
1. Each path has different signal frequency
2. Vehicle follows the frequency matching its programmed route

2.Path Switch Select

1. One frequency system
2. Only the chosen branch is energized; others turned off
3. Requires electrical isolation of path zones
Vehicle Management
To operate efficiently, AGVs must be well-coordinated and managed.
Key goals:
•Reduce idle/waiting time at load/unload points
•Avoid traffic congestion and collisions

Two major aspects of vehicle management:

1.Traffic Control
2.Vehicle Dispatching

1. Traffic Control
Ensures safe, collision-free movement of AGVs along shared guide paths.

Two methods:

a. On-Board Vehicle Sensing (also called Forward Sensing)

•Each AGV has sensors (optical/ultrasonic) to detect obstacles or other
vehicles ahead
•If something is detected → AGV stops automatically
•Effective in straight paths, but limited in:
• Turns
• Intersections
• Blind spots

b. Zone Control
•Facility is divided into zones (one vehicle per zone at a time)
•A vehicle can only enter a free zone
•Zones are longer than vehicle length, to ensure safety and flow
•Managed by a central computer that tracks all vehicle positions
•Prevents tailgating and route blockage
Two major aspects of vehicle management:
1.Traffic Control
2.Vehicle Dispatching

2. Vehicle Dispatching
Dispatching = deciding which AGV does which job and when.

Three dispatching methods:

a. On-Board Control Panel

•Located on each AGV
•Used for manual control, programming destinations
•Allows flexible dispatching based on real-time needs

b. Remote Call Stations

•Push-button system at workstations
•Calls any available nearby AGV
•Used to request pickup or delivery
•Often used in combination with on-board panels

c. Central Computer Control

•Required in large, automated facilities
•Automatically assigns tasks based on:
• Preplanned delivery schedule
• Real-time calls from stations
• Live tracking of vehicle positions
•Uses RF (radio frequency) to communicate with all AGVs
•Optimizes vehicle routes, prevents conflicts, and improves system efficiency
Vehicle Safety
10.3 analysis Of Material Transport Systems
Quantitative models help analyze material flow rates, delivery cycle times, and system performance, which are useful for determining equipment needs—like the
number of forklifts required for a certain flow rate. Material transport systems are categorized into vehicle-based systems (e.g., forklifts, automated guided
vehicles) and conveyor systems

10.3.1 Analysis Of Vehicle-based Systems

These systems typically move individual loads from one point to another. Two helpful graphical tools for analyzing these deliveries are the from-to chart and the
network diagram.
Assumptions:
•Vehicle moves at a constant speed
•Ignore acceleration/deceleration

Delivery Cycle Breakdown:

1️⃣ Loading Time – at pickup station
2️⃣ Travel Time – to drop-off station
3️⃣ Unloading Time – at drop-off station
4️⃣ Empty Travel Time – return trip

The total cycle time per delivery

per vehicle is given by

Ideal Delivery Cycle Time: Loaded & Empty Distances (L d & L e)

•Equation (10.1) calculates an ideal delivery cycle time However: •Distances vary with each delivery (origins & destinations differ).
• It doesn’t account for real-world delays (e.g., traffic, equipment issues). •Use average values for L d(loaded) and L e (empty) over the period
• Delivery cycles vary in practice – not all are the same. analyzed.

The delivery cycle time Tc can be used to determine two values of interest in a vehicle-based transport system:
(1) rate of deliveries per vehicle
(2)number of vehicles required to satisfy a specified total delivery requirement (e.g., X deliveries/hour)
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