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Preface
Welcome to the third edition of Behavior Management: Principles and Practices
of Positive Behavior Supports. We are delighted that you have selected this
text, as it represents a new and revised edition designed to assist in the
preparation of undergraduate and graduate students in positive behavior
supports (PBS). The content of this text is intended to provide an overview
of both the principles that undergird PBS as a philosophy of practice and
the practical applications of PBS as a proactive approach in promoting opti-
mal behavior across schoolwide, classroom, and individual levels.
We have witnessed a great deal of progress in the development of PBS
since its inception in 1997. The reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 clearly
mandated the use of PBS as an evidence-based practice aimed at address-
ing challenging behavior in students with disabilities. This progress can
be measured in the growing number of professionals and schools using
PBS across primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. In fact, Depnam, Pas,
and Bradshaw (2012) assert that more than 14,000 schools nationally
have been trained in schoolwide positive behavior supports (SWPBS). A
central focus of this text is the importance of learning environments, be
it in the design of an individual classroom or in the use of systematic in-
struction, all directed at promoting meaningful behavioral and learning
outcomes for the students we serve. PBS offers a viable technology for
improving the quality of educational experience for all persons within
the school community. We hope that this text will help meet your profes-
sional development needs in the area of PBS.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

A new edition implies new content, and we have made it our goal to better
address the needs of readers through the addition of new material based in
the research literature to reflect current practices in the field of PBS. Teach-
ers and school administrators frequently express that one of their greatest
concerns is how to proactively address the behavior of students both in
terms of prevention and also when students need extensive tertiary sup-
port for more severe behavioral challenges. This ongoing need, coupled
with the increasing levels of performance evaluation required of teachers,
speaks to the need for professionals to better understand how PBS can be
fully used to provide behavioral and educational supports to all learners.
In this edition, you will find:
● An introduction to student vignettes that you will be able to follow
throughout the text and that will provide applied illustrations of how
PBS can be employed across the continuum of age(s) and abilities and
at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.
vii
viii Preface

● The inclusion of material on Response to Intervention (RtI) and how

RtI and PBS can complement one another in the delivery of behavioral
and educational supports to learners.
● The expanded focus on prevention of challenging behavior through
effective instruction (Chapter 4).
● Examining the portability of PBS within classrooms, including practical
strategies for how to collect functional behavior assessment (FBA) data
within classroom settings.
● An increased emphasis on evaluating student performance, including
student progress monitoring and the application of single-subject designs
in the classroom as a tool for monitoring student performance.
● Practical applications for developing behavior support plans (BSPs).
● Understanding the role of reinforcement across schoolwide, classroom,
and tertiary levels of PBS.
● Recognizing the importance of quality of life as a core value of PBS
and how self-determination can be fostered in children and youth with
disabilities.
These changes within the text are aimed at providing you with up-to-
date and relevant material on PBS and the application of these principles
within educational settings.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to sincerely thank all of our colleagues at Pearson who
have provided us with continued support and direction on this project. A
special thank you to Ann Davis, our wonderful editor, who has provided
us with guidance and leadership throughout this creative process; Penny
Burleson, former editorial assistant, for her kind and patient support; An-
drea Hall, our very capable editorial assistant, for helping us shepherd the
project to completion. We would also like to thank the reviewers who
shared their expertise in providing us with guidance in the development
of the text: Summer Ferreri, Michigan State University; Aubrey Fine,
California Polytechnic State University; Gail Hartin, Southern Methodist
University; and Joy Xin, Rowan University.
And, finally, our heartfelt thanks to our families, for their continued
love and support and encouragement that made the completion of this
text possible.
We especially want to acknowledge the many contributions of the
most talented and passionate educators we know—Karen Wheeler and
Linda Richey.

REFERENCE
Depnam, K.J., Pas, E.T., & Bradshaw, C.P. (2012). Secondary and tertiary
support systems in schools implementing school-wide positive behavioral
interventions and supports: A preliminary descriptive analysis. Journal of
Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 1–11.
 Brief Contents
Chapter 1 Understanding Behavior in Children and Youth 2

Chapter 2 Partnering with Families 40

Chapter 3 Ensuring Ethical Practices in the Delivery of Positive

Behavior Supports 80

Chapter 4 Prevention Through Effective Instruction 116

Chapter 5 Understanding Functional Behavior Assessment 158

Chapter 6 Single-Subject Design 188

Chapter 7 Planning Behavior Supports 214

Chapter 8 Evaluating Positive Behavior Supports 252

Chapter 9 Using Reinforcement to Increase Appropriate Behavior 288

Chapter 10 Teaching Positive Replacement Behaviors 316

Chapter 11 Reducing Challenging Behavior 344

Chapter 12 Quality of Life and Self-Determination 368

Name Index 399

Subject Index 408

ix
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents
Chapter 1 Understanding Behavior in Children
and Youth 2
Concepts to Understand 3
Key Terms 3
Theoretical Models for Understanding Human Behavior 4
Biological Model 4
Developmental Model 8
Psychodynamic Model 10
Ecological Model 12
Behavioral Model 17
Social Learning Model 21
Applied Behavior Analysis 22
Applications of ABA 22
Positive Behavior Supports 24
Components of PBS 25
Reauthorization of IDEA 28
The Application of PBS Across Learners and Learning
Environments 28
Schoolwide Applications of PBS 29
Factors Influencing the Development of PBS 30
Summary 33
Activities to Extend Your Learning 34
Further Reading and Exploration 34
References 34

Chapter 2 Partnering with Families 40

Concepts to Understand 41
Key Terms 41
The Nature of Families and Partnerships in Education 42
Education Reform and Families 44
General Education Reform 45
Special Education Reform 47
The Parent Participation Principle Underlying Special
Education Programs 53
Unified Systems Reform 53
Summary of Educational Reforms 57

xi
xii Contents

Building Reliable Alliances: A Framework for the Family–Professional

Partnership 58
Parents and Special Education—The Paradigm Shift 61
Positive Behavior Supports and the Family–Professional
Relationship 63
The Behavior Support Team 67
Applications of PBS and Family–Professional Partnerships 67
Summary 71
Activities to Extend Your Learning 73
Further Reading and Exploration 74
References 75

Chapter 3 Ensuring Ethical Practices in the Delivery of Positive

Behavior Supports 80
Concepts to Understand 81
Key Terms 81
Nine Organizing Theses for Understanding Ethical Practices 83
Codes, Standards, and Principles of Professional Groups 85
National Education Association 85
Learning First Alliance 86
The Council for Exceptional Children 88
Council for Children with Behavior Disorders 89
Prevention and Early Intervention 91
National Association for the Education of Young Children 91
The Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional
Children 93
Summary of Ethical Codes, Standards, and Principles from
Associations/Organizations 96
Positive Behavior Supports and Ethical Standards and Practices 96
PBS, Ethical Standards, and Practice: Nine Organizing Themes 103
Individual Worth and Dignity 103
Behavior Reflects a Need 104
Prevention and Early Intervention 104
Family Partnerships 105
Family Diversity 106
Natural Environments and Inclusive Settings 107
Natural and Logically Occurring Consequences 107
Being Positive Rather Than Punitive 108
Functionality and Quality of Life 109
PBS Standards of Practice 110
Summary 112
Activities to Extend Your Learning 112
Further Reading and Exploration 113
References 113
 Contents xiii

Chapter 4 Prevention Through Effective Instruction 116

Concepts to Understand 116
Key Terms 116
Prevention of Challenging Behavior Through the Modification
of Antecedents 118
Engineering Learning Environments 119
Environmental Intervention Strategies 124
Is the Environment Pleasant? 125
Are Environmental Cues Clear and Consistent? 125
Is Ample Space Available? 126
Instructional Intervention Strategies 126
Modifying Instructional Antecedents 130
Task Design 130
Task Presentation 133
Quality-of-Life Enrichment 137
Setting Events, Antecedents, and Behavior 138
Methods Used in the Assessment of Antecedents 141
Structured Interview 141
Behavior Rating Scales 142
Observational Methods 144
Scatter-Plot Analysis 145
A-B-C (Antecedent–Behavior–Consequence)
Recording 147
Interval Recording 149
Structural Analysis 149
Summary 152
Activities to Extend Your Learning 153
Further Reading and Exploration 154
References 154

Chapter 5 Understanding Functional Behavior

Assessment 158
Concepts to Understand 159
Key Terms 159
The Importance of Functional Behavior Assessment 161
Assumptions Concerning Challenging Behavior 165
Components of Functional Behavior Assessment 166
Identifying and Defining Target Behaviors 167
Conducting Behavior Observations 169
Understanding the Data and Formulating Hypotheses 174
Conducting a Functional Analysis 178
Development of an Intervention Plan 180
xiv Contents

Summary 183
Activities to Extend Your Learning 184
Further Reading and Exploration 184
References 184

Chapter 6 Single-Subject Design 188

Concepts to Understand 189
Key Terms 189
Evidence-Based Practices and Single-Subject
Design 190
Reflective Moment 191
Basic Elements of Single-Subject Designs 193
Applications of Single-Subject Designs 195
Single-Subject Design Variations 196
A-B Design 196
A-B-A Design 198
A-B-A-B or Reversal Design 199
Changing-Criterion Design 201
Alternating-Treatments Design 203
Multiple-Baseline Design 204
Analyzing Single-Subject Design Data 206
Summary 209
Activities to Extend Your Learning 211
Further Reading and Exploration 211
References 211

Chapter 7 Planning Behavior Supports 214

Concepts to Understand 215
Key Terms 215
The Planning Process 216
Factors Influencing a Successful Plan 219
Planning for Children and Youth and Their Families 220
Planning for Children and Youth with Disabilities 222
Introducing Behavior Support Planning 224
Planning for Level 1 Schoolwide Positive Behavior
Supports 227
Level 1 Behavior Support Planning for Very Young
Children 228
Level 1 Behavior Support Planning for School-Age Children
and Youth 229
Planning for Level 2 Positive Behavior Supports 231
Level 2 Behavior Support Planning for Very Young Children 233
 Contents xv

Level 2 Behavior Support Planning for School-Age Children and

Youth 234
Planning for Level 3 Positive Behavior Supports 237
Level 3 Behavior Support Planning for Very Young Children 242
Level 3 Behavior Support Planning for School-Age Children and
Youth 244
Summary 246
Activities to Extend Your Learning 247
Further Reading and Exploration 248
References 248

Chapter 8 Evaluating Positive Behavior Supports 252

Concepts to Understand 253
Key Terms 253
Overview of Evaluation 254
Evaluation and PBS 257
Evaluating Schoolwide Positive Behavior Supports 259
Empirical Evidence for Schoolwide Behavior Supports 261
Evaluating Level 2 and Level 3 Positive Behavior Supports 271
Input Evaluation for Level 2 and Level 3 PBS 271
Process Evaluation for Level 2 and Level 3 PBS 273
Outcome Evaluation for Level 2 and Level 3 PBS 275
Issues and Future Directions in PBS Evaluation 276
The Behavior Continuum 277
Empowerment Evaluation 277
Partnerships with Families 278
Measurable Outcomes 280
Unifying Disciplines and Fostering Collaboration 280
Summary 281
Activities to Extend Your Learning 283
Further Reading and Exploration 284
References 284

Chapter 9 Using Reinforcement to Increase Appropriate

Behavior 288
Concepts to Understand 289
Key Terms 289
What Is Reinforcement? 290
Positive Reinforcement 293
Negative Reinforcement 294
Selection of Reinforcers 296
Classes of Reinforcers 296
xvi Contents

Principles of Effective Reinforcement 298

Using Positive Reinforcement Within Learning Environments 300
Schedules of Reinforcement 300
Shaping 302
Chaining 304
Stimulus Control 307
Fading 308
Applications of Classroom-Wide Reinforcement Programs 310
Token Economy Programs 310
Team-Based Models of Reinforcement 312
Using Positive Reinforcement Within the PBS Model 312
Summary 313
Activities to Extend Your Learning 314
Further Reading and Exploration 314
References 315

Chapter 10 Teaching Positive Replacement Behaviors 316

Concepts to Understand 317
Key Terms 317
Understanding Skill Deficits Experienced by Students 318
Methods for Selecting Replacement Behaviors 321
Guidelines for Selecting Positive Replacement Behaviors 328
Designing an Intervention Plan 330
Formulating Goals and Objectives 332
Key Points to Consider When Developing Objectives 336
Developing a Plan for Teaching Replacement Behaviors 337
Summary 339
Activities to Extend Your Learning 339
Further Reading and Exploration 340
References 340

Chapter 11 Reducing Challenging Behavior 344

Concepts to Understand 345
Key Terms 345
How Challenging Behavior Is Perceived 346
Alternatives for the Prevention of Challenging Behavior 349
Questions to Consider When Contemplating Behavior
Reduction 352
Continuum of Intervention Alternatives 355
Differential Reinforcement 356
Extinction 357
Response Cost Procedures 358
 Contents xvii

Time-out 361
Use of Aversives to Reduce Behavior-Punishment 362
Summary 364
Activities to Extend Your Learning 365
Further Reading and Exploration 365
References 366

Chapter 12 Quality of Life and Self-Determination 368

Concepts to Understand 369
Key Terms 369
The Relationship Between Positive Behavior Support (PBS)
and Self-Determination 371
Quality of Life and Persons with Disabilities 372
Social Validity 374
Defining and Describing Self-Determination 375
Self-Determination as an Ecological Perspective 377
Self-Determination as a Systems Perspective 379
Assessing and Planning for Self-Determination (Input) 381
Teaching Self-Determination Skills (Process) 382
Outcomes of Teaching Self-Determination (Outputs, Results) 385
Quality of Life, Self-Determination, Positive Behavior Support, and
Challenging Behaviors 386
Infants and Toddlers 386
Early Childhood 388
Middle School Years 389
High School Years 390
Summary 391
Activities to Extend Your Learning 393
Further Reading and Exploration 394
References 395

Name Index 399

Subject Index 408
Chapter
1 Understanding
Behavior in Children
and Youth
CONCEPTS TO UNDERSTAND
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
● Describe varied perspectives on understanding behavior in children
and youth, including the biological, developmental, psychodynamic,
ecological, behavioral, and social learning models
● Describe and discuss the foundations and applications of applied behavior
analysis
● Describe the defining characteristics of positive behavior supports (PBS)
and the application of PBS across learners and learning environments

KEY TERMS
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
Behavioral model
Biological model
Developmental model
Ecological model
Positive behavior supports (PBS)
Psychodynamic model
Social learning
4 Chapter 1

As a professional educator, your ability to understand teaching and learning

is important in facilitating meaningful instructional outcomes for students.
One critical prerequisite skill for teachers is a fluent understanding of hu-
man behavior and its relationship to learning. This need is most important
when one considers the potential impact of teachers and related educational
professionals as agents of behavior change among students in various learn-
ing environments. This chapter provides you with a comparative overview
of the common conceptual models for understanding human behavior. In-
formation is also provided on the historical development of positive behav-
ior supports (PBS) as an outgrowth of applied behavior analysis (ABA) and
the utility of ABA and PBS across educational environments.

THEORETICAL MODELS FOR UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOR

The focus of this text is on the use of PBS to practically and positively address
the behavior needs of students across educational environments. Numerous
theories have been used to explain human behavior, each of which offers
its own unique perspective and methodology for understanding human be-
havior and learning. The purpose behind understanding such contrasting
viewpoints is to provide a contextual overview on the topic as you formulate
your own philosophy of practice and to better equip you in terms of under-
standing the efficacy and limitations of each model. Table 1–1 provides a
comparison of these varied viewpoints for reference as you read this chapter.

Biological Model
The biological model examines the presence of atypical development and
subsequent behavioral differences from an organic standpoint. This model is
most evident in the medical profession, which addresses changes in physio-
logical functioning (optimal health) within the context of presenting symp-
toms. These physical symptoms are often present as the result of pathogens
in the body or other organic causes. Pathogens alter the body’s equilibrium
and are defined as any causative agent of disease. Within the field of spe-
cial education, we frequently employ the biological model when explaining
the presence of specific disabilities that affect cognitive and behavioral func-
tioning in children and youth. Many of these conditions stem from organic
causes that alter typical development in children, thus producing disabili-
ties. Early studies, for example, identified brain dysfunction in children with
autism and subsequently moved theorists from viewing autism as a psy-
chogenic disorder (a disorder with no known organic basis that was likely
caused by emotional stress) to viewing it as a condition stemming from or-
ganic causes (Golden, 1987). Advances in medical science have contributed
to our understanding of the causal factors associated with autism, including
the neurological and neurochemical aspects of this disorder, examples of
which include the difficulty of children with autism with modulating sen-
Understanding Behavior in Children and Youth 5

TABLE 1–1
Theoretical Models for Understanding Human Behavior

Theoretical Model Key Concepts Relating to Behavior

Biological model • Looks at behavior from an organic standpoint

• Emphasis on pathogens as explanation for disease
• Important for medical/health implications
Developmental • Pioneered by Piaget
model • Stresses a child’s adaptation to environment is
largely innate
• Application of model seen through widespread use
of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) by
educators
Psychodynamic • Pioneered by Freud, Erikson
model • Emphasis on unconscious processes, underlying
motives of behavior
• Development of personality is key to understanding
abnormalities
Ecological model • Pioneered by Bronfenbrenner
• Focus on relationships between and within levels of
ecosystems
• Known for application of Hobbs’s Re-ED program
Behavioral model • Pioneered by Pavlov, Skinner, Watson
• Behavior viewed from functional perspective—
measured and observed
• Early foundation for ABA
Social learning • Emphasis on modeling—imitation of models as an
important element in learning
• Merges cognitive and behavior models
Applied Behavior • Emphasis on the applied study of socially relevant
Analysis (ABA) behaviors
• Focus on measurable and observable behaviors with
precise measurement
Positive Behavior • Reliance on person-centered planning and supports
Supports (PBS) • Stresses positive approaches to behavior change and
seeks to enhance quality of life for the learner
• A refinement and extension of ABA

sory input, an atypical neurological response in children (Ornitz, 1983), and

neurochemical differences such as deficits in serotonin levels (i.e., the neu-
rotransmitter found in the brain that controls important system functions
such as sleep, appetite, mood, body temperature, and hormone release) in
the brain (Iverson & Iverson, 1981). Current research points to multiple
6 Chapter 1

causal factors as evidenced by varied biomarkers identified in individuals

with autism across the body’s four basic systems: gastrointestinal, immu-
nologic, neurologic, and toxicologic (Ratajczak, 2011). These findings are
important because they assist us in accurately diagnosing these conditions
and in designing appropriate treatment programs, including positive behav-
ior supports as a means of maximizing the learning potential of children and
youth affected by conditions such as autism.
There are many other examples of how the biological model has contrib-
uted to the knowledge base for the diagnosis and treatment of other forms of
cognitive, behavioral, and learning disabilities. These contributions include
the organic factors associated with intellectual disabilities that encompass
chromosomal abnormalities in conditions such as Down syndrome, multi-
ple congenital disabilities, prenatal difficulties, gene defects, and postnatal
brain damage. As special educators, we now have a fuller understanding of
the etiology of these disorders and their impact on fetal development. The
earlier a genetic problem arises in the developmental sequence, generally
the more severe the consequence in terms of level of developmental delay,
especially in the case of children born with severe developmental disabilities
that affect early embryogenesis, resulting in severe intellectual disabilities
(Batshaw, 1997). More recent research points to the importance of neural
plasticity as a factor when working with infants and toddlers experiencing
developmental delays, as the brain has greater potential for rerouting dam-
aged neural circuitry early in its development.
The biological model has also assisted in the identification of the neuro-
biological origins of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a con-
dition prevalent among many school-age children today. Through the use
of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), medical researchers have identified
structural differences between the brains of persons affected with ADHD
and persons not diagnosed with the condition, and they have observed di-
minished neuronal activity among persons found to have ADHD (Guyer,
2000; Naugle, Cullum, & Bigler, 1997). As with autism, earlier research had
pointed to psychopathological origins rather than organic causal factors.
As we have also learned, many children diagnosed with ADHD have co-
occurring learning disabilities (Dykman & Ackerman, 1991). These condi-
tions have been classified as related neurological disorders that interact with
one another and result in learning and behavior challenges for the children
affected by them. Subsequent pharmacological research and medical treat-
ment have demonstrated that stimulant medications used in the treatment
of children diagnosed with ADHD is effective in improving attention and
cognitive functioning (Goldman, Genel, Bezman, & Slanetz, 1998). As a
result of these findings, the use of medications to treat children suspected
of having ADHD has been reported recently to be as high as 3.5% of the
school-age population by Zukevas and Vitiello (2011).
The prevalent use of pharmacological treatment for children with
ADHD has raised questions about the widespread use of these medica-
tions without giving consideration to compiling functional behavior as-
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with the Father of
spirits, it tries to govern itself by the invariable rule that, in a degree,
before which our imagination faints, the universe is regulated.
Besides, if woman be educated for dependence, that is, to act
according to the will of another fallible being, and submit, right or
wrong, to power, where are we to stop? Are they to be considered
as viceregents allowed to reign over a small domain, and answerable
for their conduct to a higher tribunal, liable to error? It will not be
difficult to prove that such delegates will act like men subjected by
fear, and make their children and servants endure their tyrannical
oppression. As they submit without reason, they will, having no fixed
rules to square their conduct by, be kind, or cruel, just as the whim
of the moment directs; and we ought not to wonder if sometimes,
galled by their heavy yoke, they take a malignant pleasure in resting
it on weaker shoulders. But, supposing a woman, trained up to
obedience, be married to a sensible man, who directs her judgement
without making her feel the servility of her subjection, to act with as
much propriety by this reflected light as can be expected when
reason is taken at secondhand, yet she cannot ensure the life of her
protector; he may die and leave her with a large family. A double
duty devolves on her; to educate them in the character of both
father and mother; to form their principles and secure their property.
But, alas! she has never thought, much less acted for herself She
has only learned to please men, to depend gracefully on them; yet,
encumbered with children, how is she to obtain 51
 Mary WoUstonecraft another protector - a husband to
supply the place of reason? A rational man, for we are not treading
on romantic ground, though he may think her a pleasing docile
creature, will not choose to marry a family for love, when the world
contains many more pretty creatures. What is then to become of
her? She either falls an easy prey to some mean fortune-hunter, who
defrauds her children of their paternal inheritance, and renders her
miserable; or becomes the victim of discontent and blind indulgence.
Unable to educate her sons, or impress them with respect, - for it is
not a play on words to assert, that people are never respected,
though filling an important station, who are not respectable, - she
pines under the anguish of unavailing impotent regret. The serpent's
tooth enters into her very soul, and the vices of licentious youth
bring her with sorrow, if not with poverty also, to the grave. This is
not an overcharged picture; on the contrary, it is a very possible
case, and something similar must have fallen under every attentive
eye. I have, however, taken it for granted, that she was well
disposed, though experience shows, that the blind may as easily be
led into a ditch as along the beaten road. But supposing, no very
improbable conjecture, that a being only taught to please must still
find her happiness in pleasing; what an example of folly, not to say
vice, will she be to her innocent daughters! The mother will be lost
in the coquette, and, instead of making friends of her daughters,
view them with eyes askance, for they are rivals - rivals more cruel
than any other, because they invite a comparison, and drive her from
the throne 52
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman of beauty, who has
never thought of a seat on the bench of reason. It does not require
a lively pencil, or the discriminating outline of a caricature, to sketch
the domestic miseries and petty vices which such a mistress of a
family diffuses. Still she only acts as a woman ought to act, brought
up according to Rousseau's system. She can never be reproached for
being masculine, or turning out of her sphere; nay, she may observe
another of his grand rules, and, cautiously preserving her reputation
free from spot, be reckoned a good kind of woman. Yet in what
respect can she be termed good? She abstains, it is true, without
any great struggle, from committing gross crimes; but how does she
fulfil her duties? Duties! in truth she has enough to think of to adorn
her body and nurse a weak constitution. With respect to religion, she
never presumed to judge for herself; but conformed, as a dependent
creature should, to the ceremonies of the Church which she was
brought up in, piously believing that wiser heads than her own have
settled that business; and not to doubt is her point of perfection.
She therefore pays her tithe of mint and cumin - and thanks her God
that she is not as other women are. These are the blessed effects of
a good education! These are the virtues of man's helpmate! I must
relieve myself by drawing a different picture. Let fancy now present
a woman with a tolerable understanding, for I do not wish to leave
the line of mediocrity, whose constitution, strengthened by exercise,
has allowed her body to acquire its fiall vigour; her mind, at the
same time, gradually expanding itself to 53
 Mary Wollstonecraft comprehend the moral duties of life,
and in what human virtue and dignity consist. Formed thus by the
discharge of the relative duties of her station, she marries from
affection, without losing sight of prudence, and looking beyond
matrimonial felicity, she secures her husband's respect before it is
necessary to exert mean arts to please him and feed a dying flame,
which nature doomed to expire when the object became familiar,
when friendship and forbearance take place of a more ardent
affection. This is the natural death of love, and domestic peace is
not destroyed by struggles to prevent its extinction. I also suppose
the husband to be virtuous; or she is still more in want of
independent principles. Fate, however, breaks this tie. She is left a
widow, perhaps, without a sufficient provision; but she is not
desolate! The pang of nature is felt; but after time has softened
sorrow into melancholy resignation, her heart turns to her children
with redoubled fondness, and anxious to provide for them, affection
gives a sacred heroic cast to her maternal duties. She thinks that not
only the eye sees her virtuous efforts from whom all her comfort
now must flow, and whose approbation is life; but her imagination, a
little abstracted and exalted by grief, dwells on the fond hope that
the eyes which her trembling hand closed, may still see how she
subdues every wayward passion to fulfil the double duty of being the
father as well as the mother of her children. Raised to heroism by
misfortunes, she represses the first faint dawning of a natural
inclination, before it ripens into love, and in the bloom of life forgets
her sex - forgets the pleasure of an awaken54
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ing passion, which
might again have been inspired and returned. She no longer thinks
of pleasing, and conscious dignity prevents her from priding herself
on account of the praise which her conduct demands. Her children
have her love, and her brightest hopes are beyond the grave, where
her imagination often strays. I think I see her surrounded by her
children, reaping the reward of her care. The intelligent eye meets
hers, whilst health and innocence smile on their chubby cheeks, and
as they grow up the cares of life are lessened by their grateful
attention. She lives to see the virtues which she endeavoured to
plant on principles, fixed into habits, to see her children attain a
strength of character sufficient to enable them to endure adversity
without forgetting their mother's example. The task of life thus
fulfilled, she calmly waits for the sleep of death, and rising from the
grave, may say ' Behold, Thou gavest me a talent, and here are five
talents.' I wish to sum up what I have said in a few words, for I here
throw down my gauntlet, and deny the existence of sexual virtues,
not excepting modesty. For man and woman, truth, if I understand
the meaning of the word, must be the same; yet the fanciful female
character, so prettily drawn by poets and novelists, demanding the
sacrifice of truth and sincerity, virtue becomes a relative idea, having
no other foundation than utility, and of that utility men pretend
arbitrarily to judge, shaping it to their own convenience. Women, I
allow, may have different duties to fulfil; but they are human duties,
and the principles that should 55
 Mary WoUstonecmft regulate the discharge of them, I
sturdily maintain, must be the same. To become respectable, the
exercise of their understanding is necessary, there is no other
foundation for independence of character; I mean explicitly to say
that they must only bow to the authority of reason, instead of being
the modest slaves of opinion. In the superior ranks of life how
seldom do we meet with a man of superior abilities, or even
common acquirements? The reason appears to me clear, the state
they are born in was an unnatural one. The human character has
ever been formed by the employments the individual, or class,
pursues; and if the faculties are not sharpened by necessity, they
must remain obtuse. The argument may fairly be extended to
women; for, seldom occupied by serious business, the pursuit of
pleasure gives that insignificancy to their character which renders
the society of the great so insipid. The same want of firmness,
produced by a similar cause, forces them both to fly from
themselves to noisy pleasures, and artificial passions, till vanity takes
place of every social affection, and the characteristics of humanity
can scarcely be discerned. Such are the blessings of civil
governments, as they are at present organized, that wealth and
female softness equally tend to debase mankind, and are produced
by the same cause; but allowing women to be rational creatures,
they should be incited to acquire virtues which they may call their
own, for how can a rational being be ennobled by anything that is
not obtained by its own exertions? 56
 Observations on the State of Degradation to which Woman
is Reduced hy Various Causes That woman is naturally weak, or
degraded by a concurrence of circumstances, is, I think, clear. But
this position I shall simply contrast with a conclusion, which I have
frequently heard fall from sensible men in favour of an aristocracy:
that the mass of mankind cannot be anything, or the obsequious
slaves, who patiently allow themselves to be driven forward, would
feel their own consequence, and spurn their chains. Men, they
further observe, submit everywhere to oppression, when they have
only to lift up their heads to throw off the yoke; yet, instead of
asserting their birthright, they quietly lick the dust, and say, Xet us
eat and drink, for tomorrow we die.' Women, I argue from analogy,
are degraded by the same propensity to enjoy the present moment,
and at last despise the freedom which they have not sufficient virtue
to struggle to attain. But I must be more explicit. With respect to the
culture of the heart, it is unanimously allowed that sex is out of the
question; but the line of subordination in the mental powers is never
to be passed over. Only 'absolute in loveliness', the portion of
rationality granted to woman is, indeed, very scanty; for denying her
genius and judgement, it is scarcely 57
 Mary Wolhtonecmft possible to divine what remains to
characterize intellect. The stamen of immortality, if I may be allowed
the phrase, is the perfectibility of human reason; for, were man
created perfect, or did a flood of knowledge break in upon him,
when he arrived at maturity, that precluded error, I should doubt
whether his existence would be continued after the dissolution of the
body. But, in the present state of things, every difficulty in morals
that escapes from human discussion, and equally baffles the
investigation of profound thinking, and the lightning glance of
genius, is an argument on which I build my belief of the immortality
of the soul. Reason is, consequentially, the simple power of
improvement; or, more properly speaking, of discerning truth. Every
individual is in this respect a world in itself. More or less may be
conspicuous in one being than another; but the nature of reason
must be the same in all, if it be an emanation of divinity, the tie that
connects the creature with the Creator; for, can that soul be
stamped with the heavenly image, that is not perfected by the
exercise of its own reason? Yet outwardly ornamented with elaborate
care, and so adorned to delight man, 'that with honour he may love',
the soul of woman is not allowed to have this distinction, and man,
ever placed between her and reason, she is always represented as
only created to see through a gross medium, and to take things on
trust. But dismissing these fanciftil theories, and considering woman
as a whole, let it be what it will, instead of a part of man, the inquiry
is whether she have reason or not. If she have, which, for a
moment, I will take for granted, she was not created 58
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman merely to be the
solace of man, and the sexual should not destroy the human
character. Into this error men have, probably, been led by viewing
education in a false light; not considering it as the first step to form
a being advancing gradually towards perfection; but only as a
preparation for life. On this sensual error, for I must call it so, has
the false system of female manners been reared, which robs the
whole sex of its dignity, and classes the brown and fair with the
smiling flowers that only adorn the land. This has ever been the
language of men, and the fear of departing from a supposed sexual
character, has made even women of superior sense adopt the same
sentiments. Thus understanding, strictly speaking, has been denied
to woman; and instinct, sublimated into wit and cunning, for the
purposes of life, has been substituted in its stead. The power of
generalizing ideas, of drawing comprehensive conclusions from
individual observations, is the only acquirement, for an immortal
being, that really deserves the name of knowledge. Merely to
observe, without endeavouring to account for anything, may (in a
very incomplete manner) serve as the common sense of life; but
where is the store laid up that is to clothe the soul when it leaves
the body? This power has not only been denied to women; but
writers have insisted that it is inconsistent, with a few exceptions,
with their sexual character. Let men prove this, and I shall grant that
woman only exists for man. I must, however, previously remark, that
the power of generalizing ideas, to any great extent, is not very 59
 Mary Wollstonecraft common amongst men or women. But
this exercise is the true cultivation of the understanding; and
everything conspires to render the cultivation of the understanding
more difficult in the female than the male world. I am naturally led
by this assertion to the main subject of the present chapter, and
shall now attempt to point out some of the causes that degrade the
sex, and prevent women from generalizing their observations. I shall
not go back to the remote annals of antiquity to trace the history of
woman; it is sufficient to allow that she has always been either a
slave or a despot, and to remark that each of these situations
equally retards the progress of reason. The grand source of female
folly and vice has ever appeared to me to arise from narrowness of
mind; and the very constitution of civil governments has put almost
insuperable obstacles in the way to prevent the cultivation of the
female understanding; yet virtue can be built on no other
foundation. The same obstacles are thrown in the way of the rich,
and the same consequences ensue. Necessity has been proverbially
termed the mother of invention; the aphorism may be extended to
virtue. It is an acquirement, and an acquirement to which pleasure
must be sacrificed; and who sacrifices pleasure when it is within the
grasp, whose mind has not been opened and strengthened by
adversity, or the pursuit of knowledge goaded on by necessity?
Happy is it when people have the cares of life to struggle with, for
these struggles prevent their becoming a prey to enervating vices,
merely from idleness. But if from their birth men and women be
placed in a torrid zone, with the meridian 60
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman sun of pleasure
slanting directly upon them, how can they sufficiently brace their
minds to discharge the duties of life, or even to relish the affections
that carry them out of themselves? Pleasure is the business of
woman's life, according to the present modification of society; and
while it continues to be so, little can be expected from such weak
beings. Inheriting in a lineal descent from the first fair defect in
nature - the sovereignty of beauty - they have, to maintain their
power, resigned the natural rights which the exercise of reason
might have procured them, and chosen rather to be short-lived
queens than labour to obtain the sober pleasures that arise from
equality. Exalted by their inferiority (this sounds like a contradiction),
they constantly demand homage as women, though experience
should teach them that the men who pride themselves upon paying
this arbitrary insolent respect to the sex, with the most scrupulous
exactness, are most inclined to tyrannize over, and despise the very
weakness they cherish. [■■•] Ah! why do women - 1 write with
affectionate solicitude - condescend to receive a degree of attention
and respect from strangers different from that reciprocation of
civility which the dictates of humanity and the politeness of
civilization authorize between man and man? And why do they not
discover, when 'in the noon of beauty's power', that they are treated
like queens only to be deluded by hollow respect, till they are led to
resign, or 6i
 Mary Wolhtonecraft not assume, their natural prerogatives?
Confined, then, in cages like the feathered race, they have nothing
to do but to plume themselves, and stalk with mock majesty from
perch to perch. It is true they are provided with food and raiment,
for which they neither toil nor spin; but health, liberty, and virtue are
given in exchange. But where, amongst mankind, has been found
sufficient strength of mind to enable a being to resign these
adventitious prerogatives - one who, rising with the calm dignity of
reason above opinion, dared to be proud of the privileges inherent in
man? And it is vain to expect it whilst hereditary power chokes the
affections, and nips reason in the bud. The passions of men have
thus placed women on thrones, and till mankind become more
reasonable, it is to be feared that women will avail themselves of the
power which they attain with the least exertion, and which is the
most indisputable. They will smile - yes, they will smile, though told
that: In beauty's empire is no mean, And woman, either slave or
queen, Is quickly scorned when not adored. But the adoration comes
first, and the scorn is not anticipated. Louis XIV, in particular, spread
factitious manners, and caught, in a specious way, the whole nation
in his toils; for, establishing an artful chain of despotism, he made it
the interest of the people at large individually to respect his station,
and support his power. And women, 62
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman whom he flattered by
a puerile attention to the whole sex, obtained in his reign that
prince-like distinction so fatal to reason and virtue. A king is always a
king, and a woman always a woman. His authority and her sex ever
stand between them and rational converse. With a lover, I grant, she
should be so, and her sensibility will naturally lead her to endeavour
to excite emotion, not to gratify her vanity, but her heart. This I do
not allow to be coquetry; it is the artless impulse of nature. I only
exclaim against the sexual desire of conquest when the heart is out
of the question. [. ..] I lament that women are systematically
degraded by receiving the trivial attentions which men think it manly
to pay to the sex, when in fact, they are insultingly supporting their
own superiority. It is not condescension to bow to an inferior. So
ludicrous, in fact, do these ceremonies appear to me that I scarcely
am able to govern my muscles when I see a man start with eager
and serious solicitude to lift a handkerchief or shut a door, when the
lady could have done it herself, had she only moved a pace or two. A
wild wish has just flown from my heart to my head, and I will not
stifle it, though it may excite a horse-laugh. I do earnestly wish to
see the distinction of sex confounded in society, unless where love
animates the behaviour. For this distinction is, I am firmly
persuaded, the foundation of the weakness of character ascribed to
woman; is the cause why the understanding is neglected, 63
 Mary Wollstonecmft whilst accomplishments are acquired
with sedulous care; and the same cause accounts for their preferring
the graceful before the heroic virtues. Mankind, including every
description, wish to be loved and respected by something, and the
common herd will always take the nearest road to the completion of
their wishes. The respect paid to wealth and beauty is the most
certain and unequivocal, and, of course, will always attract the
vulgar eye of common minds. Abilities and virtues are absolutely
necessary to raise men from the middle rank of life into notice, and
the natural consequence is notorious - the middle rank contains
most virtue and abilities. Men have thus, in one station at least, an
opportunity of exerting themselves with dignity, and of rising by the
exertions which really improve a rational creature; but the whole
female sex are, till their character is formed, in the same condition
as the rich, for they are born - I now speak of a state of civilization -
with certain sexual privileges; and whilst they are gratuitously
granted them, few will ever think of works of supererogation to
obtain the esteem of a small number of superior people. When do
we hear of women who, starting out of obscurity, boldly claim
respect on account of their great abilities or daring virtues? Where
are they to be found? . . . Women, commonly called ladies, are not
to be contradicted, in company, are not allowed to exert any manual
strength; and from them the negative virtues only are expected,
when any virtues are expected patience, docility, good humour, and
flexibility - virtues incompatible with any vigorous exertion of
intellect. 64
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Besides, by living
more with each other, and being seldom absolutely alone, they are
more under the influence of sentiments than passions. Solitude and
reflection are necessary to give to wishes the force of passions, and
to enable the imagination to enlarge the object, and make it the
most desirable. The same may be said of the rich; they do not
sufficiently deal in general ideas, collected by impassioned thinking
or calm investigation, to acquire that strength of character on which
great resolves are built. [. . .] In the middle rank of life, men, in their
youth, are prepared for professions, and marriage is not considered
as the grand feature in their lives; whilst women, on the contrary,
have no other scheme to sharpen their faculties. It is not business,
extensive plans, or any of the excursive flights of ambition, that
engross their attention; no, their thoughts are not employed in
rearing such noble structures. To rise in the world, and have the
liberty of running from pleasure to pleasure, they must marry
advantageously, and to this object their time is sacrificed, and their
persons often legally prostituted. A man when he enters any
profession has his eye steadily fixed on some future advantage (and
the mind gains great strength by having all its efforts directed to one
point), and, full of his business, pleasure is considered as mere
relaxation; whilst women seek for pleasure as the main purpose of
existence. In fact, from the education, which they receive from
society, the love of pleasure may be 65
 Mary Wollstonecraft said to govern them all; but does this
prove that there is a sex in souls? It would be just as rational to
declare that the courtiers in France, when a destructive system of
despotism had formed their character, were not men, because
liberty, virtue, and humanity, were sacrificed to pleasure and vanity.
Fatal passions, which have ever domineered over the whole race!
The same love of pleasure, fostered by the whole tendency of their
education, gives a trifling turn to the conduct of women in most
circumstances; for instance, they are ever anxious about secondary
things; and on the watch for adventures instead of being occupied
by duties. A man, when he undertakes a journey, has, in general,
the end in view; a woman thinks more of the incidental occurrences,
the strange things that may possibly occur on the road; the
impression that she may make on her fellow-travellers; and, above
all, she is anxiously intent on the care of the finery that she carries
with her, which is more than ever a part of herself, when going to
figure on a new scene; when, to use an apt French turn of
expression, she is going to produce a sensation. Can dignity of mind
exist with such trivial cares? In short, women, in general, as well as
the rich of both sexes, have acquired all the follies and vices of
civilization, and missed the useful fruit. It is not necessary for me
always to premise, that I speak of the condition of the whole sex,
leaving exceptions out of the question. Their senses are inflamed,
and their understandings neglected, consequently they become the
prey of their senses, delicately termed sensibility, and are blown
about 66
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by every momentary
gust of feeling. 'Civilized' women are, therefore, so weakened by
false refinement, that, respecting morals, their condition is much
below what it would be were they left in a state nearer to nature.
Ever restless and anxious, their over-exercised sensibility not only
renders them uncomfortable themselves, but troublesome, to use a
soft phrase, to others. All their thoughts turn on things calculated to
excite emotion and feeling, when they should reason, their conduct
is unstable, and their opinions are wavering - not the wavering
produced by deliberation or progressive views, but by contradictory
emotions. By fits and starts, they are warm in many pursuits; yet
this warmth, never concentrated into perseverance, soon exhausts
itself; exhaled by its own heat, or meeting with some other fleeting
passion, to which reason has never given any specific gravity,
neutrality ensues. Miserable, indeed, must be that being whose
cultivation of mind has only tended to inflame its passions! A
distinction should be made between inflaming and strengthening
them. The passions thus pampered, whilst the judgement is left
unformed, what can be expected to ensue? Undoubtedly, a mixture
of madness and folly! This observation should not be confined to the
fair s sex; however, at present, I only mean to apply it to them.
Novels, music, poetry, and gallantry, all tend to make women the
creatures of sensation, and their character is thus formed in the
mould of folly during the time they are acquiring accomplishments,
the only improvement they are excited, by their station in society, to
acquire. This overstretched sensibility naturally relaxes the other 67
 Mary Wolhtonecraft powers of the mind, and prevents
intellect from attaining that sovereignty which it ought to attain to
render a rational creature useful to others, and content with its own
station; for the exercise of the understanding, as life advances, is
the only method pointed out by nature to calm the passions. Satiety
has a very different effect, and I have often been forcibly struck by
an emphatical description of damnation; when the spirit is
represented as continually hovering with abortive eagerness round
the defiled body, unable to enjoy anything without the organs of
sense. Yet, to their senses, are women made slaves, because it is by
their sensibility that they obtain present power. And will moralists
pretend to assert that this is the condition in which one-half of the
human race should be encouraged to remain with listless inactivity
and stupid acquiescence? Kind instructors! what were we created
for? To remain, it may be said, innocent; they mean in a state of
childhood. We might as well never have been born, unless it were
necessary that we should be created to enable man to acquire the
noble privilege of reason, the power of discerning good from evil,
whilst we lie down in the dust from whence we were taken, never to
rise again. It would be an endless task to trace the variety of
meannesses, cares, and sorrows, into which women are plunged by
the prevailing opinion, that they were created rather to feel than
reason, and that all the power they obtain must be obtained by their
charms and weakness: Fine by defect, and amiably weak! 68
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman And, made by this
amiable weakness entirely dependent, excepting what they gain by
illicit sway, on man, not only for protection, but advice, is it
surprising that, neglecting the duties that reason alone points out,
and shrinking from trials calculated to strengthen their minds, they
only exert themselves to give their defects a graceful covering,
which may serve to heighten their charms in the eye of the
voluptuary, though it sink them below the scale of moral excellence.
Fragile in every sense of the word, they are obliged to look up to
man for every comfort. In the most trifling danger they cling to their
support, with parasitical tenacity, piteously demanding succour; and
their natural protector extends his arm, or lifts up his voice, to guard
the lovely trembler - from what? Perhaps the frown of an old cow, or
the jump of a mouse; a rat would be a serious danger. In the name
of reason, and even common sense, what can save such beings from
contempt; even though they be soft and fair. These fears, when not
affected, may produce some pretty attitudes; but they show a
degree of imbecility which degrades a rational creature in a way
women are not aware of - for love and esteem are very distinct
things. I am fully persuaded that we should hear of none of these
infantine airs, if girls were allowed to take sufficient exercise, and
not confined in close rooms till their muscles are relaxed, and their
powers of digestion destroyed. To carry the remark still fiarther, if
fear in girls, instead of being cherished, perhaps, created, were
treated in the same manner as cowardice in boys, we 69
 Mary Wollstonecraft should quickly see women with more
dignified aspects. It is true, they could not then with equal propriety
be termed the sweet flowers that smile in the walk of man; but they
would be more respectable members of society, and discharge the
important duties of life by the light of their own reason. 'Educate
women like men,' says Rousseau, 'and the more they resemble our
sex the less power they will have over us.' This is the very point I
aim at. I do not wish them to have power over men; but over
themselves. [. ..] Ignorance is a frail base for virtue! Yet, that it is
the condition for which woman was organized, has been insisted
upon by the writers who have most vehemently argued in favour of
the superiority of man; a superiority not in degree, but offence;
though, to soften the argument, they have laboured to prove, with
chivalrous generosity, that the sexes ought not to be compared; man
was made to reason, woman to feel: and that together, flesh and
spirit, they make the most perfect whole, by blending happily reason
and sensibility into one character. And what is sensibility? 'Quickness
of sensation, quickness of perception, delicacy.' Thus is it defined by
Dr Johnson; and the definition gives me no other idea than of the
most exquisitely polished instinct. I discern not a trace of the image
of God in either sensation or matter. Refined seventy times seven
they are still material; intellect dwells not there; nor will fire ever
make lead gold! 70
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman I come round to my
old argument: if woman be allowed to have an immortal soul, she
must have, as the employment of life, an understanding to improve.
And when, to render the present state more complete, though
everything proves it to be but a fraction of a mighty sum, she is
incited by present gratification to forget her grand destination,
nature is counteracted, or she was born only to procreate and rot.
Or, granting brutes of every description a soul, though not a
reasonable one, the exercise of instinct and sensibility may be the
step which they are to take, in this life, towards the attainment of
reason in the next; so that through all eternity they will lag behind
man, who, why we cannot tell, had the power given him of attaining
reason in his first mode of existence. When I treat of the peculiar
duties of women, as I should treat of the peculiar duties of a citizen
or father, it will be found that I do not mean to insinuate that they
should be taken out of their families, speaking of the majority [. . .]
But the welfare of society is not built on extraordinary exertions; and
were it more reasonably organized, there would be still less need of
great abilities, or heroic virtues. In the regulation of a family, in the
education of children, understanding, in an unsophisticated sense, is
particularly required - strength both of body and mind; yet the men
who, by their writings, have most earnestly laboured to domesticate
women, have endeavoured, by arguments dictated by a gross
appetite, which satiety had rendered fastidious, to weaken their
bodies and cramp their minds. But, if even by these sinister methods
71
 Mary Wolbtonecraft they really persuaded women, by
working on their feelings, to stay at home, and fulfil the duties of a
mother and mistress of a family, I should cautiously oppose opinions
that led women to right conduct, by prevailing on them to make the
discharge of such important duties the main business of life, though
reason were insulted. Yet, and I appeal to experience, if by
neglecting the understanding they be as much, nay, more detached
from these domestic employments, than they could be by the most
serious intellectual pursuit, though it may be observed, that the
mass of mankind will never vigorously pursue an intellectual object,
I may be allowed to infer that reason is absolutely necessary to
enable a woman to perform any duty properly, and I must again
repeat, that sensibility is not reason. [■■■] Another argument that
has had great weight with me must, I think, have some force with
every considerate benevolent heart. Girls who have been thus
weakly educated are ofi:en cruelly left by their parents without any
provision, and, of course, are dependent on not only the reason, but
the bounty of their brothers. These brothers are, to view the fairest
side of the question, good sort of men, and give as a favour what
children of the same parents had an equal right to. In this equivocal
humiliating situation a docile female may remain some time with a
tolerable degree of comfort. But when the brother marries - a
probable circumstance - from being considered as the mistress of
the family, she is viewed 72
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with averted looks as
an intruder, an unnecessary burden on the benevolence of the
master of the house and his new partner. Who can recount the
misery which many unfortunate beings, whose minds and bodies are
equally weak, suffer in such situations - unable to work, and
ashamed to beg? The wife, a cold-hearted, narrow-minded woman -
and this is not an unfair supposition, for the present mode of
education does not tend to enlarge the heart any more than the
understanding - is jealous of the little kindness which her husband
shows to his relations; and her sensibility not rising to humanity, she
is displeased at seeing the property of her children lavished on an
helpless sister. These are matters of fact, which have come under
my eye again and again. The consequence is obvious; the wife has
recourse to cunning to undermine the habitual affection which she is
afraid openly to oppose; and neither tears nor caresses are spared
till the spy is worked out of her home, and thrown on the world,
unprepared for its difficulties; or sent, as a great effort of generosity,
or from some regard to propriety, with a small stipend, and an
uncultivated mind, into joyless solitude. These two women may be
much upon a par with respect to reason and humanity, and,
changing situations, might have acted just the same selfish part; but
had they been differently educated, the case would also have been
very different. The wife would not have had that sensibility, of which
self is the centre, and reason might have taught her not to expect,
and not even to be flattered by, the affection of her husband, if it led
him to violate prior duties. She would wish not to love him 73
 Mary Wollstonecraft merely because he loved her, but on
account of his virtues; and the sister might have been able to
struggle for herself instead of eating the bitter bread of dependence.
I am, indeed, persuaded that the heart, as v^ell as the
understanding, is opened by cultivation, and by - which may not
appear so clear - strengthening the organs. I am not now talking of
momentary flashes of sensibility, but of affections. And, perhaps, in
the education of both sexes, the most difficult task is so to adjust
instruction as not to narrow the understanding, whilst the heart is
warmed by the generous juices of spring, just raised by the electric
fermentation of the season; nor to dry up the feelings by employing
the mind in investigations remote from life. With respect to women,
when they receive a careful education, they are either made fine
ladies, brimful of sensibility, and teeming with capricious fancies, or
mere notable women. The latter are often friendly, honest creatures,
and have a shrewd kind of good sense, joined with worldly
prudence, that often render them more useful members of society
than the fine sentimental lady, though they possess neither
greatness of mind nor taste. The intellectual world is shut against
them. Take them out of their family or neighbourhood, and they
stand still; the mind finding no employment, for literature affords a
fund of amusement which they have never sought to relish, but
frequently to despise. The sentiments and taste of more cultivated
minds appear ridiculous, even in those whom chance and family
connections have led them to love; but in mere acquaintance they
think it all affectation. 74
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman A man of sense can
only love such a woman on account of her sex, and respect her
because she is a trusty servant. He lets her, to preserve his own
peace, scold the servants, and go to church in clothes made of the
very best materials. A man of her own size of understanding would
probably not agree so well with her, for he might wish to encroach
on her prerogative, and manage some domestic concerns himself;
yet women, whose minds are not enlarged by cultivation, or the
natural selfishness of sensibility by reflection, are very unfit to
manage a family, for, by an undue stretch of power, they are always
tyrannizing to support a superiority that only rests on the arbitrary
distinction of fortune. The evil is sometimes more serious, and
domestics are deprived of innocent indulgences, and made to work
beyond their strength, in order to enable the notable woman to keep
a better table, and outshine her neighbours in finery and parade. If
she attend to her children, it is in general to dress them in a costly
manner; and whether this attention arise from vanity or fondness, it
is equally pernicious. Besides, how many women of this description
pass their days, or at least their evenings, discontentedly. Their
husbands acknowledge that they are good managers and chaste
wives, but leave home to seek for more agreeable - may I be
allowed to use a significant French word - piquant society; and the
patient drudge, who fulfils her task like a blind horse in a mill, is
defrauded of her just reward, for the wages due to her are the
caresses of her husband; and women who have so few resources in
themselves, do not very patiently bear this privation of a natural
right. 75
 Mary Wollstonecraft A fine lady, on the contrary, has been
taught to look down with contempt on the vulgar employments of
life, though she had only been incited to acquire accomplishments
that rise a degree above sense; for even corporeal accomplishments
cannot be acquired with any degree of precision unless the
understanding has been strengthened by exercise. Without a
foundation of principles taste is superficial; grace must arise from
something deeper than imitation. The imagination, however, is
heated, and the feelings rendered fastidious, if not sophisticated, or
a counter poise of judgement is not acquired when the heart still
remains artless, though it becomes too tender. [■■■] Yet if love be
the supreme good, let woman be only educated to inspire it, and let
every charm be polished to intoxicate the senses; but if they be
moral beings, let them have a chance to become intelligent; and let
love to man be only a part of that glowing flame of universal love,
which, after encircling humanity, mounts in grateful incense to God.
To fulfil domestic duties much resolution is necessary, and a serious
kind of perseverance that requires a more firm support than
emotions, however lively and true to nature. To give an example of
order, the soul of virtue, some austerity of behaviour must be
adopted, scarcely to be expected from a being who, from its infancy,
has been made the weathercock of its own sensations. Whoever
rationally means to be usefial must have a plan 76
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman of conduct; and in
the discharge of the simplest duty, we are often obliged to act
contrary to the present impulse of tenderness or compassion.
Severity is frequently the most certain as well as the most sublime
proof of affection; and the want of this power over the feelings, and
of that lofty, dignified affection which makes a person prefer the
future good of the beloved object to a present gratification is the
reason why so many fond mothers spoil their children, and has
made it questionable whether negligence or indulgence be most
hurtful; but I am inclined to think that the latter has done most
harm. Mankind seem to agree that children should be left under the
management of women during their childhood. Now, from all the
observation that I have been able to make, women of sensibility are
the most unfit for this task, because they will infallibly, carried away
by their feelings, spoil a child's temper. The management of the
temper, the first, and most important branch of education, requires
the sober steady eye of reason; a plan of conduct equally distant
from tyranny and indulgence: yet these are the extremes that people
of sensibility alternately fall into; always shooting beyond the mark. I
have followed this train of reasoning much further, till I have
concluded, that a person of genius is the most improper person to
be employed in education, public or private. Minds of this rare
species see things too much in masses, and seldom, if ever, have a
good temper. That habitual cheerfulness, termed good humour, is,
perhaps, as seldom united with great mental powers, as with strong
feelings. And those people who follow, with interest and admiration,
the flights of genius; or, with cooler 77
 Mary Wollstonecraft approbation suck in the instruction
which has been elaborately prepared for them by the profound
thinker, ought not to be disgusted, if they find the former choleric,
and the latter morose; because liveliness of fancy, and a tenacious
comprehension of mind, are scarcely compatible with that pliant
urbanity which leads a man, at least, to bend to the opinions and
prejudices of others, instead of roughly confronting them. But,
treating of education, or manners, minds of a superior class are not
to be considered, they may be left to chance; it is the multitude,
with moderate abilities, who call for instruction, and catch the colour
of the atmosphere they breathe. This respectable concourse, I
contend, men and women, should not have their sensations
heightened in the hot-bed of luxurious indolence, at the expense of
their understanding; for, unless there be a ballast of understanding,
they will never become either virtuous or free: an aristocracy,
founded on property or sterling talents, will ever sweep before it the
alternately timid and ferocious slaves of feeling. [. ■ ■] Women have
seldom sufficient serious employment to silence their feelings; a
round of little cares, or vain pursuits frittering away all strength of
mind and organs, they become naturally only objects of sense. In
short, the whole tenor of female education (the education of society)
tends to render the best disposed romantic and inconstant; and the
remainder vain and mean. In the present state of society this evil
can scarcely be remedied. 78
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman I am afraid, in the
slightest degree; should a more laudable ambition ever gain ground
they may be brought nearer to nature and reason, and become
more virtuous and useful as they grov^ more respectable. But, I will
venture to assert that their reason v^ill never acquire sufficient
strength to enable it to regulate their conduct, whilst the making an
appearance in the world is the first wish of the majority of mankind.
To this weak wish the natural affections, and the most useful virtues
are sacrificed. Girls marry merely to better themselves, to borrow a
significant vulgar phrase, and have such perfect power over their
hearts as not to permit themselves to fall in love till a man with a
superior fortune offers. On this subject I mean to enlarge in a future
chapter; it is only necessary to drop a hint at present, because
women are so often degraded by suffering the selfish prudence of
age to chill the ardour of youth. From the same source flows an
opinion that young girls ought to dedicate great part of their time to
needlework; yet, this employment contracts their faculties more than
any other that could have been chosen for them, by confining their
thoughts to their persons. Men order their clothes to be made, and
have done with the subject; women make their own clothes,
necessary or ornamental, and are continually talking about them;
and their thoughts follow their hands. It is not indeed the making of
necessaries that weakens the mind; but the frippery of dress. For
when a woman in the lower rank of life makes her husband's and
children's clothes, she does her duty, this is her part of the family
business; but when women work only to dress better than they
could 79
 Mary Wollstonecmft otherwise afford, it is worse than sheer
loss of time. To render the poor virtuous they must be employed,
and women in the middle rank of life, did they not ape the fashions
of the nobility, without catching their ease, might employ them,
whilst they themselves managed their families, instructed their
children, and exercised their own minds. Gardening, experimental
philosophy, and literature, would afford them subject to think of and
matter for conversation, that in some degree would exercise their
understandings. The conversation of Frenchwomen, who are not so
rigidly nailed to their chairs to twist lappets, and knot ribands, is
frequently superficial; but, I contend, that it is not half so insipid as
that of those Englishwomen whose time is spent in making caps,
bonnets, and the whole mischief of trimmings, not to mention
shopping, bargain-hunting, etc., etc.; and it is the decent, prudent
women, who are most degraded by these practices; for their motive
is simply vanity. The wanton who exercises her taste to render her
passion alluring, has something more in view. These observations all
branch out of a general one, which I have before made, and which
cannot be too often insisted upon, for, speaking of men, women, or
professions, it will be found that the employment of the thoughts
shapes the character both generally and individually. The thoughts of
women ever hover round their persons, and is it surprising that their
persons are reckoned most valuable? Yet some degree of liberty of
mind is necessary even to form the person; and this may be one
reason why some gentle wives have so few attractions beside that of
sex. Add to this, sedentary 80
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