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Discrete Mathematics
 About the Author
T Veerarajan is Dean (Retd), Department of Mathematics, Velammal College of
Engineering and Technology, Viraganoor, Madurai, Tamil Nadu. A Gold Medalist
from Madras University, he has had a brilliant academic career all through. He
has 53 years of teaching experience at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in
various established engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu including Anna University,
Chennai.
Discrete Mathematics

T Veerarajan
Dean (Retd)
Department of Mathematics
Velammal College of Engineering and Technology
Viraganoor, Madurai
Tamil Nadu

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI

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 McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
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Discrete Mathematics
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
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 Preface

This book conforms to the latest syllabus in ‘Discrete Mathematics’ prescribed

not only to the students of Engineering at the graduate and postgraduate levels
by Anna University but also to the students of BCA, MCA and other IT related
professional courses in most colleges in various universities throughout India.
This book has been designed to provide an introduction to some fundamental
concepts in Discrete Mathematics in a precise and readable manner and most of
the mathematical foundations required for further studies.
Many students taking this course are used to express that this subject is quite
abstract and vague and that they need more examples and exercises to under-
stand and develop an interest in the subject. To motivate such students, the book
contains an extensive collection of examples and exercises with answers, so as
to enable them to relate the mathematical techniques to computer applications
in a sufficient manner.
I have maintained my style of presentation as in my other books. I am sure
that the students and the faculty will find this book very useful.
Critical evaluation and suggestions for improvement of the book will be highly
appreciated and gratefully acknowledged.
I wish to express my thanks to Prof. M Jegan Mohan, Principal, SSCE,
Aruppukottai for the appreciative interest shown and constant encouragement
given to me while writing this book.
I am thankful to my publishers, McGraw Hill Education (India) for their
painstaking efforts and cooperation in bringing out this book in a short span of
time.
 vi Preface

I am grateful to the following reviewers for their feedback:

Dr. B. Pushpa Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai
Dr. D. Iranian Panimalar Institute of Technology, Chennai
M.S. Muthuraman PSNA College of Engineering & Technology, Dindigul

I have great pleasure in dedicating this book to my beloved students, past and
present.

T Veerarajan
 Contents

Preface v
Roadmap to the Syllabus xiii

1. MaTheMaTIcal logIc 1
Introduction 1
Propositions 1
Connectives 2
Order of Precedence for Logical Connectives 3
Conditional and Biconditional Propositions 3
Tautology and Contradiction 4
Equivalence of Propositions 4
Duality Law 5
Duality Theorem 5
Algebra of Propositions 6
Tautological Implication 7
Normal Forms 8
Disjunctive and Conjunctive Normal Forms 8
Principal Disjunctive and Principal Conjunctive Normal Forms 9
Worked Examples 1(A) 10
Exercise 1(A) 24
Theory of Inference 27
Truth Table Technique 27
Rules of Inference 27
Form of Argument 28
 viii Contents

Rule CP or Rule of Conditional Proof 28

Inconsistent Premises 29
Indirect Method of Proof 29
Predicate Calculus or Predicate Logic 29
Introduction 29
Quantifiers 30
Existential Quantifier 31
Negation of a Quantified Expression 31
Nested (More than One) Quantifiers 32
Free and Bound Variables 32
Valid Formulas and Equivalences 32
Inference Theory of Predicate Calculus 33
Worked Examples 1(B) 35
Exercise 1(B) 46
Answers 49

2. coMBInaTorIcS 51
Introduction 51
Permutations and Combinations 51
Pascal’s Identity 52
Vandermonde’s Identity 53
Permutations with Repetition 54
Circular Permutation 55
Pigeonhole Principle 55
Generalisation of the Pigeonhole Principle 56
Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion 56
Worked Examples 2(A) 57
Exercise 2(A) 74
Mathematical Induction 79
Recurrence Relations 80
Particular Solutions 82
Solution of Recurrence Relations by using Generating Functions 82
Worked Examples 2(B) 83
Exercise 2(B) 99
Answers 101

3. graPh Theory 103

Introduction 103
Basic Definitions 103
Degree of a Vertex 104
Some Special Simple Graphs 106
Matrix Representation of Graphs 110
Worked Examples 3(A) 112
Exercise 3(A) 119
 Contents ix

Paths, Cycles and Connectivity 124

Eulerian and Hamiltonian Graphs 129
Connectedness in Directed Graphs 130
Shortest Path Algorithms 131
Worked Examples 3(B) 135
Exercise 3(B) 146
Trees 152
Spanning Trees 153
Minimum Spanning Tree 153
Rooted and Binary Trees 155
Binary Tree 155
Tree Traversal 157
Expression Trees 158
Worked Examples 3(C) 159
Exercise 3(C) 171
Answers 175

4. grouP Theory 232

Introduction 185
Algebraic Systems 185
Semigroups and Monoids 188
Homomorphism of Semigroups and Monoids 189
Subsemigroups and Submonoids 191
Groups 192
Permutation 194
Permutation Group 195
Dihedral Group 196
Cyclic Group 197
Worked Examples 4(A) 199
Exercise 4(A) 211
Subgroups 214
Group Homomorphism 215
Kernel of a Homomorphism 216
Cosets 216
Normal Subgroup 218
Quotient Group (or) Factor Group 219
Algebraic Systems with Two Binary Operations 221
Ring 221
Worked Examples 4(B) 227
Exercise 4(B) 240
Coding Theory 243
Encoders and Decoders 243
Group Code 243
Hamming Codes 244
 x Contents

Error Correction in Group Codes 249

Step by Step Procedure for Decoding Group Codes 251
Worked Examples 4(C) 253
Exercise 4(C) 260
Answers 264

5. SeT Theory 267

Introduction 267
Basic Concepts and Notations 267
Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Product 269
Set Operations 270
Worked Examples 5(A) 274
Exercise 5(A) 280
Relations 282
Types of Relations 283
Some Operations on Relations 284
Composition of Relations 284
Properties of Relations 285
Equivalence Classes 286
Partition of a Set 287
Partitioning of a Set Induced by an Equivalence Relation 288
Matrix Representation of a Relation 288
Representation of Relations by Graphs 290
Hasse Diagrams for Partial Orderings 291
Terminology Related to Posets 292
Worked Examples 5(B) 293
Exercise 5(B) 306
Lattices 312
Principle of Duality 312
Properties of Lattices 313
Lattice as Algebraic System 315
Sublattices 316
Lattice Homomorphism 317
Some Special Lattices 317
Boolean Algebra 319
Additional Properties of Boolean Algebra 319
Dual and Principle of Duality 322
Principle of Duality 322
Subalgebra 322
Boolean Homomorphism 322
Isomorphic Boolean Algebras 322
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions 322
Expression of a Boolean Function in Canonical Form 324
Logic Gates 326
 Contents xi

Combination of Gates 326

Adders 327
Karnaugh Map Method 330
Don’t Care Terms 334
Quine-McCluskey’s Tabulation Method 334
Worked Examples 5(C) 336
Exercise 5(C) 360
Answers 365
Roadmap to the Syllabus
Discrete Mathematics
Semester III

Unit-I: Logic and Proofs

Propositional logic – Propositional equivalences – Predicates and quantifiers –
Nested quantifiers – Rules of inference – Introduction to proofs – Proof methods
and strategy

Go To Chapter 1: Mathematical Logic

Unit-II: Combinatorics
Mathematical induction – Strong induction and well ordering – The basics
of counting – The pigeonhole principle – Permutations and combinations –
Recurrence relations – Solving linear recurrence relations – Generating functions
– Inclusion and exclusion principle and its applications

Go To Chapter 2: Combinatorics

Unit-III: Graphs
Graphs and graph models – Graph terminology and special types of graphs –
Matrix representation of graphs and graph isomorphism – Connectivity – Euler
and Hamilton paths

Go To Chapter 3: Graph Theory

xiv Roadmap to the Syllabus

Unit-IV: Algebraic Structures

Algebraic systems – Semi groups and monoids - Groups – Subgroups –
Homomorphism’s – Normal subgroup and cosets – Lagrange’s theorem –
Definitions and examples of Rings and Fields

Go To Chapter 4: Group Theory

Unit-V: Lattices and Boolean Algebra

Partial ordering – Posets – Lattices as posets – Properties of lattices - Lattices as
algebraic systems – Sub lattices – Direct product and homomorphism – Some
special lattices – Boolean algebra

Go To Chapter 5: Set Theory

 Mathematical Logic

INTRODUCTION
Logic is the discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning. One of the
aims of logic is to provide rules by which we can determine whether a particular
reasoning or argument is valid. Logical reasoning is used in many disciplines
to establish valid results. Rules of logic are used to provide proofs of theorems
in mathematics, to verify the correctness of computer programs and to draw
conclusions from scientific experiments. In this chapter, we shall introduce
certain logical symbols using which we shall state and apply rules of valid
inference and hence understand how to construct correct mathematical
arguments.

PROPOSITIONS
A declarative sentence (or assertion) which is true or false, but not both, is
called a proposition (or statement). Sentences which are exclamatory,
interrogative or imperative in nature are not propositions. Lower case letters
such as p, q, r … are used to denote propositions. For example, we consider the
following sentences:
1. New Delhi is the capital city of India.
2. How beautiful is Rose?
3. 2 + 2 = 3
4. What time is it?
5. x + y = z
6. Take a cup of coffee.
In the given statements, (2), (4) and (6) are obviously not propositions as
they are not declarative in nature. (1) and (3) are propositions, but (5) is not,
 2 Discrete Mathematics

since (1) is true, (3) is false and (5) is neither true nor false as the values of x, y
and z are not assigned.
If a proposition is true, we say that the truth value of that proposition is true,
denoted by T or 1. If a proposition is false, the truth value is said to be false,
denoted by F or 0.
Propositions which do not contain any of the logical operators or connectives
(to be introduced in the next section) are called atomic (primary or primitive)
propositions. Many mathematical statements which can be constructed by
combining one or more atomic statements using connectives are called molecular
or compound propositions.
The truth value of a compound proposition depends on those of sub-
propositions and the way in which they are combined using connectives.
The area of logic that deals with propositions is called propositional logic or
propositional calculus.

CONNECTIVES
Definition
When p and q are any two propositions, the proposition “p and q” denoted by
p � q and called the conjunction of p and q is defined as the compound
proposition that is true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise. (� is
the connective used) A truth table is a table that displays the relationships
between the truth values of sub-propositions and that of compound proposition
constructed from them.
Table 1.1 is the truth table for the conjunction of two
Table 1.1
propositions p and q viz., “p and q”.
p q p q
Definition
When p and q are any two propositions, the propositions T T T
T F F
“p or q” denoted by p � q and called the disjunction of p
F T F
and q is defined as the compound proposition that is F F F
false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
(� is the connective used) Table 1.2
Table 1.2 is the truth table for the disjunction of two p q p q
propositions p and q, viz., “p � q”. T T T
Definition T F T
Given any proposition p, another proposition formed by F T T
F F F
writing “It is not the case that” or “It is false that” before
p or by inserting the word ‘not’ suitably in p is called the
negation of p and denoted by p (read as ‘not p’). p is
also denoted as p�, p and ~ p. It p is true, then p is Table 1.3
false and if p is false, then p is true. p 7p
Table 1.3 is the truth table for the negation of p. For
T F
example, if p is the statement “New Delhi is in India”,
F T
the p is any one of the following statements.
 Mathematical Logic 3

(a) It is not the case that New Delhi is in India

(b) It is false that New Delhi is in India
(c) New Delhi is not in India
The truth value of p is T and that of p is F.

ORDER OF PRECEDENCE FOR LOGICAL

CONNECTIVES
We will generally use parentheses to specify the order in which logical operators
in a compound proposition are to be applied. For example, (p � q) � ( r) is the
conjunction of p � q and r. However to avoid the use of an excessive number
of parentheses, we adopt an order of precedence for the logical operators,
given as follows:
(i) The negation operator has precedence over all other logical operators.
Thus p � q means ( p) � q, not (p � q).
(ii) The conjunction operator has precedence over the disjunction operator.
Thus p � q � r means (p � q) � r, but not p � (q � r).
(iii) The conditional and biconditional operators � and � (to be introduced
subsequently) have lower precedence than other operators. Among them,
� has precedence over �.

CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL

PROPOSITIONS
Definition
If p and q are propositions, the compound proposition “if p, then q”, that is
denoted by p � q is called a conditional proposition, which is false when p is
true and q is false and true otherwise.
In this conditional proposition, p is called the hypothesis or premise and q is
called the conclusion or consequence.
Note Some authors call p � q as an implication.
For example, let us consider the statement.
“If I get up at 5 A.M., I will go for a walk”, which may be represented as
p � q and considered as a contract.
If p is true and q is also true, the contract is not violated and so ‘p � q’ is
true.
If p is true and q is false (viz., I get up at 5 A.M., but I do not go for a walk),
the contract is violated and so ‘p � q’ is false.
If p is false and whether q is true or false (viz., when Table 1.4
I have not got up at 5 A.M; I may or may not go for a p q p q
walk), the contract is not violated and so ‘p � q’ is true. T T T
Accordingly, the truth table for the conditional T F F
proposition p � q will be as given in Table 1.4. F T T
The alternative terminologies used to express p � q F F T
(if p, then q) are the following:
Another Random Scribd Document
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 L m THE COMIC IN CHARACTER 187 dreamer and the idea
that fills his imagination at the time, a gust of wind blowing down
the chimney becomes the howl of a wild beast or a tuneful melody.
Such is the ordinary mechanism of illusion in dreams. Now, if comic
illusion is similar to dream illusion, if the logic of the comic is the
logic of dreams, we may expect to discover in the logic of the
laughable all the peculiarities of dream logic. Here, again, we shall
find an illustration of the law with which we are well acquainted :
given one form of the laughable, other forms that are lacking in the
same comic essence become laughable from their outward
resemblance to the first. Indeed, it is not difficult to see that any
play of ideas may afford us amusement if only it bring back to mind,
more or less distinctly, the play of dreamland. We shall first call
attention to a certain general relaxation of the rules of reasoning.
The reasonings at which we laugh are those we know to be false,
but which we might accept as true were we to hear them in a
dream. They counterfeit true reasoning just sufficiently to deceive a
mind dropping off to sleep. There is still an element of logic in
 L i88 LAUGHTER them, i£ you will, but it is a logic lacking in
tension and, for that very reason, affording us relief from intellectual
effort. Many " witticisms " are reasonings of this kind, considerably
abridged reasonings, of which we are given only the beginning and
the end. Such play upon ideas evolves in the direction of a play upon
words in proportion as the relations set up between the ideas
become more superficial ; gradually we come to take no account of
the meaning of the words we hear, but only o£ their sound. It might
be instructive to compare with dreams certain comic scenes in which
one of the characters systematically repeats in a nonsensical fashion
what another character whispers in his ear. If you fall asleep with
people talking round you, you sometimes find that what they say
gradually becomes devoid of meaning, that the sounds get distorted,
as it were, and recombine in a haphazard fashion to form in your
mind the strangest of meanings, and that you are reproducing
between yourself and the different speakers the scene between
Petit-Jean and The Prompter,^ ' Lts PUUdatrs (Racine). J
 Ill THE COMIC IN CHARACTER 189 There are also comic
obsessions that seem to bear a great resemblance to dream
obsessions. Who has not had the experience of seeing the same
imageappear in several successive dreams, assuming a plausible
meaning in each of them, whereas these dreams had no other point
in common. Effects of repetition sometimes present this special form
on the stage or in fiction : some of them, in fact, sound as though
they belonged to a dream. It may be the same with the burden of
many a song : it persistently recurs, always unchanged, at the end
of every verse, each time with a different meaning. Not infrequently
do we notice in dreams a particular crescendo, a weird effect that
grows more pronounced as we proceed. The first concession
extorted from reason introduces a second; and this one, another of
a more serious nature ; and so on till the crowning absurdity is
reached. Now, this progress towards the absurd produces on the
dreamer a very peculiar sensation. Such is probably the experience
of the tippler when he feels himself pleasantly drifting into a state of
blankness in which neither reason nor pro 
The text on this page is estimated to be only 29.90%
accurate

192 LAUGHTER chap. Answer. Oh ! yes, yes, yes ! Now you

remind me of it, that was a brother of mine. That's William — Bill
wiG called him. Poor old Bill ! Q. Why ? Is he dead, then ? A. Ah!
well, I suppose so. We never could tell. There was a great mystery
about it. Q. That is sad, very sad. He disappeared, then? A. Well,
yes, in a sort of general way. We buried him. Q. Buried him I Buried
him, without knowing whether he was dead or not ? A. Oh no! Not
that. He was dead enough. Q. Well, I confess that I can't understand
this. If you buried him, and you knew he was dead — A. No I no I
We only thought he was. Q. Oh, I see I He came to life again ? A. I
bet he didn't. Q. Well, I never heard anything like this. Somebody
was dead. Somebody was buried. Now, where was the mystery? A.
Ah! that's just it ! That's it exactly. You see, we were twins, —
defunct and I, — and we got niixed in the bath-tub when we were ts
ana i were I
 L in THE COMIC IN CHARACTER 193 ' only two weeks old,
and one of us was drowned. But we didn't know which. Some think
it was Bill. Some think it was me. Q. Well, that is remarkable. What
do jfou think ? A. Goodness knows! I would give whole worlds to
know. This solemn, this awful tragedy has cast a gloom over my
whole life. But I will tell you a secret now, which I have never
revealed to any creature before. One of us had a peculiar mark, — a
large mole on the back of his left hand : that was me. That child was
the one that was drowned/ . . . etc., etc. A close examination will
show us that the absurdity of this dialogue is by no means an
absurdity of an ordinary type. It would disappear were not the
speaker himself one of the twins in the story. It results entirely from
the fact that Mark Twain asserts he is one of these twins, whilst all
the time he talks as though he were a third person who tells the
tale. In many of our dreams we adopt exactly the same method.
 LAUGHTER (Regarded from this latter point of view, the
comic seems to show itself in a form somewhat different from the
one we lately attributed to it. Up to this point, we have regarded
laughter as first and foremost a means of correction. If you take the
series of comic varieties and isolate the predominant types at long
intervals, you will find that all the intervening varieties borrow their
comic quality from their resemblance to these types, and that the
types themselves are so many models of impertinence with regard to
society. To these impertinences society retorts by laughter, an even
greater impertinence. So evidently there is nothing very benevolent
in laughter. It seems rather inclined to return evil for evil. But this is
not what we are immediately struck by in our first impression of the
laughable. The comic character is often one with whom, to begin
with, our mind, or rather our body, sympathises. By this is meant
that we put ourselves for a very short time in his place, adopt his
gestures, words and actions, and, if amused by anything laughable
in him, I i
 m THE COMIC IN CHARACTER 19s we invite him, in
imagination, to share his amusement with us ; in fact, we treat him
first as a playmate. So, in the laugher, we find a "hail-fellow-well-
met" spirit — as far, at least, as appearances go — which it would be
wrong of us not to take into consideration. In particular, there is in
laughter a movement of relaxation which has often been noticed,
and the reason of which we must try to discover. Nowhere is this
impression more noticeable than in the last few examples. In them,
indeed, we shall find its explanation. When the comic character
automatically follows up his idea, he ultimately thinks, speaks and
acts as though he were dreaming. Now, a dream is a relaxation. To
remain in touch with things and men, to see nothing but what is
existent and think nothing but what is consistent, demands a
continuous effort of intellectual tension. This effort is common
sense. And to remain sensible is, indeed, to remain at work. But to
detach oneself from things and yet continue to perceive images, to
break away from logic and yet continue to string together ideas, is to
indulge in play or, if you prefer, in dolcefar niente. So, comic
absurdity gives us
 196 LAUGHTER chap, from the outset the impression of
playing with ideas. Our first impulse is to join in the game. That
relieves us from the strain of thinking. Now, the same might be said
of the other forms of the laughable. Deep-rooted in the comic, there
is always a tendency, we said, to take the line of least resistance,
generally that of habit. The comic character no longer tries to be
ceaselessly adapting and readapting himself to the society of which
he is a member. He slackens in the attention that is due to life. He
more or less resembles the absentminded. Maybe his will is here
even more concerned than his intellect, and there is not so much a
want of attention as a lack of tension : still, in some way or another,
he is absent, away from his work, taking it easy. He abandons social
convention, as indeed — in the case we have just been considering
— he abandoned logic. Here, too, our first impulse is to accept the
invitation to take it easy. For a short time, at all events, we join in
the game. And that relieves us from the strain of living. But we rest
only for a short time. The sympathy that is capable of entering into
the impression of the comic is a very fleeting one.
 in THE COMIC IN CHARACTER 197 It also comes from a
lapse in attention. Thus, a stern father may at times forget himself
and join in some prank his child is playing, only to check himself at
once in order to correct it. Laughter is, above all, a corrective. Being
intended to humiliate, it must make a painful impression on the
person against whom it is directed. By laughter, society avenges
itself for the liberties taken with it. It would fail in its object if it bore
the stamp of sympathy or kindness. Shall we be told that the motive,
at all events, may be a good one, that we often punish because we
love, and that laughter, by checking the outer manifestations of
certain failings, thus causes the person laughed at to correct these
failings and thereby improve himself inwardly ? Much might be said
on this point. As a general rule, and speaking roughly, laughter
doubtless exercises a useful function. Indeed, the whole of our
analysis points to this fact But it does not therefore follow that
laughter always hits the mark or is invariably inspired by sentiments
of kindness or even of justice. To be certain of always hitting the
mark, it L
 198 LAUGHTER would have to proceed from an act of
reflection. Now laughter is simply the result of a mechanism set up
in us by nature or, what is almost the same thing, by our long
acquaintance with social life. It goes off spontaneously and returns
tit for tat. It has no time to look where it hits. Laughter punishes
certain failings somewhat as disease punishes certain forms of
excess, striking down some who are innocent and sparing some who
are guilty, aiming at a general result and incapable of dealing
separately with each individual case. And so it is with everything that
comes to pass by natural means instead of happening by conscious
reflection. An average of justice may show itself in the total result,
though the details, taken separately, often point to anything but
justice. In this sense, laughter cannot be absolutely just. Nor should
it be kind-hearted either. Its function is to intimidate by humiliating.
Now, it would not succeed in doing this, had not nature implanted
for that very purpose, even in the best of men, a spark of
spitefulness or, at all events, of mischief. Perhaps we had better not
investigate this point too
 L m THE COMIC IN CHARACTER 199 closely, for we should
not find anything very flattering to ourselves. We should see that
this movement of relaxation or expansion is nothing but a prelude to
laughter, that the laugher immediately retires within himself, more
self-assertive and conceited than ever, and is evidently disposed to
look upon another's personality as a marionette of which he pulls the
strings. In this prcsumptuousness we speedily discern a degree of
egoism and, behind this latter, something less spontaneous and
more bitter, the beginnings of a curious pessimism which becomes
the more pronounced as the laugher more closely analyses his
laughter. Here, as elsewhere, nature has utilised evil with a view to
good. It is more especially the good that has engaged our attention
throughout this work. We have seen that the more society improves,
the more plastic is the adaptability it obtains from its members;
while the greater the tendency towards increasing stability below,
the more does it force to the surface the disturbing elements
inseparable from so vast a bulk; and thus laughter performs a useful
function by emphasising the form of these significant undulations.
.utji
 200 LAUGHTER chap, m Such is also the truceless warfare
of the waves on the surface of the sea, whilst profound peace reigns
in the depths below. The billows clash and collide with each other, as
they strive to find their level. A fringe of snow-white foam, feathery
and frolicsome, follows their changing outlines. From time to time,
the receding wave leaves behind a remnant of foam on the sandy
beach. The child, who plays hard by, picks up a handful, and, the
next moment, is astonished to find that nothing remains in his grasp
but a few drops of water, water that is far more brackish, far more
bitter, than that of the wave which brought it. Laughter comes into
being in the self-same fashion. It indicates a slight revolt on the
surface of social life. It instantly adopts the changing forms of the
disturbance. It, also, is a froth with a saline base. Like froth, it
sparkles. It is gaiety itself. But the philosopher who gathers a
handful to taste may find that the substance is scanty, and the
after'^ taste bitter.
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