Current

Electricity

01
 Weightage of the Chapter

With option 06 marks

Without option 04 marks

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 02
 INDEX

Sr. No. Subtopic Name Slide No.

9.1 Introduction 04
9.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws of Electrical Network 05
9.3 Wheatstone Bridge 14
9.4 Potentiometer 28
9.5 Galvanometer 44

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 03

9.1 Introduction

Resistance in Series and Parallel

When resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance is sum

total of the individual resistor and thus, greater than individual resistance.

When resistors are connected in parallel, the effective resistance is

less than the individual resistance.

However, a circuit containing several complex connections of

electrical components cannot be easily reduced into a single loop by
using the rules of series and parallel combination of resistors.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 04

9.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws of Electrical Network

Junction: Any point in an electric circuit where two or more

conductors are joined together is a junction.

Loop: Any closed conducting path in an electric network is

called a loop or mesh. R R
c a e
Branch: A branch is any part of the network that lies between
two junctions.
E1 1 2 3 E2
E3
From the circuit
d f
i. Junctions: Junction a R b
Junction b
ii. Branches: Branch: acdb (path 1)
Branch: ab (path 2)
Branch: aefb (path 3)
iii. Loops: Loop acdba
Loop aefba
Loop caefbdc
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 05
9.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws of Electrical Network

Kirchhoff’s First Law (Current law or junction law)

Statement: The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction

is zero in an electrical network.
n
I5 I4
i.e.,  I
i =1
i

where Ii is the current in the ith conductor at a junction I3

having n conductors.

Sign convention:
P
a. The currents arriving at the junction are considered positive.
I2
b. The currents leaving the junction are considered negative. I6

Example: In the given circuit: I1

Applying the sign convention at junction P,
I1 − I2 + I3 + I4 − I5 − I6 = 0
I1 + I3 + I4 = I2 +I5 + I6

The total current flowing towards the junction is equal to the

total current flowing away from the junction.
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 06
9.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws of Electrical Network

Kirchhoff’s Second Law (Voltage law or loop theorem)

Statement: The algebraic sum of the potential differences

(products of current and resistance) and the electromotive
forces (emfs) in a closed loop is zero.
R1 R2
i.e.,  IR +  E A I1 B I2 C

Sign convention: E1 R5 E2
I3
While tracing a loop through a resistor, if the tracing is along the
direction of conventional current, the potential difference across that
resistance is considered negative. If the loop is traced against the G D
I1 R3 F R4 I2
direction of the conventional current, the potential difference across that
resistor is considered positive.

The emf of an electrical source is positive while tracing the loop

within the source from the negative terminal of the source to its
positive terminal. It is taken as negative while tracing within the
source from positive terminal to the negative terminal.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 13 07

9.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws of Electrical Network

In the given circuit:

Consider the loop ABFGA in clockwise sense and applying

the sign conventions,
− I1R1 − I3R5 − I1R3 + E1 = 0
 E1 = I1R1 + I3 R5 + I1R3
A I1 R1 B R2 I2 C

Consider the loop BFDCB in anticlockwise direction and applying

the sign conventions,
E1 I3 R5 E2
− I3R5 − I2R4 + E2 − I2 R2 = 0
 E2 = I2R2 + I3R5 + I2R4
G D
I1 R3 F R4 I2

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 08

 Check Your Grasp

Q In the given current distribution, what is the value of I?

4A
2A

5A 3A

2A

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 09

 Check Your Grasp

Q Kirchhoff’s voltage law is the law of conservation of _______.

energy

Q In a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the products of______ and the electromotive forces (emfs) is zero.
current and the resistances

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 10

 Numerical Section
Q A battery of e.m.f 6 V and internal resistance 2 Ω is connected in parallel with another battery of e.m.f 5 V
and internal resistance 2 Ω. The combination is used to send current through an external resistance of 8 Ω.
Calculate the current through the external resistance.
Ans: 11 A
18
Strategy

Steps to follow while solving any problem using Kirchhoff’s law:

1. Choose some direction of the currents.
2. Reduce the number of variables using Kirchhoff’s first law.
3. Determine the number of independent loops.

4. Apply voltage law to all the independent loops.

5. Solve the equations obtained simultaneously.
6. In case the answer of a current variable is negative, it
means the conventional current is flowing in the direction
opposite to that of chosen direction.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 11

 Numerical Section
Q Two cells of emf 1.5 volt and 2 volt having respective internal resistances of 1 Ω and 2 Ω are connected in parallel so as
to send current in same direction through an external resistance of 5 Ω. Find the current through the external resistance.
E2 r2
K I2 J
I2
B 2 F E
A I1 E1 r1
I1
I1 + I2 H G
1
C R I1 + I2 D Ans: 5 A
17
Solution: Applying Kirchhoff’s 2nd law Applying Kirchhoff’s 2nd law in Substituting equation (ii) in equation (i),
in Loop 1 (ABCDEFGHA), Loop 2 (FGHAKJF),  1 + 2I1 
12I1 + 10 ×  =3
– (I1 + I2)R – I1r1 + E1 = 0 – I1r1 + E1 – E2 + I2r2 = 0  4 
 (I1 + I2)R + I1r1 = E1 –I1 × 1 + 1.5 – 2 + I2 × 2 = 0  48I1 + 10 + 20I1 = 12
 I1(R + r1) + I2R = E1  2I2 – I1 = 0.5  68 I1 = 2
 I1(5 + 1) + 5I2 = 1.5  4I2 – 2I1 = 1 1
 6I1 + 5I2 = 1.5  I1 A
34
1 + 2I1 1
 12I1 + 10I2 = 3 ….(i)   = ….(ii) 1+ 2
9
4  I2 = 34 = A ….[From (ii)]
4 34
Current through = I + I = 1 + 9 = 10 = 5 A
1 2 34 34 34 17
external resistor
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 12
 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q State Kirchhoff’s laws of electricity. [2 Marks] [July 18]

Refer slide no. 7

Q A voltmeter has a resistance of 100 Ω. What will be its reading when it is connected across a cell of emf 2 V
and internal resistance 20 Ω? [2 Marks] [July 16]
Ans: 1.67 V
E
V = I  R i. V = I × Rii.
Usei.the Formulae: ii.I I== R + r

Q Kirchhoff’s junction law is equivalent to _______. [1 Mark] [Mar 13]

A conservation of energy B conservation of charge

C conservation of electric potential D conservation of electric flux
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 13
9.3 Wheatstone Bridge

Balancing condition in case of a

Wheatstone’s network
B
Four resistances P, Q, R and S are connected to form a I1 − Ig
quadrilateral ABCD as shown in the figure. P Q
A galvanometer of internal resistance G is connected between Ig
I1
points B and D. A C
When the key is closed I1 is the current through P and I2 is the I2
current through S. G
I = I1 + I2 I R
S
Consider the loop ABDA, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in I1 + Ig I
the clockwise sense shown in the loop. D
– I1 P – IgG + I2S = 0 ….(1)
E
Consider loop BCDB, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the K
clockwise sense as shown in the loop,
– (I1 – Ig)Q + (I2 + Ig)R + IgG = 0 ….(2)

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 14

9.3 Wheatstone Bridge

– I1 P – IgG + I2S = 0 ….(1)

– (I1 – Ig) Q + (I2 + Ig)R + IgG = 0 ….(2)
The bridge is said to be balanced, when Ig = 0.
Substituting Ig = 0 in equation (1), B
I1 − Ig
– I1 P + I2 S = 0
P Q
I1 P = I2 S ….(3) Ig
I1
Substituting Ig = 0 in equation (2), A C
– I1 Q + I2R = 0
I2 G
I1 Q = I2R ….(4)
I S R
Dividing equation (3) by equation (4),
P S I1 + Ig I
=
Q R D
This is the balancing condition for Wheatstone bridge.
E
K

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 15

9.3 Wheatstone Bridge

Application of Wheatstone bridge: Metre bridge

Determination of unknown resistance

by using a metre bridge:
Resistance box
Metre bridge consists of a one metre long wire of uniform cross section,
X R
stretched on a metre scale which is fixed on a wooden table.
C
An unknown resistance X is connected in the left gap and a resistance L.G. R.G.
box is connected in the other gap.
G
One terminal of a galvanometer carries the jockey (J).
lX J lR
A suitable resistance R is selected from resistance box. D Metre scale
A B
The jockey is brought in contact with the wire AB at various points till 0 100 cm
galvanometer shows no deflection.
E K Rh

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 24 16

9.3 Wheatstone Bridge

Then using the balancing conditions.

X R AD
= ….(1)
R R DB

where RAD and RDB are resistance of the parts AD

and DB of the wire respectively.
lx Resistance box
Also, RAD = A
….(2)
X R
lR
RDB = ….(3) C
A
L.G. R.G.
From equations (1), (2) and (3),
X R AD l / A G
= = x
R R DC lR / A
lX J lR
X l
= x A D Metre scale B
R lR
0 100 cm
lx
X= lR R E K Rh

Thus, knowing R, lx and l R, the value of the

unknown resistance X can be determined.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 24 17

9.3 Wheatstone Bridge

Sources of errors in metre bridge:

The cross section of the wire may not be uniform.

The ends of the wire are soldered to the metallic strip where
contact resistance is developed, which is not taken into account.
Resistance box
The measurements of lx and lR may not be accurate.
X R
C
L.G. R.G.
To minimize the errors:
G
The value of R is so adjusted that the null point is obtained
around middle one third of the wire (between 34 cm and 66 cm) lX J lR
so that percentage error in the measurement of lx and lR are A D Metre scale B
minimum and nearly the same. 100 cm
0
The experiment is repeated by interchanging the positions of
E K Rh
unknown resistance X and known resistance box R.

The jockey should be tapped on the wire and not slided. The
jockey is used to detect whether there is a current through the
central branch. This is possible only by tapping the jockey.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 24 18

9.3 Wheatstone Bridge

Kelvin’s method to determine resistance of a galvanometer by using a metrebridge:

The galvanometer whose resistance (G) is to be determined is connected

in one gap and a known resistance (R) in the other gap.

A suitable resistance is taken in the resistance box. The current is sent

round the circuit by closing the key. Without touching the jockey at any
point of the wire, the deflection in the galvanometer is observed.
G R
B
The rheostat is adjusted to get a suitable deflection around (2/3)rd of range.
lg lr
D
The jockey is tapped at different points of the wire and a point of contact A C
D for which, the galvanometer shows no change in the deflection, is Metre scale
found. E K
As the galvanometer shows the same deflection with or without contact
between the point B and D, these two points must be equipotential
points.

The length of the bridge wire between the point D and the left end of the
wire is measured. Let lg be the length of the segment of wire opposite to
the galvanometer and lr be the length of the segment opposite to the
resistance box.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 19

9.3 Wheatstone Bridge

Let RAD and RDC be the resistance of the two parts of the wire AD
and DC respectively.

G R
Since bridge is balanced, = AD
R R DC

R AD lg / A lg L
But, = = ….( R = A where, L is length of wire)
R DC lr / A lr G
B R
G lg
 = lg lr
R lr D
A C
G  lg  Metre scale
 =  …( lg + lr = 100 cm)
R  100 − lg  E K
 lg 
 G =   R
 100 − lg 

Using this formula, the unknown resistance of the galvanometer can

be calculated.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 20

 Check Your Grasp
Q Wheatstone’s bridge is more sensitive when all the four resistances are in ___ order.

A B

C D

A different B same

Q In the given diagram, the balancing condition for the metre bridge is _____.
A C A B
A = B =
B D C D

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 21

 Check Your Grasp

Q Which of the following CANNOT be determined using a Wheatstone bridge?

A resistance of a wire. B specific resistance.

C conductivity. D strain measurement.

Q Using a metre bridge the resistance of galvanometer can be determined by _____

A Ohm’s method. B Kelvin’s method.
C Kirchhoff’s laws. D Faraday’s method.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 22

 Numerical Section
Q A uniform wire is cut into two pieces such that one piece is twice as long as the other. The two pieces are
connected in parallel in the left gap of a metrebridge. When a resistance of 20 Ω is connected in the right gap,
the neutral point is obtained at a distance of 60 cm from the right end of wire. Find the resistance of the wire
before it was cut into two pieces.
Ans: 60 Ω

Solution: Let the length of two pieces of wire be

l and 2l and their resistance be R and 2R respectively. These
two wires are connected in parallel to each other and then
connected in the left gap of metre bridge.
l 40 40
 X = R X = 20  =
lR 60 3
⇒ X = 13.3 Ω
1 1 1
In the left gap equivalent resistance is given by, = +
X R 2R
1 3R
=
∴  40  2R 2 ⇒ R = 20 Ω
 
 3 
Total resistance of wire = R + 2R = 3R = 3 × 20 = 60 Ω

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 23

 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q Explain with neat circuit diagram, how will you determine the unknown resistance ‘X’ by using a metrebridge
experiment. [4 Marks] [Mar 18]

Refer slide no. 16 and 17

Q State any two sources of errors and their minimization in metre bridge experiment. [2 Marks] [Oct 15]
Refer slide no. 18

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 24

 Previously Asked Board Questions
Q Two resistances X and Y in the two gaps of a meter-bridge gives a null point dividing the wire in the ratio 2:3.
If each resistance is increased by 30 Ω , the null point divides the wire in the ratio 5:6, calculate the value of X
and Y. [3 Marks] [Feb 20]
Ans: The value of X and Y is 20 Ω
and 30 Ω respectively.
X 2
Solution: Given: =
Y 3
….(i)

When each resistance is increased by 30 Ω

X + 30 5 ….(ii)
=
Y + 30 6
From equations (i) and (ii),
X + 30 5 2X + 60 5
=  =
3X
+ 30 6 3X + 60 6
2
12X + 360 = 15 X + 300 ⇒ 3X = 60 ⇒ X = 20 Ω
20 2 60
From equation (i), = Y= = 30 
Y 3 2
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 25
 Previously Asked Board Questions
Q With an unknown resistance X in the left gap and a resistance of 30 Ω in the right gap of a meter-bridge, the
null point is obtained at 40 cm from the left end of the wire. Calculate the unknown resistance and shift in the
position of the null point, when resistance in each gap is increased by 15 Ω. [3 Marks] [July 23]
Ans: 20 Ω, 3.75 cm towards right
lX 40
i. X = R lX = 30  40 = 20 
i. X = R lR = 30  60 = 20 
lR 60
ii. When the resistance in both the gaps are increased by 15 :
ii. When the resistance in both the gaps are increased by 15 :
X1 = X + 15 = 20 + 15 = 35 
X1 = X + 15 = 20 + 15 = 35 
R2 = R + 15 = 30 + 15 = 45 
R2 = R + 15 = 30 + 15 = 45 
l
Now, X = R lXX
Now, X = R lR
lR
 100 − lR 
 35 = 45   100 − lR 
 35 = 45   lR 
 lR 
 80lR = 4500
 80lR = 4500
 lR = 56.25 cm and lX = 43.75 cm
 lR = 56.25 cm and lX = 43.75 cm
 Shift in null point = 43.75 − 40 = 3.75 cm towards right
 Shift in null point = 43.75 − 40 = 3.75 cm towards right
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 26
 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q When unknown resistance is determined by metrebridge, the error due to contact resistance is minimized
______. [1 Mark] [July 17]

A by connecting both the resistances only in one gap.

B by interchanging the positions of known and unknown resistance.
C by using uniform wire.
D by obtaining the null point near the ends of the wire.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 27

9.4 Potentiometer

A potentiometer is a device which does not draw any current from circuit,
acting like an ideal voltmeter and measures potential difference accurately.

Principle of Potentiometer l

The potential difference between two points on the wire is directly

E A C
proportional to the length of the wire between them provided the wire is
of uniform cross section, the current through the wire is the same and
temperature of the wire remains constant.
r
In the given circuit, when the circuit is switched ON
E
Current through AB, I = R+r
….(1) B

Potential difference across AB, VAB = IR

ER
VAB = ….[From equation (1)]
(R + r)
Therefore, the potential difference per unit length of the wire is,
VAB ER
= (The term VAB is known as potential gradient)
L L(R + r ) L

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 28

9.4 Potentiometer

Consider a point C on the wire at distance l from the point A,

If the potential difference between A and C is VAC, then, VAC = Kl

i.e., VAC ∝ l

Thus, the potential difference between two points on the wire is l

directly proportional to the length of the wire provided
a) The wire is of uniform cross section.
b) The current through the wire is the same. E A C
c) Temperature of the wire remains the same.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 29

9.4 Potentiometer

Use of Potentiometer

A) To Compare emf of Cells: (Individual Cell method)

In the given circuit, the cells whose emfs are to be compared are connected K1
with their positive terminals at point A and negative terminals to the E1 G
extreme terminals of a two way key K1 and K2.
E2 K2
J
Key K is closed and then, key K1 is closed and key K2 is kept open.
E A
The null point is obtained by touching the jockey at various points on the
potentiometer wire AB. K
B

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 30

9.4 Potentiometer

Let l1 be the length of the wire between the null point and the point A.
E1 = K l1 ….(1) (l1 corresponds to emf E1 of the cell)

Now key K1 is kept open and key K2 is closed.

Let l2 be the length of the wire between the null point and the point A. K1
E1 G
E2 = K l2 ….(2)
E2 K2
J
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2),
E A
E1 l1
=
E 2 l2 K

Thus, emf of an unknown value can be determined by comparing the ratio. B

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 31

9.4 Potentiometer

A) To Compare emf of Cells: (Sum and Difference Method):

Circuit for Sum and Difference method is connected as shown in the figure.
When keys K1 and K3 are closed the cells E1 and E2 are in the sum mode.

Let l1 be the length of the wire between the null point and the point A.
E1 + E2 = K l1 ….(1)
B
The key K1 and K3 are kept open and keys K2 and K4 are closed the two
cells are in the difference mode. K J

Let l2 be the length of the wire between the null point and the point A. E A
E1 – E2 = Kl2 ….(2) K4
K3 G
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2),
K1 K2
E1 + E 2 l1
=
( E1 + E 2 ) + ( E1 − E 2 ) l1 + l2 E1
E1 − E 2 l2
 (E + E ) − (E − E ) = l − l
1 2 1 2 1 2
E2
(By componendo and dividendo method)
E1 l1 + l2
 =
E 2 l1 − l2
Emf of two cells can be compared using sum and difference method.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 32

9.4 Potentiometer

B) To Find Internal Resistance (r) of a Cell:

The experimental set up for this method consists of a potentiometer wire AB

connected in series with a cell of emf E , the key K1, and rheostat as shown in figure.
E1 r Q
The key K1 is closed and K2 is open., the null point using the jockey. P

Let l1 be length of the potentiometer wire between the null point and the point A.
E1 = Kl1 ….(1) T G
A K2 R S

The keys K1 and K2 are closed, some resistance R is selected from the E
resistance box and null point is obtained. J
K1 B
The length of the wire l2 between the null point and point A is measured.
V = Kl2 ….(2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2),
E1 Kl1 l1
= = ….(3)
V Kl2 l2

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 41 33

9.4 Potentiometer

Consider the loop PQSTP,

E1 = IR + Ir and V = IR
E1 IR + Ir R + r l1
 = = = ….[From equation (3)]
V IR R l2 E1 r
P Q
 l1 
r= R  − 1
 2
l 
The above equation is used to determine the internal resistance of the cell. T G
A K2 R S

E
J
K1 B

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 41 34

9.4 Potentiometer

Applications of Potentiometer

i. Potentiometer as a voltage divider:

E R
The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to continuously
change the output voltage of a voltage supply.
As shown in the figure potential V is set up between points A and B
of a potentiometer wire.
V
V2 = dV (L − l1 ) /dL
The voltage V gets divided in proportion of lengths l1 and l2, P
such that A B
l1 l2
dV ( l1 ) dV ( L − l1 )
V1 = and V2 = AB = L
dL dL

Device
V1 = dV/dL(l1 )

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 35

9.4 Potentiometer

ii. Potentiometer as an audio control:

Sliding (faders) and rotary potentiometers (knobs) are regularly used
for frequency attenuation, loudness control and for controlling
different characteristics of audio signals.

iii. Potentiometer as a sensor:

If the slider of a potentiometer is connected to the moving part of a
machine, it can work as a motion sensor.

A small displacement of the moving part causes changes in potential

which is further amplified using an amplifier circuit.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 36

9.4 Potentiometer

Difference between Potentiometer and Voltmeter

No. Potentiometer Voltmeter

i. Its resistance is infinite. Its resistance is high but finite.
ii. It does not draw any current from the source of known e.m.f. It draws some current from the source of e.m.f.
The potential difference measured by it is equal to actual The potential difference measured by it is less
iii.
potential difference (p.d.). than the actual potential difference (p.d.).
iv. It has high sensitivity. It has low sensitivity.
v. It measures e.m.f as well as p.d. It measures only p.d.
It cannot be used to measure the internal
vi. It is used to measure internal resistance of a cell.
resistance of a cell.
vii. It is more accurate. It is less accurate.
viii. It does not give direct reading. It gives direct reading.
ix. It is not portable. It is portable.
It is used to measure lower as well as higher
x. It is used to measure lower voltage values only.
voltage values.
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 41 37
 Check Your Grasp

Q Select the WRONG statement.

A A potentiometer is a constant voltage device.
B A potentiometer is a constant current device.

Q Which of the methods of emf measurement by a potentiometer is shown in the diagram below?

K J

E A
K4 K 3 G
K1 K2
E1
E2

A Individual cell method

B Sum and difference method
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 38
 Check Your Grasp

Q Potential gradient is defined as potential difference per unit ____ of the wire.

A cross section area

B length

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 39

 Numerical Section
Q The resistance of a potentiometer wire is 8 Ω and its length is 8 m. A resistance box and a 6 V battery are
connected in series with it. What should be the resistance in the box, if it is desired to have a potential drop of
10 μV/mm?
Ans: 592 Ω
ER
Use the Formula: K = R + r + R L
( E)

[Tip: Note that value of potential drop is given μV/mm and must
be converted into V/m before substituting in the formula. ]

Q A potentiometer wire has a length 10 m and a resistance 20 Ω. Its terminals are connected to a battery of e.m.f
4 V and internal resistance 5 Ω. What are the distances at which null points are obtained when two cells of
e.m.f 1.5 V and 1.3 V are connected so as to (i) assist and (ii) oppose each other?
Ans: i. 8.75 m ii. 0.625 m
Use the Formulae: i. E1 + E2 = Kl1 ii. E1 − E2 = Kl1

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 40

 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q State the formula giving relation between electric field intensity and potential gradient. [1 Mark] [Feb 23]
VAB ER VAB
Formula: = Where, is the potential gradient
L L(R + r ) L

Q Explain the use of potentiometer to determine internal resistance of a cell. [3 Marks][Feb 23]
Refer points slide no. 33 and 34

Q Define potential gradient. [2 Marks][Mar 22; July 23]

Potential gradient is defined as potential difference per unit length of wire.

Q Distinguish between a potentiometer and a voltmeter. [2 Marks][Mar 22]

Refer points 37

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 41

 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q A potentiometer wire has a length of 4 m and a resistance of 5 Ω. What resistance should be connected in series
with a potentiometer wire and a cell of e.m.f. 2 V having internal resistance 1 Ω to get a potential gradient of
10–3 V/cm? [2 Marks] [Oct 14]
Ans: 19 Ω
ER
Use the Formula: K =
(R + r + X)L

Q If the length of a potentiometer wire is increased by keeping constant potential difference across the wire,
then _______. [1 Mark] [Feb 20]

A null point is obtained at larger distance

B there is no change in the null point
D null point is obtained at shorter distance
C potential gradient is increased

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 42

 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q Accuracy of potentiometer can be easily increased by _______. [1 Mark][Mar 14]

A increasing resistance of wire B decreasing resistance of wire

C increasing the length of wire D decreasing the length of wire

Q In potentiometer experiment, if l 1 is the balancing length for e.m.f. of cell of internal resistance r and l2 is the
balancing length for its terminal potential difference when shunted with resistance R then:
[1 Mark] [Mar 16]
R+r  R 
A l1 = l2  
 R 
B l1 = l2  R + r 

 R  R−r
C l1 = l2   D l1 = l2  
R−r  R 

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 43

9.5 Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a device used to detect weak electric

currents in a circuit.
Internal structure of
When an electric current passes through the coil, it deflects.
galvanometer
The deflection is proportional to the current passing through the coil.
0 10 20
The galvanometer coil has a moderate resistance (about 100 ohms) 20 10 30
30
and the galvanometer itself has a small current carrying capacity Angular scale
(about 1 mA).
Pointer Horse shoe
shaped magnet
Iron core S
Galvanometer as an Ammeter N Spiral spring
Rectangular
coil
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low
value resistance in parallel with galvanometer.
This low resistance connected in parallel is called as shunt (S).

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 44

9.5 Galvanometer

Galvanometer as an Ammeter:
In the arrangement as shown in the figure, I and Ig are the
current through the circuit and galvanometer.
The current through shunt S is, Is = (I – Ig)
G
R Ig Ig
Since S and G are parallel, potential difference across them is same.
I I
 GIg = S Is  GIg = S Is
 Ig 
 S =  I − I  G ….(1) Is Is
 g 

If the current I is n times current Ig, then I = n Ig. S

Using this in equation (1),
 GIg  G
S=    S=
 nIg − Ig  n −1

This is the required shunt to increase the range n times.

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 52 45

9.5 Galvanometer

If Is is the current through the shunt resistance, then the remaining

current (I − Is) will flow thorugh galvanometer
 G (I − Is) = SIs
 GI − GIs = SIs
G
 SIs + GIs = GI R Ig Ig
I I
Is  G 
 = 
I S + G 
Is Is
This equation gives the fraction of the total current through the
shunt resistance.
S

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity Back to slide no. 52 46

9.5 Galvanometer

Galvanometer as a Voltmeter

A high resistance is connected in series with the M.C.G. to

convert it into a Voltmeter
As shown in the figure, if V is the voltage to be measured, then Ig
V = Ig X + Ig G
 Ig X = V − Ig G X
V
 X= –G ….(1) V
Ig R
G
If voltage V is nV times voltage Vg then,
V = nV Vg = nV ( Ig G )
Using this in equation (1),
X = G (nV − 1).

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 47

9.5 Galvanometer

Difference between Ammeter and Voltmeter:

No. Ammeter Voltmeter

i. It measures current. It measures potential difference

ii. It is connected in series. It is connected in parallel.

It is an MCG with low resistance. (Ideally It is an MCG with high resistance. (Ideally
iii.
zero) infinite)
Smaller the shunt, greater will be the Larger its resistance greater will be the
iv.
current measured. potential difference measured.
SG
=
G Resistance of voltmeter,
v. Resistance of ammeter, RA =
S+G n Rv= G + X = Gnv

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 48

 Check Your Grasp

Q In the given diagram, the galvanometer is converted into _____.

G I
R Ig g
I I

Is Is
S

A
1 ammeter B voltmeter

Q The low resistance connected to a galvanometer is called _____.

shunt

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 49

 Check Your Grasp

Q An ideal voltmeter has _____ resistance.

A finite
B infinite

Q Resistance of an ammeter is given by,

S+G n
A RA = SG = G

SG G
B RA = S + G = n

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 50

 Numerical Section
Q A galvanometer has a resistance of 100 Ω and its full scale deflection current is 100 μA. What shunt
resistance should be added so that the ammeter can have a range of 0 to 10 mA?
Ans: 1.01 Ω
I G
Use the Formulae: i. n = ii. S = n − 1
Ig

Q A galvanometer has a resistance of 25 Ω and its full scale deflection current is 25 μA. What resistance
should be added to it to have a range of 0 to 10 V?
Ans: 399.975  103 Ω
V
Use the Formula: X = −G
Ig

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 51

 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q How will you convert a moving coil galvanometer into an ammeter? [2 Marks] [Feb 23]

Refer slide no. 45 and 46

Q A galvanometer has a resistance of 16 Ω. It shows full scale deflection when a current of 20 mA is passed
through it. The only shunt resistance available is 0.06 W which is not appropriate to convert a galvanometer
into an ammeter. How much resistance should be connected in series with the coil of galvanometer so that the
range of ammeter is 8 A? [3 Marks] [Oct 13]
Ans: 7.94 Ω
Solution: Let ‘X’ be the resistance connected in series with galvanometer. Ig S I
=  (G + X) + S = g
Since S is not sufficient for I = 8 A. I (G + X) + S I
G = 16 
Ig X 8
G ∴ ( G + X ) + 0.06 =  0.06
2 10−2

S = 0.06  ∴ G + X = 23.94
From the figure, ∴ X = 7.94 Ω
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 52
 Previously Asked Board Questions

Q A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 25 Ω and gives a full scale deflection for a current of 10 mA.
How will you convert it into a voltmeter having range 0 – 100 V? [2 Marks] [July 16]
Ans: By connecting a resistance
of 9975 Ω in series
V
Use the Formula: Rs = −G
Ig

Q What is shunt? [1 Mark] [July 22]

Moving coil galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel
with the galvanometer, which effectively reduces the resistance of the galvanometer. This low
resistance connected in parallel is called as shunt (S).

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 53

 Important Formulae
V
1 Resistance of a wire: 7 Potentiometer: i. Potential gradient, K =
L L
R= ii. Comparison between the e.m.f of two cells,
A
Where, L is length of the wire. E1 l1
a. = l (individual method)
E2 2

2 Kirchhoff’s law: i.  I = 0 (current rule) b. E1 = l1 + l2 (sum and difference method)

E2 l1 − l2
ii.  IR +  E = 0 (voltage rule)
l 
Internal resistance of a cell: i. r = R  l − 1
1
ER 8  2 
3 Voltage across an external resistance: V = R+r
 E 
ii. r = R  − 1
 V 
P S
4 In balance position of Wheatstone’s bridge:
Q
=
R
9 Ammeter: i. I = Is + Ig ii. IsS = IgG
GIg G
 l1  iii. S = I − I iv. S =
5 Metrebridge: Unknown resistance, X = R   n −1
 l2 
g

Is G
iv. =
I S+G
6 Resistance of galvanometer (Kelvin’s Method):
lg lg
V V V
G=Rl =R
R (100 − l )
g 10 Voltmeter: i. X = I − G g
ii. nv = V
g
=
Ig G

Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 54

 Individual cell
method
Chapter at a Glance
When E1 and E2 are Wheatstone Bridge condition
connected independently: Kirchhoff’s current Law Kirchhoff’s voltage law for balanced bridge (G = 0):
E1 l1 KCL: The algebraic sum of KVL: The algebraic sum of the B
I1 − Ig
=
E 2 l2 the currents at a junction is potential differences (products of I1
P
Ig
Q
A C
zero in an electrical network. current and resistance) and the I2 G
Sum and difference n

i.e.,  Ii = 0
electromotive forces (emfs) in a I S R
cell method i =1 closed loop is zero. D
I 1 + Ig I

E1 E2
i.e., IR + E = 0
E k

When balanced, G = 0
(E1 + E2 ) P R
 =
(Sum method) Q S
Kirchhoff’s Laws
E1 E2 Metrebridge
X
Current Wheatstone R D R.B.
E1 E2 Potentiometer
Electricity bridge G
(E1 − E2 ) A B
C
(Difference method) when lx cm (100 – lx) cm
Galvanometer E K
connected in sum method X lx
and then difference method, =
R lR
E1 l1 + l2
= Galvanometer as an Galvanometer as
E 2 l1 − l2 ammeter an Voltmeter Kelvin’s method
R
Ig
Internal R Ig
G
Ig
G D
I I
resistance method X
Is Is V R B
Internal resistance of the G
A
lg cm (100−lg)cm
S
cell: E
()
K
 l1  G lg
r = R  − 1  Ig  G V
=
 2
l  S =   G = X = I – G = G(nv – 1) R 100 − lg
 I − I g  n −1 g
Std 12th Physics_09 Current Electricity 55
THANK YOU

56