Kevin T.

Chabaesele

JCE
AGRICULTURE
2025
FORM 1 – 3
Revision
Compiled by: Mr. Kevin T. Chabaesele
Syllabus
iThuteng Notes
JCE Revision questions
Past exams

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_________________________________
Compiled by:

Kevin Thabo Chabaesele

04/07/2025

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SYLLABUS
Form 1
Module 1
UNIT 1.1 – INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
Topic Objectives
Meaning of agriculture 1.1.1.1 define agriculture.
Importance of agriculture 1.1.1.2 explain the importance of agriculture in Botswana.
Relationship between agric. and other science subjects 1.1.1.3 explain the relationship
Branches of agriculture 1.1.2.1 name at least 4 branches of agriculture.
Types of farming practiced in Botswana 1.1.2.2 explain what each branch entails.
1.1.2.3 name 2 types of farming practised in Botswana.
1.1.2.4 state the difference between arable and livestock farming.
1.1.2.5 state the difference between commercial and subsistence farming.
Food production situation in Botswana 1.1.3.1 describe the food production situation in Botswana in terms of supply and demand of
Factors limiting agric. production in Botswana and foodstuffs in general.
solutions to them 1.1.3.2 name at least 5 factors limiting food production and security in Botswana.
Botswana govt. strategies for improving food production 1.1.3.3 state the difference between food security and food self-sufficiency.
and security 1.1.3.4 suggest at least 4 ways by which food production and security in Botswana can be
improved.
1.1.3.5 list the strategies adopted by Botswana govt. to improve food production and security.
Career and training opportunities in agriculture 1.1.4.1 name at least 5 careers in agriculture.
1.1.4.2 explain what is involved in each of the named careers.
1.1.4.3 name at least 3 institutions offering training in agriculture in Botswana.
1.1.4.4 state what each of the listed institutions offer.
1.1.4.5 state pre-requisites for entry into each of the listed institutions.
UNIT 1.2 – SOIL
Importance of soil 1.2.1.1 define soil.
Soil constituents 1.2.1.2 state the importance of soil.
1.2.1.3 name 4 constituents of soil.
1.2.1.4 give the percentage composition of each soil constituent.
Soil formation 1.2.2.1 explain what weathering of rocks is.
1.2.2.2 describe how physical, chemical and biological weathering processes occur.
1.2.2.3 give at least 3 examples of each of the following: physical, chemical and biological
weathering agents.
Soil types and their 1.2.3.1 name 3 types of soil.
characteristics 1.2.3.2 identify clay, loam and sandy soils.
1.2.3.3 describe the characteristics of sandy, clay and loam soils.
1.2.3.4 determine the suitability of different types of soils for the growth of different types of
crops.
Soil texture and structure 1.2.4.1 differentiate between soil structure and soil texture.
1.2.4.2 describe the different types of soil texture and structure.
1.2.4.3 identify the different types of soil textures and structures.
1.2.4.4 explain how the different types of soil textures and structures influence or affect crop
production.
Soil pH (meaning, importance, effects, control and how 1.2.5.1 define soil pH.
to determine soil pH) 1.2.5.2 explain the relationship between soil pH and plant growth.
1.2.5.3 measure/determine the pH of given soil sample.
1.2.5.4 explain how soil pH can be controlled.
Soil fertility:- meaning, major and minor elements 1.2.7.1 define soil fertility.
(sources, functions, deficiency symptoms and loss from 1.2.7.2 name all the major and minor elements.
the soil) 1.2.7.3 explain why some elements are classified as major and others as minor.
1.2.7.4 name 3 major elements commonly found in fertilizers.
1.2.7.5 name the sources of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
1.2.7.6 state the functions of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
1.2.7.7 describe the symptoms displayed by plants lacking nitrogen, phosphorous or
potassium.
1.2.7.8 describe the symptoms displayed by plants having excess supply of nitrogen,
phosphorous or potassium.

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1.2.7.9 identify plants lacking nitrogen, phosphorous or potassium.

1.2.7.10 explain how nitrogen, phosphorous and or potassium can be lost from the soil.
1.2.7.11 suggest ways by which soil fertility can be maintained or improved.
Organic and inorganic fertilizers (meaning, 1.2.8.1 state the difference between organic and inorganic fertilizers.
examples, types, methods of application, effects on plant 1.2.8.2 give examples of organic and inorganic fertilizers.
growth and in the 1.2.8.3 state the advantages and disadvantages of using organic and inorganic fertilizers.
environment) 1.2.8.4 demonstrate how to apply fertilizer in the crop field using different methods.
1.2.8.5 explain why seedlings should not be in direct contact with fertilizer.
1.2.8.6 explain what would happen if excess manure is added to the soil.
1.2.8.7 explain the negative effects of continued use of fertilizers on the environment.
Soil erosion and conservation 1.2.9.1 define soil erosion.
1.2.9.2 name at least 3 types of soil erosion.
1.2.9.3 describe how each type of erosion occurs.
1.2.9.4 differentiate between causes and agents of erosion.
1.2.9.5 name at least 3 agents of soil erosion.
1.2.9.6 outline at least 5 causes of soil erosion.
1.2.9.7 describe the effects of soil erosion on the environment.
1.2.9.8 - explain why it is important to conserve the soil.
1.2.9.9 suggest at least 5 methods by which soil erosion can be controlled.
1.2.9.10- suggest ways by which eroded land can be brought back to productive use.
UNIT 1.3 – PLANT GROWTH
Germination:- types of germination, seedling 1.3.1.1 define germination.
emergence 1.3.1.2 state the conditions necessary for seed germination.
1.3.1.3 name 2 types of germination.
1.3.1.4 describe the types of germination named above (in 3.1.3).
1.3.1.5 explain what seedling emergence is.
Requirements for plant growth 1.3.2.1 list 5 requirements for plant growth.
Water - functions, how plants adapt to water 1.3.2.2 give 5 functions of water in plant growth.
deficit and loss of water from the soil and plant 1.3.2.3 suggest at least 2 ways by which water can be lost from a plant and from the soil.
Air - functions in plant growth, respiration and its 1.3.2.4 explain how plants adapt to shortage of water.
equation (word equation) 1.3.2.5 give at least 3 functions of air in plant growth.
1.3.2.6 define respiration.
1.3.2.7 explain what respiration is using the word equation.
Temperature - effects on plant growth and how to 1.3.2.8 explain how temperature affects plant growth.
control it 1.3.2.9 suggest at least 3 ways by which soil temperature can be controlled.
Sunlight - role of light in plant growth, 1.3.2.10 define photosynthesis.
photosynthesis and its word equation 1.3.2.11 explain what photosynthesis is using the word equation.
Nutrients - role in plant growth 1.3.2.12 name the requirements for photosynthesis to occur.
1.3.2.13 explain what happens if seedlings are deprived of sunlight.
1.3.2.14 explain the role of nutrients in plant growth in general terms.
MODULE 2:
UNIT 2.1 – FARM IMPLEMENTS
Tools, implements and machines 2.1.1.1 differentiate between a tool and a machine.
Advantages and disadvantages of mechanization 2.1.1.2 state the advantages and disadvantages of mechanization.
Farm implements and their specific use 2.1.2.1 give examples of hand tools.
- hand tools 2.1.2.2 identify some hand tools in farming and their specific uses.
- primary tillage implements 2.1.2.3 state the difference between primary and secondary tillage.
- secondary tillage implements 2.1.2.4 state the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary tillage.
- planting and fertilizer application implements 2.1.2.5 identify at least 3 primary and 3 secondary tillage implements.
2.1.2.6 name implements used for planting and those for fertilizer application.
2.1.2.7 identify at least 1 planting and 1 fertilizer application implement.
2.1.2.8 select appropriate tools or machines for specified farm activities.
Tractor vs animal drawn implements 2.1.3.1 give at least 3 examples of implements drawn by tractors and those drawn by animals.
2.1.3.2 identify 3 tractor and 3 animal drawn implements.
Farm implements developed in Botswana 2.1.4.1 name implements developed in Botswana.
and their specific uses 2.1.4.2 state the specific use of each implement mentioned.
2.1.4.3 identify at least 2 farm implements developed in Botswana.
Safety and handling of farm implements 2.1.5.1 describe how farm tools and machines should be handled.
General care and maintenance of farm implements 2.1.5.2 describe how farm tools and machines are generally taken care of to ensure that they
last longer.
2.1.5.3 use or handle farm tools and machines safely.

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Study a mouldboard plough:- parts, functions 2.1.6.1 name the parts of a mouldboard plough.
of its parts, general care and maintenance of the plough 2.1.6.2 identify a mouldboard plough.
2.1.6.3 draw a mouldboard plough and label its parts.
2.1.6.4 state the functions of the parts named.
2.1.6.5 identify the various parts of a mouldboard plough.
2.1.6.6 describe the type of care and maintenance necessary when using a mouldboard
plough.
UNIT 2.2 – ANIMAL NUTRITION
Reasons for feeding animals 2.2.1.1 explain what animal nutrition is
2.2.1.2 state the reasons for feeding animals.
Digestive systems of ruminants and nonruminants (goat, 2.2.2.1 explain what digestion is.
pig and poultry) 2.2.2.2 differentiate between a ruminant and non-ruminant.
2.2.2.3 draw the digestive tract of ruminants and non-ruminants.
2.2.2.4 state the functions of the various parts of the digestive systems of ruminants and non-
ruminants.
2.2.2.5 describe how digestion occurs in a ruminant and non-ruminant.
Essential food substances 2.2.3.1 name at least 6 essential food substances needed by animals.
2.2.3.2 explain the importance of each food substance in animal nutrition.
Types of rations: 2.2.4.1 explain what a ration is.
- balanced, maintenance and production 2.2.4.2 define a balanced ration.
2.2.4.3 differentiate between maintenance and production ration.
2.2.4.4 give examples of maintenance and production rations.
Types of livestock feeds: 2.2.5.1 explain what roughage is.
- roughages and concentrates 2.2.5.2 name the types of roughages.
2.2.5.3 give at least 3 examples of feeds classified as roughages.
2.2.5.4 explain the nutritional value of roughages.
2.2.5.5 explain what concentrates are.
2.2.5.6 name the different types of concentrates.
2.2.5.7 give at least 3 examples of feeds classified as concentrates.
2.2.5.8 explain the nutritional value of concentrates.
2.2.5.9 compare and contrast the nutritional value of roughage and concentrate feeds.
Supplementary feeding 2.2.6.1 explain what supplementary feeding is.
- meaning, examples of locally available 2.2.6.2 give at least 3 examples of supplementary feeds for livestock found in Botswana.
supplementary feeds and their nutritional value 2.2.6.3 explain the significance of supplementary feeds in livestock production.
2.2.6.4 identify some supplementary feeds for livestock in Botswana.
Nutritional diseases affecting livestock in 2.2.7.1 explain what nutritional diseases are.
Botswana 2.2.7.2 give 2 examples of nutritional diseases affecting livestock production in Botswana.
2.2.7.3 describe the cause(s), symptoms, control and preventative measures against
aphosphorosis.
UNIT 2.3 – PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION
Systems of crop production: 2.3.1.1 define monoculture, mixed cropping, continuous cropping, inter- cropping and crop
- monoculture, mixed cropping, continuous rotation.
cropping, inter-cropping and crop rotation 2.3.1.2 state the advantages and disadvantages of each of the systems mentioned above (under
2.3.1.1).
2.3.1.3 state the principles of crop rotation.
2.3.11.4 give examples of how crop rotation can be practiced when growing at least three
different field crops.
Factors determining site selection 2.3.2.1 outline the factors considered when determining where a garden or field should be
located.
2.3.2.2 explain why the above factors should be considered in site selection.
2.3.2.3 select a suitable site for growing crops.
Land preparation: 2.3.3.1 state the reasons for clearing or distumping crop fields.
- clearing and or distumping 2.3.3.2 explain the reasons for cultivating the soil.
- cultivation and levelling 2.3.3.3 state the reasons for levelling the soil after cultivation.
- fertilizer application 2.3.3.4 state the reasons for applying fertilizer before planting.
Methods of planting seeds: 2.3.4.1 explain the difference between broadcasting and row planting.
- broadcasting and row planting 2.3.4.2 state the advantages and disadvantages of broadcasting and row planting.
- direct and indirect methods 2.3.4.3 advance reasons as to why most farmers in Botswana broadcast instead of row plant
seeds.
2.3.4.4 explain the difference between direct and indirect planting methods.
2.3.4.5 give examples of crops usually planted directly and those planted indirectly.

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2.3.4.6 state the advantages and disadvantages of direct and indirect planting methods.
2.3.4.7 determine the appropriate method of planting to use when growing different types of
crops.
Depth of planting and spacing of crops 2.3.5.1 explain the factors influencing the depth of planting seeds.
2.3.5.2 determine the appropriate depth of planting seeds of named crops.
2.3.5.3 explain the factors influencing the spacing of crops.
2.3.5.4 determine the appropriate spacing of named crops.
Management practices: 2.3.6.1 define mulching and weeding.
- watering, mulching and weeding 2.3.6.2 state the reasons for watering, mulching and weeding.
- thinning, transplanting and supporting plants 2.3.6.3 demonstrate how to water without destroying the seedlings or digging the soil.
2.3.6.4 name materials used for mulching.
2.3.6.5 suggest the appropriate time to remove mulch after planting seeds.
2.3.6.6 explain what happens when mulch is not removed after seedling emergence.
2.3.6.7 give examples of common weeds found in Botswana
2.3.6.8 explain what a parasitic weed is.
2.3.6.9 suggest at least 3 ways by which weeds can be controlled.
2.3.7.1 explain thinning, transplanting, trellising and staking.
2.3.7.2 state the advantages and disadvantages of thinning, transplanting and supporting
plants.
2.3.7.3 demonstrate how to thin.
2.3.7.4 determine the correct space to thin named crops.
2.3.7.5 demonstrate how to transplant seedlings.
2.3.7.6 identify tools used for transplanting.
2.3.7.7 determine the appropriate time to transplant seedlings.
- common crop pests 2.3.8.1 define a pest.
2.3.8.2 give at least 5 examples of common crop pests.
2.3.8.3 identify at least 5 common crop pests.
2.3.8.4 describe the type of damage caused by crop pests.
2.3.8.5 describe methods used to control crop pests in general.
- common crop diseases 2.3.9.1 give at least 5 examples of common crop diseases.
2.3.9.2 describe ways by which crop diseases can be controlled in general.
Harvesting crops 2.3.10.1 describe the methods of harvesting crops in general.
2.3.10.2 list tools/machines used for harvesting.
Storage of crops (methods used) 2.3.11.1 describe at least 4 methods (traditional and modern) of storing crops after harvesting.
Crop damage during storage (what is responsible for 2.3.11.2 identify different crop storage facilities (both traditional and modern).
that) 2.3.11.3 state at least 2 possible cause(s) of crop damage during storage.
2.3.11.4 suggest measures that can be taken to prevent damage of crops during storage from
occurring.
MODULE 3:
UNIT 3.1 – FIELD CROP PRODUCTION
Field crops grown in Botswana Importance of field 3.1.1.1 name at least 5 field crops grown in Botswana.
crops and their by-products 3.1.1.2 identify at least 5 field crops grown in Botswana.
3.1.1.3 state the importance of field crops and their products.
3.1.1.4 identify at least 2 field crop by- products.
Classification of field crops 3.1.2.1 name the classes to which different field crops belong.
3.1.2.2 determine the class to which a given list of field crops belong.
Supply and demand of grain in Botswana 3.1.3.1 describe the grain production situation in Botswana with regards to supply and
Govt. strategies to improve crop production in Botswana demand.
3.1.3.2 name the countries which supply grain to Botswana.
3.1.3.3 outline the strategies govt. has adopted to improve the production and supply of grain
in Botswana.
Cereal and legume crops Grow and study one cereal and 3.1.4.1 name the varieties of the cereal and legume crops under study.
one legume crop following the guidelines below 3.1.4.2 describe the type of soil and climatic conditions necessary for the growth of the cereal
- varieties grown in Botswana and legume crops under study.
- soil and climatic requirements 3.1.4.3 name the type of manure or fertilizer required for the normal growth of the cereal and
- manure/fertilizer requirements legume crops under study.
3.1.4.4 calculate the amount of fertilizer (if given the rate of application per hectare) to be
applied when growing the cereal and legume crops under study.
3.1.4.5 measure/weigh accurately the fertilizer to be added to the soil when growing the cereal
and legume crops under study.
3.1.4.6 apply fertilizer using appropriate methods.

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3.1.4.7 select an appropriate method of fertilizer application when growing crops.

3.1.4.8 state the precautions to be taken into account when applying fertilizer in crop fields.
- seed treatment methods 3.1.5.1 state the reasons for treating seeds before planting.
- planting depth and spacing 3.1.5.2 describe the various methods (both traditional and modern) of treating seeds.
3.1.5.3 outline the precautions to be taken when handling treated seeds.
3.1.5.4 determine the appropriate depth of planting and spacing of the crops under study.
- management practices e.g. weeding, watering, 3.1.6.1 practice correct management when raising crops under study.
thinning, pest and disease control 3.1.6.2 list pests and diseases that affect the crops under study.
3.1.6.3 identify pests and diseases causing damage to the crops under study.
3.1.6.4 state the methods used to control the identified pests and diseases of the crops under
study.
3.1.6.5 outline the precautions that have to be taken into account when using chemicals and or
pesticides.
3.1.6.6 describe the effects of pesticides or chemicals used in crop fields on the environment.
3.1.6.7 suggest methods of controlling pests which are not detrimental to the environment.
3.1.6.8 demonstrate how to correctly use a sprayer.
3.1.6.9 name at least 5 chemicals that are used to control pests and diseases affecting the
crops under study.
- harvesting, marketing and marketing channels 3.1.7.1 describe how the crops under study can be harvested and marketed.
- storage pests (affecting crops under study) 3.1.7.2 determine market prices for harvested legume and cereal crops.
3.1.7.3 name at least 2 storage pests affecting each of the crops under study.
3.1.7.4 identify at least 2 storage pests affecting each of the crops under study.
3.1.7.5 identify the damage caused by storage pests on the crops studied.
3.1.7.6 list 2 methods that can be used to treat or protect stored seeds of crops under study
from pest damage.
UNIT 3.2 – BEE- KEEPING
Importance of beekeeping 3.2.1.1 state the importance of bees and bee-keeping in Botswana.
Bee anatomy 3.2.2.1 identify different parts of a bee.
Adaptation to environment 3.2.2.2 state the functions of each of the parts identified.
3.2.2.3 describe the male and female reproductive system of bees.
3.2.2.4 describe the digestive system of a bee.
3.2.2.5 explain how bees adapt to the environment.
Bee biology: members of colony, duties and queen 3.2.3.1 describe the composition of a bee colony.
breeding 3.2.3.2 identify members of a bee colony.
3.2.3.3 state the duties of each member of the bee colony.
Bee manipulation 3.2.4.1 explain what bee manipulation involves.
3.2.4.2 describe the precautions to be taken when manipulating bees.
3.2.4.3 identify equipment used when manipulating bees.
3.2.4.4 demonstrate how to manipulate bees.
Bee keeping management 3.2.5.1 state factors to consider when choosing a site for bee-keeping.
- site selection 3.2.5.2 list material required when embarking on a bee-keeping project.
- equipment 3.2.5.3 describe how to make bee hive.
- harvesting and marketing bee products 3.2.5.4 demonstrate how to make a bee hive
3.2.5.5 describe how to catch bees and the precautions to be taken.
3.2.5.6 name at least 2 bee products.
3.2.5.7 describe how to harvest and market bee products.
Bee pests and diseases 3.2.6.1 name at least 4 pests of bees.
3.2.6.2 identify at least 3 pests of bees.
3.2.6.3 name at least 3 diseases affecting bees.
Bee toxicology 3.2.7.1 define bee toxicology.
3.2.7.2 list 5 chemicals harmful to bees.
Govt. funding and agencies 3.2.8.1 outline the govt. strategies for improving production of bee products in Botswana.
3.2.8.2 identify at least 3 sources of funding for bee production enterprises in Botswana.
UNIT 3.3 – FISH FARMING
Importance of fish 3.3.1.1 state the economic and nutritional value of fish.
Current state of fish production in Botswana 3.3.1.2 describe the current state of fish production industry in Botswana.
Factors limiting fish production in Botswana 3.3.1.3 state the factors limiting fish production in Botswana.
Govt. strategies for improving fish production in 3.3.2.1 describe the strategies adopted by govt. to improve fish production in Botswana.
Botswana
Elementary biology of fish - external parts of fish 3.3.3.1 draw and label a diagram showing fish.
3.3.3.2 identify the external parts of a fish.

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3.3.3.3 state the functions of the various external parts shown on the diagram.
Breeds and types of fish 3.3.4.1 name at least 4 types of fish.
3.3.4.2 identify at least 3 types of fish found in Botswana.
Construction of a fish pond 3.3.5.1 list materials required for the construction of a fish pond
- materials required 3.3.5.2 describe how to construct a fish pond.
- how to construct the pond
Management of fish 3.3.6.1 name the different types of feeds for fish.
- feeding and types of feeds 3.3.6.2 identify at least 4 feeds for fish.
- handling of fish 3.3.6.3 determine the amount of feed to be given to fish in a fish pond.
- controlling fish population 3.3.6.4 describe how live fish should be handled and safely transported.
3.3.6.5 outline at least 2 methods used to control fish population.
Parasites and diseases of fish 3.3.7.1 name at least 4 parasites of fish.
3.3.7.2 name at least 4 diseases affecting fish.
3.3.7.3 describe the cause, transmission, symptoms, control and prevention of any 1
nutritional and 1 parasitic disease of fish.
Fishing methods 3.3.8.1 name the tools/equipment needed to catch fish.
- what to use to catch fish 3.3.8.2 identify tools or equipment used for catching fish.
- how to catch fish 3.3.8.3 describe how to catch fish.
3.3.8.4 demonstrate how to catch fish in a fish pond.
Processing of fish 3.3.9.1 describe at least 2 methods of processing and preserving fish.
- methods of processing fish 3.3.9.2 outline the advantages and disadvantages of each method of processing fish.
Marketing of fish 3.3.10.1 describe the form in which fish can be marketed.
- form in which fish can be marketed 3.310.2 identify places where fish can be marketed in Botswana.
- availability of markets for fish

FORM 2
MODULE 4:
UNIT 4.1 – INTRODUCTION TO FARM MANAGEMENT
Principles of farm management: 4.1.1.1 explain what farm management is.
- demand and its determinants 4.1.1.2 state the importance of farm management.
- supply and its determinants 4.1.1.3 explain what demand is.
- determination of market price 4.1.1.4 state the factors influencing demand of any given commodity.
4.1.1.5 explain what supply is.
4.1.1.6 state the factors influencing supply of any given commodity.
4.1.1.7 explain what a market price is.
4.1.1.8 outline the determinants of market price.
Functions of management 4.1.2.1 state the general functions of management in a business venture.
4.1.2.2 state at least 5 qualities of a good manager.
4.1.2.3 develop a simple business plan.
Problems of production and marketing farm produce in 4.1.3.1 state at least 5 problems experienced by commercial farmers in terms of production
Botswana and suggested solutions and marketing of their produce in Botswana.
4.1.3.2 suggest how the identified problems can be solved.
Farm records: 4.1.4.1 state at least 5 reasons for keeping farm records.
- importance, types and preparation of farm records 4.1.4.2 give examples of at least 3 different types of farm records.
4.1.4.3 prepare different types of farm records based on any school agriculture project or
enterprise.
4.1.4.4 define profit and loss.
4.1.4.5 draw up a profit and loss account of any school agriculture enterprise.
4.1.4.6 determine whether an enterprise has made a loss or a profit.
4.1.4.7 determine which aspects of the enterprise contributed to the loss or profit made and
why.
Budgeting:- meaning, importance and preparation of a 4.1.5.1 explain what budgeting is.
budget 4.1.5.2 give at least 5 reasons for budgeting.
4.1.5.3 prepare a budget for any chosen farm enterprise.
4.1.5.4 determine from the budget whether the enterprise is likely to be viable or not.
Funding for agriculture enterprises: 4.1.6.1 name at least 3 institutions, organisations or agencies providing funding for
- sources of funding agriculture enterprises.
- application for funding (how, security required 4.1.6.2 describe the application process for funding from the identified agencies.
and conditions for receiving funds) 4.1.6.3 state the conditions (if any) attached to funding of agriculture enterprises.
4.1.6.4 complete application forms from some of the identified funding institutions.

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UNIT 4.2 – RANGE/PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Meaning of range, rangeland and range management 4.2.1.1 explain the terms range, rangeland and range management.
Factors affecting range management in Botswana 4.2.1.2 state the factors affecting range management in Botswana.
Types of natural vegetation found in Botswana 4.2.2.1 describe the types of natural vegetation found in Botswana.
Physical composition of range and balance of species - 4.2.2.2 describe the composition of range and the balance of grass and woody plant species in
identification of range plants Botswana’s rangeland.
4.2.2.3 identify at least 5 range plants.
Grass and legume species available for livestock 4.2.3.1 name at least 4 common grass and 2 legume plant species found in Botswana.
consumption in Botswana 4.2.3.2 identify at least 3 grass and 2 legume plant species found in Botswana.
4.2.3.3 give examples of at least 3 grass and 2 legume species suitable for livestock
consumption in Botswana.
Problems of range management in Botswana 4.2.4.1 outline the factors affecting range land productivity in Botswana.
Effects of grazing on range:- overgrazing, overstocking, 4.2.4.2 state the problems affecting range management in Botswana.
stocking rate, carrying capacity and livestock unit 4.2.4.3 define overgrazing, overstocking, stocking rate, carrying capacity and livestock unit.
4.2.4.4 describe the effects of overgrazing and overstocking on range land.
4.2.4.5 suggest ways by which destruction of range and rangeland can be avoided.
Systems of grazing:- continuous, rotational, strip and 4.2.5.1 explain what continuous, rotational, strip and zero grazing systems mean.
zero grazing 4.2.5.2 state the advantages and disadvantages of continuous, rotational, strip and zero
grazing systems.
Range management and improvement 4.2.6.1 explain the importance of good range utilization and management.
- importance of good range utilization 4.2.6.2 state at least 4 principles of range management.
- methods of improving range 4.2.6.3 describe what should be done to improve range.
Fodder crop production and conservation 4.2.7.1 name the different types of fodder.
- types of fodder, 4.2.7.2 describe the different methods of growing and managing fodder crops.
methods of growing fodder crops, management, 4.2.7.3 describe how fodder crops are harvested.
utilization/ harvesting, preservation or conservation 4.2.7.4 suggest ways by which fodder crops can be preserved or conserved for later use.
MODULE 5:
UNIT 5.1 – CHICKEN PRODUCTION
Importance of chicken production Supply and demand 5.1.1.1 explain the importance of chicken production in Botswana.
of chicken products in Botswana 5.1.1.2 describe the supply and demand situation in Botswana with regards to chicken
products.
Factors limiting chicken production in Botswana 5.1.2.1 state the factors limiting chicken production in Botswana.
Govt. contribution towards improved 5.1.2.2 suggest ways by which the limiting factors can be overcome.
chicken production in Botswana 5.1.2.3 describe the measures govt. of Botswana has adopted to help improve chicken
Sources of funding for chicken production production and its supply in the country.
5.1.2.4 name at least 2 sources of funding for chicken production in Botswana.
Breeds of layers and broilers 5.1.3.1 list the different breeds of layers and broilers.
5.1.3.2 describe the characteristics of layer and broiler breeds.
Reproductive system of a hen 5.1.4.1 draw and label a diagram showing the reproductive system of a hen.
5.1.4.2 state the functions of the reproductive parts labelled.
Structure of an egg 5.1.5.1 draw and label a diagram showing the structure of an egg.
Planning to start a chicken production 5.1.6.1 state the factors to be considered when deciding the type of chickens to raise and the
enterprise methods of production to adopt.
- deciding the type of chickens to raise and 5.1.6.2 state the differences between financial and production records.
methods of production 5.1.6.3 give examples of financial and production records prepared when raising chickens.
- financial and production records 5.1.6.4 prepare and use financial and production record sheets for the chicken production
enterprise.
Starting a chicken production enterprise 5.1.7.1 list materials needed for the construction of a chicken house.
- construction of a chicken house (if not already present) 5.1.7.2 estimate the cost and quantity of the listed materials basing on a given area or size of a
- identifying sources of chicken supply chicken house.
- preparations for arrival of chickens 5.1.7.3 name sources of supply of chickens.
5.1.7.4 describe the type and nature of preparations necessary before acquiring chickens for
the enterprise.
Management of the chickens 5.1.8.1 name the different types of feeds provided to broilers and layers from a day old until
- feeding and types of feeds for broilers and layers maturity.
- cleaning and litter management 5.1.8.2 describe the composition of each type of feed given to broilers and layers and why
such feed is necessary.
5.1.8.3 determine the appropriate amount of feed to be given to broilers and layers.
5.1.8.4 explain why it is important to keep the chicken house clean.
5.1.8.5 describe how litter should be managed in a chicken house.

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- provision of water 5.1.9.1 explain why clean water should be made available at all times when managing a
chicken enterprise.
- brooding and rearing of chicks 5.1.10.1 define brooding.
5.1.10.2 describe 4 methods of brooding chicks.
5.1.10.3 list materials required for the construction of a brooding unit.
5.1.10.4 explain why the brooding unit should be round.
5.1.10.5 describe at least 2 methods of heating a brooding unit.
5.1.10.6 explain why the brooding unit should be made warm before arrival of chicks.
5.1.10.7 describe the type of care that should be accorded to young birds or chicks in a
brooding unit.
- incubation (artificial and natural) 5.1.11.1 explain what incubation is.
- culling, debeaking, and vaccination 5.1.11.2 describe how incubation of eggs is done.
5.1.11.3 explain the reasons for culling, debeaking and vaccinating chickens.
5.1.11.4 state the criteria used when culling chickens.
5.1.11.5 describe how debeaking is carried out in chickens.
Parasites - Mites: harm caused and control measures 5.1.12.1 define a parasite.
5.1.12.2 give examples of common chicken parasites (internal and external).
5.1.12.3 identify mites.
5.1.12.4 describe the harm caused by mites to chickens.
5.1.12.5 state the measures taken to control mites.
Diseases - New Castle and Coccidiosis: causes, 5.1.13.1 name at least 4 diseases affecting chickens.
symptoms, treatment, control and prevention 5.1.13.2 name the cause(s) of Newcastle and coccidiosis.
5.1.13.3 state the symptoms of Newcastle and coccidiosis.
5.1.13.4 identify chickens affected by Newcastle and coccidiosis diseases.
5.1.13.5 state the treatment, control and preventative measures against Newcastle and
coccidiosis.
Marketing of chicken products 5.1.14.1 state the factors influencing the price of chicken products.
- determining price of the products 5.1.14.2 determine the price of chicken products.
- slaughtering the chickens 5.1.14.3 describe how chickens are slaughtered.
- grading, candling and packaging of eggs 5.1.14.4 describe how the eggs are graded and packaged before marketing.
5.1.14.5 rank the egg grades according to quality and or price from highest to lowest.
5.1.14.6 explain what candling is.
5.1.14.7 state the purpose of candling eggs.
5.1.14.8 demonstrate how candling of eggs is done.
5.1.14.9 determine whether the chicken production enterprise was profitable or not.
MODULE 6:
UNIT 6.1 – FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION
Fruits and fruit trees found in Botswana 6.1.1.1 name at least 5 fruits and fruit trees found in Botswana.
Importance of fruits and fruit trees 6.1.1.2 identify at least 5 fruits and fruit trees found in Botswana.
6.1.1.3 state the importance of fruits and fruit trees.
Requirements for the establishment of an orchard 6.1.2.1 name at least 5 requirements for the establishment of an orchard.
Factors influencing the choice of fruit trees to grow 6.1.2.2 name at least 4 factors influencing the choice of fruit trees to grow.
Preparations for growing fruit trees 6.1.3.1 list materials required for the construction of a nursery.
- construction of a nursery 6.1.3.2 identify materials required for nursery construction.
- preparation of the soil and fertilizer requirements 6.1.3.3 explain the significance of net shading in a nursery.
Planting fruit trees in a nursery 6.1.3.4 name the types of soil or media and fertilizers used in a nursery bed when propagating
trees.
6.1.3.5 describe the type of preparations necessary before planting fruit trees.
Methods of propagating fruit trees: 6.1.4.1 differentiate between sexual and asexual propagation.
- sexual propagation 6.1.4.2 give examples of fruit trees that are sexually and those asexually propagated.
- asexual propagation (cuttings, grafting, 6.1.4.3 define grafting, budding, cutting and layering.
- budding, layering and use of suckers) 6.1.4.4 describe using diagrams how plant propagation is carried out using cuttings, grafting,
budding, layering and suckers.
6.1.4.5 determine the size of cuttings to use when propagating trees.
6.1.4.6 demonstrate how fruit trees are propagated using seeds, cuttings, by grafting, budding,
layering and use of suckers.
6.1.4.7 determine the appropriate time for propagating fruit trees using asexual methods.
General care of seedlings in a nursery 6.1.5.1 describe the care necessary when seedlings are in a nursery.
6.1.5.2 manage seedlings correctly in a nursery.
Preparations for planting seedlings in an orchard 6.1.6.1 name the factors influencing the size and or depth of planting hole for a fruit tree
- preparing planting holes seedling.

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- factors determining spacing and size of hole 6.1.6.2 name the factors determining the spacing between fruit trees.
- soil and fertilizer mixtures/ratio 6.1.6.3 use a tape measure to measure accurately the dimensions of planting holes and spacing
- transplanting seedlings between plants.
6.1.6.4 prepare planting holes of appropriate dimensions for seedlings.
6.1.6.5 determine the appropriate soil to fertilizer ratios that are applicable for given
situations.
6.1.6.6 demonstrate how to transplant and plant a fruit tree seedling in the orchard.
6.1.6.7 describe using diagrams how a fruit tree seedling is planted in a hole and the necessary
precautions that have to be taken into account when transplanting.
General care and management of fruit trees in the 6.1.7.1 describe the general management practices carried out in an orchard and why each is
orchard necessary.
6.1.7.2 demonstrate how the general management practices are carried out.
Harvesting and marketing 6.1.8.1 describe the methods of harvesting fruits.
6.1.8.2 demonstrate how to harvest any named fruit tree.
6.1.8.3 name the factors considered when marketing fruit trees.
UNIT 6.2 – FORESTRY
Importance of trees and tree products Indigenous and 6.2.1.1 give examples of indigenous and exotic trees found in Botswana.
exotic trees 6.2.1.2 identify at least 5 indigenous and 5 exotic trees found in Botswana.
6.2.1.3 give examples of tree products found in Botswana.
6.2.1.4 state the importance of trees and named tree products.
Veld products 6.2.2.1 explain what veld products are.
6.2.2.2 give examples of veld products found in Botswana.
6.2.2.3 state the uses of the veld products identified.
Sources of tree seedlings 6.2.3.1 name at least 2 sources of tree seeds and 3 sources of tree seedlings in Botswana.
Collecting, sorting and storage of seeds 6.2.3.2 describe how seeds of trees are collected in terms of stage of maturity and location of
seeds in the tree.
6.2.3.3 explain why it is not a good idea to collect seeds which have been lying on the ground
for some time.
Factors determining germination of seeds 6.2.4.1 state the factors inhibiting germination of tree seeds.
Treatment of seeds before planting 6.2.4.2 explain what could be done to improve the germination percentage of tree seeds.
6.2.4.3 calculate the percentage germination of tree seeds.
6.2.4.4 describe methods used to treat tree seeds before planting.
Preparations for planting seeds 6.2.5.1 describe how soil should be prepared before planting tree seeds and seedlings.
- soil preparation 6.2.5.2 describe the different procedures or methods of planting tree seeds and seedlings.
Planting tree seeds 6.2.5.3 state the factors influencing the depth of planting seeds.
- methods of planting 6.2.5.4 determine the appropriate depth of planting any given tree seeds and or seedlings.
- depth of planting
Management of tree seedlings (as in 6.1.5 and 6.1.7)
Management of woodlots 6.2.6.1 explain what a woodlot is.
6.2.6.2 explain why it is necessary to correctly manage existing woodlots in Botswana.
6.2.6.3 describe how woodlots should be effectively managed or utilized.
Forestry conservation 6.2.7.1 define forestry conservation .
6.2.7.2 explain the importance of forestry conservation.
6.2.7.3 describe ways by which forests can be conserved.
Agro-forestry 6.2.8.1 explain what agro-forestry is.
6.2.8.2 describe agro-forestry practices.

FORM 3
MODULE 7:
UNIT 7.1 – VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Vegetable crops grown in Botswana (indigenous and 7.1.1.1 name at least 8 exotic and 2 indigenous vegetable crops found or grown in Botswana.
exotic) 7.1.1.2 identify at least 8 exotic and 2 indigenous vegetable crops grown in Botswana.
Importance of vegetable crops 7.1.1.3 state the importance of vegetables (economically and nutritionally).
Supply and demand situation and opportunities for 7.1.2.1 describe the supply and demand of vegetable production
development in Botswana situation in Botswana and the opportunities for further development.
Factors limiting vegetable production in Botswana and 7.1.2.2 state at least 5 factors hampering the improvement of vegetable production in
suggested solutions Botswana.
Govt. strategies towards improving vegetable production 7.1.2.3 describe what govt. of Botswana is doing to help improve the supply and production
in Botswana of vegetables in the country.

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Requirements for the establishment of a vegetable 7.1.3.1 state the requirements for the establishment of a vegetable enterprise.
enterprise
Planning to start a vegetable production enterprise 7.1.4.1 state the factors to be considered when deciding which vegetable crops to grow.
- choosing the vegetable crops to grow 7.1.4.2 state the factors to consider when deciding the method of production to adopt.
- deciding the method of production (whether benches or
plots)
Study and grow any two of the following classes of 7.1.5.1 give examples of vegetable crops classified as leaf, legume, root, fruit, bulb and
crops: leaf, legume, root, fruit, bulb and flower. flower.
Discuss each crop under the headings listed below: 7.1.5.2 explain the basis for the above classification of vegetable crops.
- classification of the crops under study 7.1.5.3 name at least 4 varieties of vegetable crops chosen for study.
- varieties of the crops under study 7.1.5.4 identify at least 2 varieties of vegetable crops chosen for study.
- soil and climatic requirements 7.1.6.1 describe the type of soil and climate suitable for the vegetable crops under study.
- fertilizer requirements 7.1.6.2 name the types of fertilizers that would be necessary when growing the selected
vegetable crop.
7.1.6.3 give specific examples of inorganic fertilizers that are used when growing vegetable
crops.
7.1.6.4 state the reasons for adding fertilizer to the soil.
7.1.6.5 calculate the amount of fertilizer to be added to the soil when growing crops under
study.
- types of plots to prepare for the crops 7.1.7.1 name the different types of plots on which to grow vegetable crops.
7.1.7.2 describe how each type of plot is prepared.
7.1.7.3 state the advantages and disadvantages of each type of plot named.
7.1.7.4 compare the different types of plots in terms of their advantages and disadvantages
and determine which one would be suitable for vegetable production in their locality.
Planting the crops 7.1.8.1 describe the activities necessary before and during planting of the crop under study.
7.1.8.2 explain the reasons for carrying out activities described above
Management practices for the crops e.g. 7.1.9.1 describe the management activities essential when growing the vegetable crops under
watering, weeding, thinning, etc study and why they are essential.
7.1.9.2 practice appropriate management when growing vegetable crops.
Pests affecting crops under study 7.1.10.1 name at least 4 pests affecting the vegetable crops under study.
7.1.10.2 identify at least 4 pests affecting the vegetable crops under study.
7.1.10.3 describe the type of damage caused by the pests affecting the crops under study and
how the identified pests can be controlled.
Diseases affecting crops under study 7.1.11.1 name at least 4 diseases affecting the vegetable crops under study.
7.1.11.2 describe the cause, symptoms, treatment, control and preventive measures against
any 2 of the diseases affecting the crops grown or under study.
7.1.11.3 determine which disease is affecting crops grown on the basis of symptoms
displayed.
7.1.11.4 determine the correct measures to be taken when crops under study are attacked by
diseases.
Harvesting and marketing of the vegetable crops 7.1.12.1 describe how the vegetable crops under study can be harvested.
7.1.12.2 describe the form in which vegetable crops under study can be marketed.
Storage and preservation of vegetables 7.1.13.1 describe ways by which vegetable crops in general and those under study should be
stored and preserved.
UNIT 7.2 – REPRODUCTION AND BREEDING IN CATTLE
Reproduction process in cattle 7.2.1.1 draw diagrams showing the reproductive organs of a cow and a bull.
- male and female reproductive organs 7.2.1.2 label the various parts shown in the diagrams.
7.2.1.3 state the functions of various parts labelled in the diagrams.
7.2.1.4 describe the process of reproduction in cattle.
Oestrous cycle in cows, signs of heat, heat period, 7.2.2.1 explain what oestrous cycle is.
ovulation, fertilization and gestation period 7.2.2.2 describe the oestrous cycle in cows.
7.2.2.3 explain what is meant by heat period in animal breeding.
7.2.2.4 state the signs of heat in a cow.
7.2.2.5 state the duration of heat period in cows.
7.2.2.6 explain what ovulation is.
7.2.2.7 explain what fertilization is.
7.2.2.8 define gestation period.
7.2.2.9 state the gestation period in cattle.
Care of the cow during pregnancy 7.2.3.1 describe the type of care necessary during pregnancy of an animal.
Signs of parturition 7.2.3.2 define parturition.
Dystokia - causes and control 7.2.3.3 describe the signs of parturition in cows.

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7.2.3.4 define dystokia.

7.2.3.5 state at least 2 causes of dystokia.
7.2.3.6 explain how dystokia can be controlled or avoided.
Livestock breeding and improvement 7.2.4.1 explain what breeding is.
- selection 7.2.4.2 define selection, cross- breeding, inbreeding and upgrading.
- breeding systems (cross breeding, inbreeding and 7.2.4.3 describe how each system of breeding is practiced.
upgrading) 7.2.4.4 state the advantages and disadvantages of each system of breeding.
7.2.4.5 suggest other ways by which animals can be improved.
Mating (natural service) 7.2.5.1 define mating.
Artificial insemination(AI) 7.2.5.2 define artificial insemination.
- meaning, advant. And disadvant 7.2.5.3 state at least 5 advantages and 3 disadvantages of artificial insemination.
- how AI is done 7.2.6.1 explain how artificial insemination is carried out in cattle.
- when to send cows to AI camps in Botswana 7.2.6.2 describe how semen is collected from a bull.
- collection and storage of semen 7.2.6.3 describe the conditions under which semen is stored after collection from a bull and
- breeding season and puberty why.
7.2.6.4 state the period or season when cows are artificially inseminated in Botswana and why
this period.
7.2.6.5 name at least 5 artificial insemination camps in Botswana.
7.2.6.6 explain what puberty is.
7.2.6.7 state the age and weight at which cows reach puberty.
7.2.6.8 give at least 3 factors influencing puberty.
MODULE 8:
UNIT 8.1 – GOAT PRODUCTION
Importance of goats Supply and demand of goats in 8.1.1.1 explain the importance of goats.
Botswana 8.1.1.2 describe the supply and demand situation with regards to goat production in
Government strategies for improving goat production in Botswana.
Botswana 8.1.1.3 describe the strategies adopted by govt. of Botswana to help improve the supply and
production of goats.
8.1.1.4 name specific govt. programmes aimed at assisting farmers in improving goat
production in Botswana.
8.1.1.5 explain how the named govt. programmes work in terms of conditions attached, how
to apply for this type of assistance, who qualifies and the nature of the assistance.
Factors limiting production of goats in Botswana 8.1.2.1 state the problems limiting goat production in Botswana.
8.1.2.2 suggest ways by which the identified problems can be solved.
Breeds of goats and their classification 8.1.3.1 name at least 4 breeds of goats.
8.1.3.2 identify at least 3 breeds of goats.
8.1.3.3 describe at least 3 breeds of the goats in terms of their characteristics.
8.1.3.4 classify the named breeds of goats to use.
Planning to start a goat enterprise 8.1.4.1 state the factors considered before starting a goat enterprise and the method of
production to employ.
8.1.4.2 describe the nature and type of preparations to be made before acquiring goats for an
enterprise.
8.1.4.3 prepare a budget estimate for the goat enterprise.
Management of goats 8.1.5.1 state the significance of housing or provision of shelter when raising goats.
- housing 8.1.5.2 name the types of feeds suitable for goats.
- feeding and types of feeds 8.1.5.3 identify the appropriate feeds for goats.
- provision of water 8.1.5.4 explain the reasons for providing food and water regularly to goats.
- castration, identification, hoof trimming, deworming & 8.1.6.1 explain what castration, deworming, hoof- trimming, and vaccination.
vaccination 8.1.6.2 state the reasons for castration, deworming, vaccination, hooftrimming and
identification.
8.1.6.3 name tools used for castration, deworming, hoof- trimming and vaccination.
8.1.6.4 identify tools used for castration, deworming, vaccination and hoof-trimming.
8.1.6.5 describe how castration, hoof- trimming, deworming, vaccination and identification
are carried out.
Parasites of goats: (lifecycle, effects on the host, control 8.1.7.1 name at least 4 parasites affecting goats.
and prevention) 8.1.7.2 describe the life- cycle of one common parasite of goats.
8.1.7.3 describe the effects the parasite under study have on the host animal.
8.1.7.4 suggest ways by which the parasite under study can be controlled or prevented.
8.1.7.5 name some chemicals used for controlling the parasite under study.
Diseases of goats: (causes, symptoms, treatment, 8.1.8.1 name at least 4 diseases affecting goats.
control and prevention)

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8.1.8.2 describe the cause, symptoms, treatment, control and preventive measures against any
1 disease of goats.
8.1.8.3 name some chemicals used to control diseases affecting goats.
Marketing of goats 8.1.9.1 give examples of goat products and by-products.
8.1.9.2 describe how goat products and by-products are marketed in Botswana.
UNIT 8.2 – SHEEP PRODUCTION
Importance of sheep 8.2.1.1 explain the importance of sheep.
Supply and demand of sheep in Botswana 8.2.1.2 describe the supply and demand situation with regards to sheep production in
Government strategies for improving sheep production Botswana.
in Botswana 8.2.1.3 describe the strategies adopted by govt. of Botswana to help improve the supply and
production of sheep.
8.2.1.4 name specific govt. programmes aimed at assisting farmers in improving sheep
production in Botswana.
8.2.1.5 explain how the named govt. programmes work in terms of conditions attached, how
to apply for this type of assistance, who qualifies and the nature of the assistance.
Factors limiting production of sheep in Botswana 8.2.2.1 state the problems limiting sheep production in Botswana.
8.2.2.2 suggest ways by which the identified problems can be solved.
Breeds of sheep and their classification 8.2.3.1 name at least 4 breeds of sheep.
8.2.3.2 identify at least 3 breeds of sheep.
8.2.3.3 describe at least 3 breeds of the sheep in terms of their characteristics.
8.2.3.4 classify the named breeds of sheep to use.
Planning to start a sheep enterprise 8.2.4.1 state the factors considered before starting a sheep enterprise and the method of
production to employ.
8.2.4.2 describe the nature and type of preparations to be made before acquiring sheep for an
enterprise.
8.2.4.3 prepare a budget estimate for the sheep enterprise.
Management of sheep 8.2.5.1 state the significance of housing or provision of shelter when raising sheep.
- housing 8.2.5.2 name the types of feeds suitable for sheep.
- feeding and types of feeds 8.2.5.3 identify the appropriate feeds for sheep.
- provision of water 8.2.5.4 explain the reasons for providing food and water regularly to sheep.
- castration, identification, hoof trimming, deworming, 8.2.6.1 explain what castration, deworming, hoof- trimming, and vaccination, flushing,
vaccination, flushing, crutching and steamingup crutching and steaming-up.
8.2.6.2 state the reasons for castration, deworming, vaccination, hooftrimming, flushing,
steaming-up and identification.
8.2.6.3 name tools used for castration, deworming, hoof- trimming and vaccination.
8.2.6.4 identify tools used for castration, deworming, vaccination and hoof-trimming.
8.2.6.5 describe how castration, hoof- trimming, deworming, flushing
vaccination, crutching, steaming-up and identification are carried out.
Parasites of sheep: (lifecycle, effects on the host, control 8.2.7.1 name at least 4 parasites affecting sheep.
and prevention 8.2.7.2 describe the life- cycle of one common parasite of sheep.
8.2.7.3 describe the effects the parasite under study have on the host animal.
8.2.7.4 suggest ways by which the parasite under study can be controlled or prevented.
8.2.7.5 name some chemicals used for controlling the parasite under study.
Diseases of sheep: (causes, symptoms, 8.2.8.1 name at least 4 diseases affecting sheep.
treatment, control and prevention 8.2.8.2 describe the cause, symptoms, treatment, control and preventive measures against any
1 disease of sheep.
8.2.8.3 name some chemicals used to control diseases affecting sheep.
Marketing of sheep 8.2.9.1 give examples of sheep products and by-products.
8.2.9.2 describe how sheep products and by-products are marketed in
Botswana.
UNIT 8.3 – PIG PRODUCTION
Importance of pigs Supply and demand of 8.3.1.1 explain the importance of pigs.
pigs in Botswana 8.3.1.2 describe the supply and demand situation with regards to pig production in Botswana.
Government strategies for improving pig 8.3.1.3 describe the strategies adopted by govt. of Botswana to help improve the supply and
production in Botswana production of pigs.
8.3.1.4 name specific govt. programmes aimed at assisting farmers in improving pig
production in Botswana.
8.3.1.5 explain how the named govt. programmes work in terms of conditions attached, how
to apply for this type of assistance, who qualifies and the nature of the assistance.
Factors limiting production of pigs in Botswana 8.3.2.1 state the problems limiting pig production in Botswana.
8.3.2.2 suggest ways by which the identified problems can be solved.

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Breeds of pigs and their classification 8.3.3.1 name at least 4 breeds of pigs.
8.3.3.2 identify at least 3 breeds of pigs.
8.3.3.3 describe at least 3 breeds of pigs in terms of their characteristics.
8.3.3.4 classify the named breeds of pigs according to main use.
Planning to start a pig production enterprise 8.3.4.1 state the factors considered before starting a pig production enterprise and the method
of production to employ.
8.3.4.2 describe the nature and type of preparations to be made before acquiring pigs for an
enterprise.
8.3.4.3 prepare a budget estimate for the pig production enterprise.
Management of pigs 8.3.5.1 list materials required for the construction of a pig sty.
- housing 8.3.5.2 explain the use of the various units in a pig sty.
- the dry sows 8.3.6.1 name the types of feed given to pigs at various stages of their lives.
- the boar 8.3.6.2 explain what flushing is.
- pigs during mating 8.3.6.3 list the signs of heat in a sow.
- pregnant sows 8.3.6.4 describe how mating is done in pigs.
- sows at farrowing 8.3.6.5 describe how pregnant sows are fed.
- piglets 8.3.6.6 explain how to prepare a sow for farrowing.
- growers/finishers 8.3.6.7 describe how piglets are cared for.
8.3.6.8 explain what creep-feeding is.
8.3.6.9 explain the care of growers and finishers.
8.3.6.10 explain what teeth-clipping is.
8.3.6.11 state the reasons for teeth-clipping.
Parasites of pigs: (lifecycle, effects on the host, control 8.3.7.1 name at least 4 parasites affecting pigs..
and prevention 8.3.7.2 describe the life- cycle of one common parasite of pigs.
8.3.7.3 describe the effects the parasite under study has on the host animal.
8.3.7.4 suggest ways by which the parasite under study can be controlled or prevented.
8.3.7.5 name some chemicals used for controlling the parasite under study.
Diseases of pigs: (causes, symptoms, treatment, control 8.3.8.1 name at least 4 diseases affecting pigs.
and prevention 8.3.8.2 describe the cause, symptoms, treatment, control and preventive measures against any
1 disease of pigs.
8.3.8.3 name some chemicals used to control diseases affecting pigs.
Marketing of pigs 8.3.9.1 give examples of pig products and by-products.
8.3.9.2 describe how pig products and by-products are marketed in Botswana
UNIT 8.5 – RABBIT PRODUCTION
Importance of rabbits 8.4.1.1 explain the importance of rabbits.
Supply and demand of rabbits in Botswana 8.4.1.1 describe the supply and demand situation with regards to rabbit production in
Govt. strategies for improving rabbit Botswana.
production in Botswana (if any) 8.4.1.3 describe the strategies adopted by govt. of Botswana to help improve the supply and
production of rabbits (if any).
8.4.1.4 name specific govt. programmes aimed at assisting farmers in improving rabbit
production in Botswana (if any).
8.4.1.5 explain how the named govt. programmes (if any) work in terms of conditions
attached, how to apply for this type of assistance, who qualifies and the nature of the
assistance.
Factors limiting production of rabbits in 8.4.2.1 state the problems limiting rabbit production in Botswana.
Botswana 8.4.2.2 suggest ways by which the identified problems can be solved.
Breeds of rabbits and their classification 8.4.3.1 name at least 4 breeds of rabbits.
8.4.3.2 identify at least 3 breeds of rabbits.
8.4.3.3 describe at least 3 breeds of the rabbits in terms of their characteristics.
Planning to start a rabbit production enterprise 8.4.4.1 state the factors considered before starting a rabbit production enterprise and the
method of production to employ.
8.4.4.2 describe the nature and type of preparations to be made before acquiring rabbits for an
enterprise.
8.4.4.3 prepare a budget estimate for the rabbit production enterprise.
Management of rabbits 8.4.5.1 state the significance of housing or provision of shelter when raising rabbits.
- housing 8.4.5.2 name the types of feeds suitable for rabbits.
- feeding and types of feeds 8.4.5.3 identify the appropriate feeds for rabbits.
- provision of water 8.4.5.5 explain the reasons for providing food and water regularly to rabbits.
- handling 8.4.5.6 describe how rabbits are handled during management.
8.4.5.7 describe how sexing is done in rabbits.

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Parasites of rabbits: (life- cycle, effects on the host, 8.4.6.1 name at least 4 parasites affecting rabbits.
control and prevention) 8.4.6.2 describe the life- cycle of one common parasite of rabbits.
8.4.6.3 describe the effects the parasite under study has on the host animal.
8.4.6.4 suggest ways by which the parasite under study can be controlled or prevented.
8.4.6.5 name some chemicals used for controlling the parasite under study.
Diseases of rabbits: (causes, symptoms, 8.4.7.1 name at least 4 diseases affecting rabbits.
treatment, control and prevention) 8.4.7.2 describe the cause, symptoms, treatment, control and preventive measures against any
1 disease of rabbits.
8.4.7.3 name some chemicals used to control diseases affecting rabbits.
Marketing of rabbits 8.4.8.1 give examples of rabbit products and by-products.
8.4.8.2 describe how rabbit products and by-products are marketed in
Botswana.
UNIT 8.5 – BEEF PRODUCTION
Importance of the beef industry in Botswana 8.5.1.1 state the importance of beef and beef industry in Botswana.
Problems of beef production in Botswana 8.5.1.2 explain at least 5 problems affecting beef production in Botswana.
Agriculture policy with regards to beef production in 8.5.1.3 explain the govt. policy towards the improvement of beef production in Botswana in
Botswana terms of what is being done to improve the production and quality of beef.
Characteristics of beef cattle Breeds of beef cattle in 8.5.2.1 describe the general characteristics of beef cattle.
Botswana 8.5.2.2 name at least 5 breeds of beef cattle found in Botswana.
8.5.2.3 identify at least 5 breeds of beef cattle found in Botswana.
8.5.2.4 name at least 3 beef cattle breeds recommended by the Animal
Production Research Unit.
8.5.2.5 give at least 4 reasons why the above breeds are recommended in Botswana.
Systems of raising beef cattle:- communal 8.5.3.1 distinguish between communal and ranching systems of raising beef cattle.
grazing and ranching systems (description, 8.5.3.2 state the advantages and disadvantages of each system of raising beef cattle.
advant. & disadvant.) 8.5.3.3 compare and contrast the two systems of raising beef cattle and say which would be
most ideal.
Management of beef cattle 8.5.4.1 explain the significance of providing housing or shelter to beef cattle.
- housing/shelter 8.5.4.2 name the types of feeds suitable to beef cattle in Botswana.
- feeding and types of feeds
- watering 8.5.5.1 explain the importance of regular supply of water to beef cattle
- breeding control (castration, culling & bull separation) 8.5.5.2 name at least 2 sources of water for beef cattle in Botswana
8.5.5.3 state methods used to control breeding of beef cattle
- disbudding, dehorning, methods of identification and 8.5.6.1 state the difference between disbudding and dehorning.
weaning 8.5.6.2 explain the significance of disbudding and dehorning.
8.5.6.3 name tools used for disbudding and dehorning.
8.5.6.4 identify tools used for disbudding and dehorning.
8.5.6.5 state the age at which beef calves are weaned.
8.5.6.6 describe the methods of identifying beef cattle.
8.5.6.7 state the advantages and disadvantages of each method of identification.
Parasites (internal and external) of beef cattle 8.5.7.1 name at least 3 internal and 3 external parasites affecting beef cattle.
8.5.7.2 identify at least 2 internal and 2 external parasites of beef cattle.
8.5.7.3 describe the life- cycle of a one host tick and the beef tapeworm.
8.5.7.4 describe the harm or damage caused by ticks and tapeworms to beef cattle.
8.5.7.5 suggest methods of controlling ticks and beef tapeworms.
Diseases of beef cattle:- Study foot and mouth and 8.5.8.1 name at least 5 diseases affecting beef cattle.
heartwater 8.5.8.2 name at least 2 diseases of beef cattle which are of economic significance in Botswana
and why they are classified as such.
8.5.8.3 state the causes, symptoms, treatment, control and preventive measures against foot
and mouth and heartwater diseases.
Marketing of beef cattle 8.5.9.1 state at least 4 methods by which beef cattle are marketed in
- marketing channels Botswana.
- age and weight at marketing 8.5.9.2 state the recommended age and weight at which beef cattle are marketed.
- grading of beef cattle 8.5.9.3 list the beef grades used at BMC
- beef products and byproducts 8.5.9.4 rank the beef grades from highest to lowest in terms of price and quality.
8.5.9.4 give at least 3 examples of beef cattle by- products.
MODULE 9:
UNIT 9.1 – DAIRY PRODUCTION
Importance of dairy production in Botswana 9.1.1.1 state the importance of dairy production in Botswana
Supply and demand of milk and milk products in 9.1.1.2 describe the supply and demand situation in Botswana with regards to dairy products.
Botswana (no statistics needed)

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Factors limiting dairy production in Botswana and how 9.1.2.1 state at least 5 factors limiting dairy production in Botswana.
these could be addressed 9.1.2.2 suggest at least 5 ways by which the limiting factors can be addressed.
Requirements for milk production in Botswana 9.1.3.1 state 3 requirements for one to start a dairy production enterprise.
Dairy cattle found in Botswana 9.1.4.1 name at least 3 dairy cattle breeds
Characteristics of a good and bad dairy cow 9.1.4.2 identify at least 2 dairy cattle breeds found in Botswana
9.1.4.3 describe the characteristics of a good and a bad dairy cow.
Management of dairy cows: 9.1.5.1 describe the type of shelter needed for dairy cows.
- shelter/housing for dairy cows 9.1.5.2 name the type of feeds suitable for dairy cows.
- feeding and types of feeds for dairy cows 9.1.5.3 explain the significance of good nutrition in dairy production.
- production records 9.1.6.1 draw up a milk production record sheet for dairy cows.
9.1.6.2 describe the types of production records kept when raising dairy cows in terms of
what is recorded and why.
- weaning 9.1.7.1 outline the reasons for weaning calves.
9.1.7.2 explain why a calf should be allowed to suckle colostrum.
9.1.7.3 state the length of time a calf should stay with its mother before weaning.
9.1.7.4 describe how calves should be taken care of after weaning.
Diseases: discuss Mastitis and Milk fever under causes, 9.1.8.1 name at least 4 diseases affecting dairy cattle.
symptoms, treatment, control and prevention 9.1.8.2 state the causes of mastitis and milk fever.
9.1.8.3 describe the symptoms, treatment, control and preventive measures against mastitis
and milk fever.
9.1.8.4 identify an animal suffering from mastitis.
Milking the cows: 9.1.9.1 state at least 4 measures or practices necessary for good hygiene in a milking parlour.
- milking hygiene 9.1.9.2 state the advantages and disadvantages of hand and machine milking.
- hand vs machine milking 9.1.9.3 describe the type of preparations necessary before milking the cows.
- preparations before milking 9.1.9.4 describe how milk should be handled after milking to maintain its quality.
- handling of milk 9.1.9.5 differentiate between pasteurization and sterilization of milk.
- treatment of milk (pasteurization and 9.1.9.6 state the reasons for pasteurization and sterilization of milk.
sterilization) 9.1.9.7 describe how sour milk is made.
Marketing of milk and milk products 9.1.10.1 describe the forms in which milk is marketed.
9.1.10.2 name at least 5 milk products available in the market.
9.1.10.3 identify at least 5 milk products.

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CONTENTS
SYLLABUS__________________________________________________________________ 3
FORM 1 ____________________________________________________________________ 20
INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE ___________________________________________________ 20
SOIL ____________________________________________________________________________ 27
SOIL STRUCTURE__________________________________________________________________________ 29
SOIL PROFILE_____________________________________________________________________________ 30
SOIL EROSION ____________________________________________________________________________ 32
SOIL FERTILITY ___________________________________________________________________________ 33
PLANT NUTRITION ________________________________________________________________________ 40
SOIL PH _________________________________________________________________________________ 43
PLANT GROWTH __________________________________________________________________ 46
FARM IMPLEMENTS _______________________________________________________________ 48
ANIMAL NUTRITION _______________________________________________________________ 52
PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION___________________________________________________ 56
FIELD CROP PRODUCTION __________________________________________________________ 71
BEE- KEEPING ____________________________________________________________________ 76
FISH FARMING ___________________________________________________________________ 82
FORM 2 ____________________________________________________________________ 84
INTRODUCTION TO FARM MANAGEMENT _____________________________________________ 84
CHICKEN PRODUCTION ___________________________________________________________ 104
FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION _________________________________________________________ 122
FORESTRY ______________________________________________________________________ 135
FORM 3 ___________________________________________________________________ 141
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION _________________________________________________________ 141
REPRODUCTION AND BREEDING IN CATTLE ___________________________________________ 148
GOAT PRODUCTION ______________________________________________________________ 161
RABBIT PRODUCTION _____________________________________________________________ 176
BEEF PRODUCTION _______________________________________________________________ 182
DAIRY PRODUCTION______________________________________________________________ 194
Revision Questions __________________________________________________________ 202
REVISION 1 _____________________________________________________________________ 202
Revision 2 ______________________________________________________________________ 208
Revision 3 ______________________________________________________________________ 213
BEEF PRODUCTION _______________________________________________________________________ 215

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Revision 4 ______________________________________________________________________ 217

FISH FARMING __________________________________________________________________________ 221
FORESTRY ______________________________________________________________________________ 222
FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA _____________________________________________________ 223
PIG PRODUCTION ________________________________________________________________________ 224
RABBIT PRODUCTION _____________________________________________________________________ 225
REPRODUCTION AND BREEDING IN CATTLE ___________________________________________________ 226
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION _________________________________________________________________ 230
Revision 5 ______________________________________________________________________ 233

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FORM 1
INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE

Definition: The growing of crops and rearing of animals.

IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN BOTSWANA
Social Importance
This means how agriculture influences the customs, traditions, settlement patterns, social status and
welfare of members of the society. It involves the following;
 Cattle are used in the payment of bride price (bogadi/lobola)
 Some people keep large herds of cattle for prestige or social status. To these people large herds of
livestock is a symbol of wealth.
 Cattle, goats and sheep are slaughtered during ceremonies such as weddings, funerals and healing
ceremonies.
 Some plants such as Kalahari devil’s claw (sengaparile, mosukudu and lengana are used as traditional
medicines and as herbal tea.
 Source of draught power; some animals are used to pull heavy loads, to do work such as ploughing
and for transportation. Examples of draught animals are cattle, horses and donkeys.

Economic Importance
This means the contribution of agriculture to the people’s lives in terms of providing them with the means
to earn a living and improving the country’s economy. It involves the following;
 Source of raw material: agriculture provides raw materials that are used in manufacturing of other
goods. E. g: cotton and wool used to make clothes; timber used to make furniture, leather from hides
and skins is used for making shoes, belts and bags.
 Source of foreign exchange: animal products like beef and beef production by-products (eg: hides and
hooves are) sold to other countries eg European and South Africa. These countries pay in their own
currency and this money is used for some developments in Botswana.
 Source of food: agriculture provides food for people and animals, for example meat, dairy products,
cereals, vegetables, fruits and Lucerne, hay and lablab for livestock.
 Provides employment opportunities: there are many job opportunities in agriculture, for example,
farmers, agricultural demonstrator, veterinary assistant, herd boy, etc....
 Source of income: some farmers rear livestock and grow crops for sale. They earn money from the
sale of cattle and other animals, meat, hides, skins, milk, vegetables.

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IMPACT OF HIV AIDS ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

Note: HIV and AIDS has no cure, it weakens the body’s immune system.
 T. B, pneumonia and cancer are some of the diseases related to HIV/AIDS.
 HIV/AIDS affects agricultural activities in the following ways:
1. An infected farmer would not be able to take care of his animals/crops because he would be
sick/weak most of the time.
2. Lots of money is spent on medication and doctor’s fees than on buying fertilizers, seeds, chemicals,
etc to improve agricultural production.
3. Time that could have been spent taking care of crops /livestock is spent taking care of sick relatives or
visiting the doctor.
4. Experienced/skilled farmers die from HIV/AIDS depriving the country of the skilled labour force.
5. The government spends more money and time training new workers to replace those killed by the
disease instead of improving agricultural activities.
6. The disease affects mostly young people of the working age, this way agriculture is losing its
potential work force.
7. The agriculture industry suffers from reduced demand as more and more people die from the disease
and others spend money on medication, doctors and funerals instead of on agricultural products.
8. Some farmers may be able to take advantage of the HIV and AIDS scourge by growing more
vegetables and fruits since these products form part of a healthy diet which is encouraged for HIV and
AIDS patients.

THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Agricultural activities, especially if not carried out correctly can have a negative effect on the
environment. These are activities such as ploughing fishing, cutting down of trees, clearing the land,
grazing animals, etc.... The negative effects include the following:
 Clearing of the land in order to facilitate ploughing leaves the land bare, exposing the soil to agents of
soil erosion.
 Land clearing also leads loss of biodiversity since some plants end up being extinct and some animal
habitat is also lost. (Biodiversity; the variety of living things in an area)
 Some farmers keep large numbers of livestock in a small area (overstocking), which results in over
grazing, hence soil erosion.
 Some commercial farmers use heavy machinery to plough & carry out other activities. This destroys
soil structure leading to loss of nutrients from the soil.
 Many commercial farmers over use fertilisers and other chemicals which contaminate underground
water and also kill useful microbes in the soil.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND OTHER SUBJECTS

Agriculture is an applied science, this is because it use knowledge gained from other subjects, especially
science subjects in a practical way. Examples are as follows:
1. Biology is needed to understand how animals and plants are structured, produce, grow and reproduce.
2. Chemistry helps in understanding the chemical reactions that take place in plants & animals, and also
the fertilisers, pesticides and other chemicals used in agriculture.
3. Physics is used to understand how farm tools, machines & implements are manufactured, operated &
maintained, and also the structuring of farm buildings.
4. Mathematics is used to calculate, e.g. area of the field being cultivated, measure e.g. dimensions of
plots/fields, volume of produce, amount of things to use like fertilisers, count livestock and produce,
etc....

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5. Geography assists farmers to understand how the climate affects farming and the land forms and soil
types suitable for agriculture.
6. Home economics aids in understanding the nutritional value of agricultural produce.
7. Business Studies helps farmers in calculating market prices, profit or loss, keeping farm records and,
marketing.

BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
This refers to the areas of study of agriculture. Below are some of the branches of agriculture and what
each is about;
 Agronomy: deals with the production and management of field crops, e.g. maize, sorghum cowpeas,
etc...
 Horticulture: involves the growing and management of vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.
 Forestry: entails the growing and management of trees for wood and timber products.
 Animal Husbandry: deals with the production and management of livestock.
 Soil Science: involves soil use, management and conservation.
 Agricultural Economics: entails the business aspect of farming, such as pricing, marketing and
record keeping.
 Agricultural Engineering: deals with the use, proper care and maintenance of farm tools,
implements, machinery buildings and structures.
 Range and Pasture Management: involves proper use of grazing land by keeping in it, the right
number of animals.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE

A career is a job that one does for most of their life. Agriculture has the following career opportunities:
CAREER WHAT THE CAREER IS ABOUT/INVOLVES
Teacher Teaching agriculture in primary, secondary & tertiary institutions
Farmer Crop and or livestock farming
Veterinary assistant To treat and prevent animal diseases
Agricultural demonstrator Advise farmers on the best farming methods and government agricultural policies
Agricultural research officer Investigate on better farming methods, new animal breeds and crop varieties
Horticulturalist Masters the production and management of fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants
Agricultural economist Masters the business aspects of farming, i.e. farm management, record keeping, marketing,
etc...
Agricultural engineer Designing, making, proposing proper use, care and maintenance of farm tools, implements,
machines and structures
Other agricultural jobs include; irrigation officer, ranch manager, agricultural genecist, soil conservation
officer, farm manager, forest officer, landscaping officer, etc.........

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ENTRY REQUIREMENTS TO AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

Institution Level of Entry Requirement
training
Botswana College of Agriculture (BCA) Diploma BGCSE, first & second class with three sciences
Degree Same as above, or a diploma in an agriculture discipline
Masters Degree in an agricultural discipline
Tonota College of Education Diploma BGCSE, second or third class with three sciences
Tlokweng, Francistown & Serowe Diploma BGCSE, second or third class with three sciences or
Colleges of Education Primary Teacher’s Course with some teaching experience
Technical Colleges e.g. Gaborone Certificate Junior Certificate, BGCSE
Technical College etc.
Brigades Certificate Junior Certificate
Rural Training Centres (RTCs) Certificate Varies; mostly an involvement in any agricultural activity
Centre for In-Service and Continued Certificate Varies
Education (CICE)

FOOD PRODUCTION SITUATION IN BOTSWANA

Supply and Demand of foodstuffs
 The food that is produced by the country is the supply while the food required to feed the
population is the demand.
 The demand for food in Botswana is generally higher than the supply therefore the country
imports food, especially from the Republic of South Africa. (RSA)

Food Security versus Food Self Sufficiency

 When a country produces all the food required to feed its citizens, it is said to be self-sufficient.
 For example, Botswana is self-sufficient in beef requirements because it produces enough beef to
feed its citizens & to export to other countries.
 Although Botswana is not self-sufficient in food production, it is able to but all the food it needs
from other countries.
 When a country is able to provide its citizens with enough food, even if some of it has been
imported from other countries, it is said to have food security.

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FACTORS LIMITING FOOD PRODUCTION & SECURITY IN BOTSWANA AND WAYS BY

WHICH FOOD PRODUCTION AND SECURITY IN BOTSWANA CAN BE IMPROVED
Limiting Factor Solutions
Low & unreliable rainfall: rainfall in Botswana is low and - Build dams and water reservoirs in farming areas to
unreliable which leads to poor crop and livestock growth. As provide water for livestock and for watering crops.
a result not enough food is produced. - Drill boreholes to access underground water.
- Conserve rain water in tanks.
Poor soil/Infertile soil: most soils in Botswana are not suited - Soils can be improved by adding fertilisers, especially
for crop production, the soils are mostly deficient in organic fertilisers such as kraal manure since they also
phosphorus. This means crop production is affected & also improve soil structure.
forage growing on such soils is of poor quality hence poor - Loss of soil should be avoided through soil
livestock production. conservation strategies.

Outbreak of pests, parasites and diseases: pests & diseases - For crop diseases & pests, practicing good farming
often cause serious agricultural losses. They can cause methods such as crop rotation & early planting is
serious yield losses & low production. advised. Chemicals (fungicides; diseases & pesticides;
pests) can also be used.
- For animal disease prevention, farmers should
vaccinate their livestock and practice good grazing
systems such as rotational grazing to control parasites.
Lack of skills & knowledge: many farmers in Botswana are - Farmers should be trained at Rural Training Centres.
not trained in modern methods of farming. They still use - There should also be an increase in the training of
traditional methods that result in low crop yields. agricultural experts
Poor storage facilities: most farmers use traditional methods - Process agriculture products to reduce bulk & reduce
of storing crops which offer little or no protection to stored risk of perishability.
produce against pest and disease damage. The storage - Locate farms near markets
structures also store only small quantities.
Low adoption rate of new technologies: farmers are not - Encourage quick adoption of new technologies by
easily convinced of the advantages of new farming methods farmers through improved extension services which
such as crop rotation & row planting, hence it takes long for involve practical involvement of farmers. (field
them to eventually get to practice these. demonstrations)
Lack of capital: most famers in Botswana do not have the - Acquire loans from organisations such as CEDA &
capital (money) to improve their farms. Farm tools, National Development Bank (NDB), this will allow a
implements & machines are expensive & most farmers farmer to be able to afford what he requires for the
cannot afford to buy them. farm & usually such loans are paid back over long
periods & at low interest rates.
IMPROVING FOOD SECURITY
. Importing food from neighbouring countries like South Africa
. Storing surplus food to use during times of drought
. Preserving food so that it can be stored for longer
. Building more storage silos in regions which do not have them

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STRATEGIES AIMED AT IMPROVING FOOD PRODUCTION & SECURITY IN BOTSWANA

 The government provides financial assistance through programmes such as: Citizen Entrepreneurial
Development Agency (CEDA) & Young Farmers Fund.
 The government has established programmes such as National Master Plan for Arable Agriculture &
Dairy & Arable Farming (NAMPAAD), Services to Livestock Owners in Communal Areas
(SLOCA), Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture Development (ISPAAD), Local
Enterprise Authority (LEA), etc... Which offer farmers support, technical advice and subsidised
farming inputs on different areas of farming.
 The government trains farmers through Rural Training Centres (RTCs) which offer farmers short
term courses in areas of agriculture they need training on so as to equip them with both the theoretical
& practical knowledge to be able to embark on such projects.
 Teaching of agriculture in schools; this helps since students are potential farmers of the future,
therefore educating them in agriculture ensures that those that end up embarking on agriculture
enterprises are knowledgeable.
 Provision of agricultural research; the government trains and employs people who work at the
research unit. They carry out experiments to come up with varieties of crops & breeds of livestock
most suited for the environment of Botswana.
 The government offers free vaccination for livestock diseases such as rabies anthrax & foot & mouth
disease. These diseases are referred to as diseases of national importance & since they are vaccinated
for free, if a farmer does not report an outbreak or suspected outbreak they can be prosecuted.
 Provides extension education through extension officers; these include people like agricultural
demonstrators & Veterinary assistants who are trained and then dispatched to rural areas to extend the
knowledge on to the farmers.
 Maintains information services such as agricultural magazines like Agrinews. Television and radio
programmes are also broadcasted which pass useful information to farmers, nationwide.
 The government constructs & maintains roads for transporting food products. Though most of the
roads from farms are not tarred, the government continues to improve the road system and the
available roads helps farmers to be able to get their produce to markets on time.

TYPES OF FARMING PRACTICED IN BOTSWANA

 Arable farming: It involves the production of crops only. (i.e. when a farmer grows crops only
without rearing any livestock).
 Pastoral farming: Involves the production of livestock only. (i.e. when a farmer rears livestock only
without growing any crops).
 Mixed farming: This is the production of livestock & crops on the same farm & at the same time.

LEVELS OF PRODUCTION

Subsistence Farming Commercial Farming

 Production of crops and or animals for family  Production of crops and or animals for sale
consumption.  Involves high capital investments
 Involves low capital investment.  Large scale production
 Farmers produce on a small scale  Work is done by machines
 Work is done manually  Uses modern technologies of farming
 Uses outdated farming methods

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PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED BY COMMERCIAL FARMERS & THEIR SUGGESTED

SOLUTIONS
Production Problems
Problems Solution(s)
Low & unreliable rainfall Drilling boreholes
Conserving rain water in dams, tanks, etc.. for irrigation
Poor soil/infertile soil Adding fertilisers
Conserving soil
Outbreak of pests Practice good farming methods like crop rotation, early planting & use of
pesticides
Outbreak of diseases Practice crop rotation for crop diseases
Vaccinating of livestock and practice rotational grazing for livestock diseases
Outbreak of parasites Dipping, spraying, & practicing rotational grazing
Lack of skill & knowledge Train farmers at Rural Training Centres
Increase training of agricultural experts
Low adoption rate of new Encourage quick adoption of new technologies by farmers through improved
farming methods extension services
Soil erosion Practice good farming methods such as crop rotation, rotational grazing,
minimum, etc..
Lack of capital Acquire loans
Improve access by small scale farmers to credit facilities
Extreme temperature Produce adaptable crops & animals
Use controlled methods of animal (e.g. animal housing structures) & crop
production (e.g. greenhouse)

Marketing Problems
Problem Solution(s)
Agricultural products are perishable Process perishable products
Selling animals alive
Acquire loans to purchase refrigerated trucks and storage facilities
Small market size/small population Export agriculture products
Tough foreign competition, especially Government should control importation of agriculture products
from RSA
Lack of transport Produce near markets
Poor market demand for goods Effective advertising especially through the media
Agricultural products are bulky Produce bulky products near market centres
Seasonal production Grow crops under controlled environment
Grow & preserve fodder crops for livestock
Poor road conditions to farms Roads should be tarred
Lack of uniformity of products Setting standards for sorting & grading of products
Practice proper management of crops & livestock
Lack of market knowledge Utilize agricultural programmes on TV & radio
Read agricultural magazines
Attend agricultural fairs
Low incomes of consumers Breaking the bulk of produce
Allow hire purchase

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SOIL
Soil is top layer of the earth in which the plants grow, derive their nutrients, water and get anchorage.

Importance of soil
 It gives plants nutrients, water and air needed for growth
 It holds plants up straight as they grow up
 It is a habitat for some animals
 It is used to build houses-
 It is where we grow crops and produce fruits for eating.
 It provides grazing land and grasses for animals
 It has resources such as wood, minerals and grass.

Soil is a medium on which plants grow. It contains:

 Organic matter
 Inorganic matter
 Air
 Water
What are soil constituents?
These are substances that make up soil.

1. Inorganic matter
This is a non-living matter that makes up 45% of the soil volume.

2. Organic matter
About 5% of the soil volume consists of organic matter made up of decomposing plants and animal and
also living organisms. Soils with dark brown colour indicate that it contains a lot of humus.
3. Air
This occupies the space between the soil particles. It is made up of 25% soil volume. Air mainly consists
of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as other small gases. Soils with large particles have more
air spaces compared to soils with smaller particles.

4. Water
Water occupies the space between rock particles making up 25% of soil volume. After heavy rains there
will be more water in the soil, while after a dry period there will be much less.
SOIL FORMATION
Soil if formed through the process of weathering.
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces to form soil.

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TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. Physical weathering- the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces without changing the chemical
composition of the rock. No change in chemical composition means that there is no change in
colour of the original rock.

The following are physical weathering agents:

 Rainwater

Water carries pieces of rocks in rivers and streams which wear down into small particles by knocking
against each other

 Temperature

Rock expands during the high temperature of the day and contract during the night due the low
temperature which eventually crumbles into smaller particles.

 Wind

As wind blows it carries pieces of rocks which break down into small particles by knocking against each
other

2. Chemical weathering- this is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces with a change in
chemical composition of the rock. Change in chemical composition means that there is change in
colour of the original rock.

3. Biological weathering- this is the breaking down of rocks through the activities of living organisms
(plants and animals)

The following are biological weathering agents

 Vegetation (plants)

As plants grow their roots penetrates through small crack on the rock causing it to split or crumble

 Animals

Animals which use soil as their habitat often dig down soil as such exposing rock surface to weathering.

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AND SOIL TYPES

SOIL TEXTURE
Soil texture refers to the composition of the soil in terms of the amounts of small (clays), medium (silts),
and large (sands) size particles. The primary particles of sand, silt, and clay make up the inorganic solid
phase of the soil.

 This is the size of rock particles found in the soil.

 It is the roughness (coarseness) or smoothness (fineness) of the soil particles as felt by the fingers.

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TYPES OF SOIL TEXTURE

Coarse texture

 Particles are big far apart

 It holds particles of sandy soil
 Drainage is quick in soil with coarse texture
 It holds very little water
 It loose nutrients by leaching
 Soil with course texture is easy to cultivate

Medium texture

 It has the best properties of sand and clay soil

 Medium texture is associated with particles of loam soil
 The soil holds enough water for plants
 Drainage is not too fast or slow

Fine texture

 Particles are small and compact

 Particles are those of clay soil
 Soil with fine texture holds lot of water on surface for a longer time
 It is stick when wet and hard when dry
 It also cracks when dry
 It is poorly leached and aerated

SOIL STRUCTURE
Definition: this is an arrangement of rock particles in the soil or the way that the particles hold together in
the soil. Soil structure is defined by the way individual particles of sand, silt, and clay are assembled.
Single particles when assembled appear as larger particles. These are called aggregates.
TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE
1. Single grain

The term soil structure refers to the arrangement and organization of the particles which make up our soil.
These particles can be arranged in a loose and haphazard manner, or they can form a distinct, uniformly
structured pattern.

 It holds particles of sandy soil

 Particle are big and far apart
 Nutrients leaches freely and fast
 It has poor water holding capacity
 It has low number of soil organisms such as bacteria and fungi.
 It is well drained and well aerated

2. Crumb or granular structure

A type of soil structure in which the structural units or pads have a crumb shape. Crumb structure is often
found in more porous than granular organ-mineral surface soil horizons, and provides optimal pore space
for soil fertility.

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 It has particles of loam soil

 It is well aerated
 It is well drained
 It holds on enough water (it has good water holding capacity)
 It has plenty of health soil organisms
 It is easy to dig
 It has enough humus
 It is well leached
 It is good for plant growth

3. Platy

In platy structure, the units are flat and plate-like. A special form, lenticular platy structure, is recognized
for plates that are thickest in the middle and thin toward the edges.

 Soil aggregate are plate like structures

 It is waterlogged
 Large plate-shaped aggregates
 Aggregates are closely packed with small air spaces between them.

4. Blocky

In blocky structure, the structural units are block-like or polyhedral. They are bounded by flat or
slightly rounded surfaces that are casts of the faces of surrounding pads.

 It has closely parked particle

 It particles have poorer drainage and aeration
 It is waterlogged
 It has lot of humus on surface
 Roots do not penetrate easily through the soil
 It is not good for plants growth because it has little humus at the tips of roots
 It is difficult to cultivate
 It cracks when dry and very sticky when wet

Factors that can damage soil structure

 Moving farm implements when soil is wet

 Soil erosion
 Digging or ploughing when the soil is wet (this can compact the soil)

Ways of improving soil structure

 Adding farm manure
SOIL PROFILE
The soil is found in layers, which are arranged during the formation of soil. These layers called horizons;
the sequence of layers is the soil profile. The layers of soil can easily be observed by their color and size
of particles. The main layers of the soil are topsoil, subsoil and the parent rock. Each layer has its own
characteristics.

This is the vertical arrangement of soil layers as seen in a dug hole.

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1. A horizon; Topsoil

 The most fertile layer where plants roots are found

 It is often dark in colour
 It contains plants roots
 It has important soil organisms
 It is more fertile
 More subjected to weathering and cultivation
 It is better aerated
 It has more humus
 It give plants water, nutrients and air
 It has good crumb structure

2. B horizon; Subsoil
 Less fertile than topsoil
 It is lighter in colour
 It has few plant roots
 It has few soil organisms
 It lies below the topsoil
 It is often poorly drained and aerated
 It has little humus
 It less well aerated than top soil
 It is harder and compact than topsoil.
 Lighter in colour as it has less organic matter and nutrients

3. C horizon; Partly weathered materials

 Composed of a mixture of partly weathered soil and large pieces of rock

 It has coarse particles and rocks present
 It produces the subsoil and topsoil by weathering
 Continued weathering of materials will result in topsoil

4.D horizon; Bedrock

 It is purely rocks material where soil is formed
 It may contain water
 It is usually reached when boreholes are drilled
 Base layer of the soil profile where all the layers above have been formed from. (it is the mother
of all layers)
 Water accumulates in the bedrock to form underground pools called water table. This water can
be used by trees that have deep roots.

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SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion- This is the removal of soil from one place to another. This is through wind and water.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
1. Sheet erosion – this is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers, and it occurs when soil particles are
carried evenly over the soil surface by rainwater that does not infiltrate into the ground
2. Gully or Donga erosion – this is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff
3. Rill erosion – this is removal of soil by concentrated water flow, and it occurs when the water forms
small channels in the soil as it flows off site.
4. Splash erosion – it occurs when raindrops hit bare soil. The explosive impact breaks up soil
aggregates so that individual soil particles are 'splashed' onto the soil surface.

AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION

1. Water
Running water washes away loose top soil. Water erosion is the detachment and removal of soil
material by water. The process may be natural or accelerated by human activity.
2. Wind

Wind blow away top soil from one place to the other. Wind erosion is a natural process that moves
soil from one location to another by wind power. .
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
a) Deforestation – this is the cutting down of many trees in a large area.
b) Fire – bush fire destroys the vegetation and also soil organisms are killed. Without soil organisms, it
takes a long time for vegetation to grow back.
c) Monoculture – this is the growing of one type of crop on the same land yearly.
d) Overgrazing- this process removes vegetation. Large numbers of livestock eat all the vegetation
leaving the soil bare and their hooves loosen the soil. These makes soil erosion to occur.
e) Poor soil structure and texture – sandy soils are easily eroded than clay or loam soils. Single grain
soils are more easily eroded than crumb soils.
f) Ploughing along the slope

EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

▪ Some trees fall over
▪ Roads are damaged
▪ Gullies are formed
▪ The soil surface is destroyed
▪ Dams and rivers are destroyed
▪ Removes top soils which more fertile
▪ Make soils to be shallow and be less suitable for plants growth many nutrients will be eroded.
▪ Soil is washed to rivers causing silting up of dams.
▪ Causes ploughing to be more difficult especially when gullies are formed.

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SOIL EROSION CONTROL MEASURES

 Ploughing across the slope
 Practicing rotational grazing
 Planting more trees
 Making fire breakers
 Rearing suitable number of cattle to the grazing land
 Adding organic matter to the soil
 Afforestation (planting of trees)
 Planting of windbreaks
 Controlling the stocking rate (number of livestock per hectare)
 Contour ploughing (ploughing across slopes)
SOIL FERTILITY

It is the ability of the soil to provide or supply plants with the necessary nutrients (food) in correct/right
amount for their healthy growth and development.

Fertilisers

Fertilisers are substances that are added to the soil or sprayed on leaves to provide nutrients.

IMPORTANCE OF FERTILIZERS TO THE SOIL

 They increase nutrients in the soil needed by plants to grow well.
 They increase crop yields by enhancing growth.
 They improve soil structure so that it holds water and air.
 They improve soil drainage and aeration.
 They help in maintaining and improving soil fertility by providing the right condition for biological
activity.
 Improve quality of the produce.
 Add any nutrients that the soil may not have had before.
ORGANIC FERTILIZERS

These are fertilizers made of dead or decayed plant or animal materials.

Examples
 green manure
 Farm yard manure
 Compost manure
 Crop residues
GREEN MANURE

It is made from crops that have been ploughed back into the soil while they are still green or at flowering
stage. Crops that are used as green manure are leguminous crops such as beans, peas, groundnuts,
Lucerne etc. The plants should be able to grow quickly and decompose quickly.

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*Green manure is a good source of nitrogen and phosphorus.

FARM YARD MANURE

This type of manure can be from several sources involving:

- Kraal manure from cattle, goats, sheep and pigs
- Stable manure from horses
- Chicken manure from chickens
*It contains a large amount of nutrients especially nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

COMPOST

Compost manure is made from the remains of animals and plants that have been decomposed by bacteria
and fungi.

You can make it by pilling the compost material in a heap or in a pit. Use organic materials such as dead
plant leaves, grass, vegetables, kitchen waste, paper, wood ash and soil.

CROP RESIDUE

The leftovers, parts of crops like stalks that were not harvested can be ploughed back into the soil where
they decompose and return plant nutrients to the soil.

*MULCHES: material such as grass and straw are laid over the soil to reduce water loss. The grass and
straw decompose overtime and add nutrient elements to the soil.

ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC FERTILISERS

- They are easy to obtain and cheap
- They improve soil structure
- They did not burn or cause damage to crops when they come in contact with them.
- They promote the activity of micro- organisms
- They are environmentally friendly e.g. they are not usually poisonous to living organisms
- Most organic fertilizers contain all macro nutrients essential for plant growth.
- They release nutrients elements into the soil slowly. This means that the nutrients are available to
the plants over a long period time.

DISADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC FERTILISERS

- Take a long time to decompose and be ready for use
- They are less concentrated
- They are applied in large quantities in order to increase soil fertility
- The exact amount of plant nutrients elements within the organic is not known. This makes it
difficult for farmers to know much to apply to the soil

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INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

Also called artificial/chemical or commercial fertilizers.

Inorganic fertilizers are made in factories from chemicals or they are human made in factories.

They are divided into two main groups

1. Straight (single) fertilizers
2. Compound fertilizers

STRAIGHT (SINGLE) FERTILIZERS

These are inorganic fertilizers which provide only one element / nutrients to the soil.
STRAIGHT FERTILIZERS EXAMPLE OF FERTILIZERS
Nitrogenous fertilizers (provide nitrogen only)  Urea
 Limestone Ammonium Nitrate (LAN)
 Ammonium nitrate
Phosphate fertilizers (provide phosphorus only)  Single Superphosphate
 Double Superphosphate
 Triple Superphosphate
Potassium fertilizer (provide potassium only)  Muriate of potash
 Potassium nitrate
 Potassium sulphate
COMPOUND FERTILIZER

These are inorganic fertilizers that contain two or more elements/ nutrients

Examples of compound fertilisers:

- 2:3:2 (22)
- 4:2:1 (31)
- 4:1:1 (35)
- 4:1:2 (34)
2:3:2 (22) What does this mean?

In this fertilizer, it means that there are two parts of nitrogen, three parts of phosphorus and two parts of
potassium. The number (22) in brackets gives the total percentage of all three nutrients in that mixture.

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To determine the percentage and actual mass of each nutrient do the following:

Step 1: Add up each ratio of NPK

2 + 3 +2 =7

Step 2: Divide the total soluble nutrient by 7 (total

22/7 =3.14% for each

Step 3: Multiply 3.14% by each ratio

N : 3.14 x 2 =6.28%

P : 3.14 x 3 = 9.42%

K : 3.14 x 2 = 6.28%

Step 4: Determine the actual mass of each nutrient.

 Let assume you bought a 50kg bag of 2 : 3: 2 (22) fertilizer
Then the actual mass of each soluble nutrient will be

N: 6.28% x 50kg = 3.14kg

P: 9.42% x 50kg = 4.71kg

K: 6.28% x 50kg = 3.14kg

ADVANTAGES OF INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

 Save time and labour as they do not have to be collected
 They can be added in the correct amount needed by a particular crop
 They are easy to handle and store since they are brought in bags
 They are quick to dissolve and replace any nutrient not present in the soil
 They are needed in smaller amount because they are concentrate
 They can be stored for longer periods without losing nutrients

DISADVANTAGES OF INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

 They are very expensive to buy.
 They can burn or damage plants if they come in direct contact with them.
 Their continual use can cause damage to the environment and pollute rivers and dams
 These fertilizers do not improve the soil structure
 Requires technical skills to apply.

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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

ORGANIC FERTILIZERS INORGANIC FFERTILIZERS

They come from plants or animal materials They are made from chemicals
The type and amount of nutrients in them are not They contain known nutrients in known
known amounts/quantities
Release nutrients gradually Release nutrients at once
Their effects last for long They do not work for a long time
Promote plant health and resistance to diseases Tend to make plants prone to diseases

RATES OF FERTILIZER APPLIICATION

The farmer must work out how much fertilizer should be applied to the soil of a piece of land to ensure
good plant growth.The amount of fertilizer to be applied will depend on the following factors:
 Type of soil
 Soil fertility
 Amount of rainfall
 Area of land to be planted
 Concentration of the nutrient elements in the fertilizer
 Type of crop
 Growing period of the crop

CALCULATION OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION RATES

Example 1

Calculate the amount of fertilizer to be applied if the recommended fertilizer application rate for maize is
120kg/ha of superphosphate. How much will be required for a field of 5hecters.

You are given the following information:

*Application rate = 120 kg/ha

*Total Area =5 ha

Therefore =5ha x 120 kg/ha

= 600kg

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Example 2

If the application rate of superphosphate is 120kg/ha, Calculate the amount of fertilizer needed to apply a
plot of 4m x 1m. Note that the units for area are different and they must be converted as shown below;

These are the steps to follow:

STEP 1: Calculate the area of the plot

4m x 1m = 4m²

STEP 2: The application rate is given in kg/ha but you want your application rate to be in g/m².So
you have to convert hectares to squared metres

N.B 1ha=10 000m²

=120kg/ha x 4m²

=120kg x 4 m²

10 000m²

=0.048kg

BASAL DRESSING TOP DRESSING

It is when fertiliser is applied before planting or the time It is when the fertiliser is added into the soil after the plant
of ploughing has emerged
The fertiliser is placed within the root zone so that plants It is done after seedling emergence or when the plants are
can have easy access to it. growing in the field
Fertilisers which do not dissolve quickly in water(not Fertilisers which dissolve quickly (soluble) or those that are
soluble) such as compost and superphosphate easily leached such as urea, LAN

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FERTILISER APPPLICATION METHODS

BROADCASTING:

This is when fertiliser is sprinkled over the surface and then mixed with the soil before seeds are planted.

BANDING:

Banding involves placing the fertiliser in bands or strips below the soil surface at planting time.

DRILLING:

This is when both seeds and fertilizers are placed to shallow furrow or drill.

SIDE DRESSING:

Side dressing is done by applying fertiliser along a row after the plants have emerged above the soil
sometimes a small hole is made next to the plants, and is placed into the hole.

FERTIGATION:

The application of fertilizer with water and then apply the mixture to the soil.

FOLIAR APPLICATION:

The fertilizer is dissolved in water then sprayed on to the leaves of the plants.

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PLANT NUTRITION

Major elements or nutrients are those required by Minor elements or nutrients are those required by
plants in large quantities also called macro plants in very small quantities also called Trace or
elements Micro elements

 Nitrogen (N)  Zinc (Zn)

 Phosphorus (P)  Boron (B)
 Potassium (K)  Copper (Cu)
 Calcium (Ca)  Manganese (Mn)
 Magnesium (Mg)  Iron (Fe)
 Sulphur(S)  Chlorine (Cl)
 Carbon (C)  Molybdenum (Mo)
 Hydrogen (H)  Silicon (Si)
 Oxygen (O)

MAJOR ELEMENTS FOUND IN FERTILIZERS

The most common plant nutrients found in fertilizers are: *Nitrogen (N)

*Phosphorus (P)

*Potassium (K)

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Element Sources Functions Deficiency Excess symptoms Loss from the

Symptoms soil
Nitrogen *Organic fertilizer *Gives plant their *Leaves turn *Delay maturity *leaching
kraal manure, green green colour yellow(chlorosis) *Plants grow tall *volatilisation
manure (Chlorophyll) *Plants mature too and weak *soil erosion
*Helps growth of early *Plants leaves *Denitrification
*Inorganic fertilizer leaves and *Plant show become soft and *Bush Burning
Ammonium nitrate, shoots(vegetable stunted growth weak *Crop removal
Urea, 2:3:2(22), growth) *Plants use too *Crop residue
LAN. *Formation of proteins much water removal
*Helps plants absorb *Burns seedlings *Continuous
*Nitrogen fixing other elements such as *Increases lodging cropping
bacteria in Phosphorus and problems in cereals
leguminous plants Potassium

*Lightning
Phosphor *Organic fertilizer *Helps root growth *Leaves become *Edges of leaves *soil erosion
us compost animal *Enhances ripening of reddish become grey or *removal of
manure fruit and seeds purple/brown in black and die crop and crop
*Enhances flowering colour *Plants develop residue
*Inorganic fertilizer of plants *Roots develop deficiencies in *Fixation due to
superphosphate *It stores energy in poorly minor elements e.g. incorrect pH
plants *Plants show Zinc, Copper and * Continuous
*Rocks e.g. rock *Helps in seed stunted growth Iron cropping
phosphate granite germination *Fruits and seeds *Causes early
take longer to ripen ripening of crops
Potassium *Organic fertilizer *Needed for *Leaf edges and *Delayed *leaching
woo dash Photosynthesis to take tips scorch germination of *removal of
place *Plants have seeds crop and crop
*Inorganic fertilizer *Helps plants grow stunted growth *Slows ripening of residue
3:1:5, Potassium stronger stems *poor quality fruits, seeds * Continuous
Sulphate. *Helps plants to resist seeds and tubers. *Too much cropping
diseases and frost *Thin, weak Potassium
*Mineral rocks *Helps in sugar and seedlings may cause shortage
Feldspar and Mica starch formation *Leaves curl and of Magnesium and
*Increases the quality may fall in some cases
*Bush burning of crops Calcium
*It reduces
transpiration

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*LEACHING: This is when nutrients dissolve in water and then carried deep down the ground where
plants cannot use them.
*SOIL EROSION: When fertile soil is carried away by running water, the nutrients present dissolve in
water and also get carried away to a place where our crop can no longer make use of them.
*REMOVAL OF CROPS AND CROP RESIDUES: If plants are removed from the soil, the absorbed
nutrients are also taken away.
*CONTINOUS CROPPING: When crops are grown on the same piece of land year after year without
replacing the nutrients used up by previously grown plants then very little will be left in the soil.
*BURNING THE VELD: When vegetation burns, nitrogen compounds in the plants are destroyed and
into the atmosphere as gases.
*VOLATILISATION: Is the process by which something evaporates and turns into gas. When fertilizers
are left in direct sunlight, some of the nutrients evaporate into the atmosphere.
*DENITRIFICATION: Refers to nitrates that are removed from soil. Denitrifying bacteria break down
the nitrates in the soil and then escapes into the atmosphere. This usually happens in waterlogged soils or
soils that are not well aerated.
INCORRECT SOIL pH: when the soil pH is too acidic, microbes in the soil do not work properly to
break down organic matter and release nitrogen. Plant roots cannot take up phosphates in soil that is too
acidic.
WAYS OF MAINTAINING OR IMPROVING SOIL FERTILITY
1. Preventing soil erosion
*Planting cover crops as they reduce soil erosion because they hold the soil particles in place.
*Also reduce direct heat from the sun on the soil, which reduces volatilisation
2. Ploughing back crop residues after harvesting:
* These should be cultivated back into the soil, so that they rot and add nutrients to the soil.
3. Practising crop rotation:
*Rotating crops as this helps keep the soil fertile since some of the crops grown will add nitrogen to the
soil
4. Leaving the land fallow:
*This will allow the soil to rest and recover some of the lost nutrients. It will improve the soil structure.
5. Adding organic fertilizer such as compound and kraal manure time and organic:
*Organic fertilizer reduces leaching because organic matter binds sandy soil particles together so then
they are not washed down.
6. Adding lime which raises the pH of acidic soils so that they become less acidic.
7. Controlling weeds by mulching, cultivation and using herbicides.
8. Mulching is putting a layer of material, for example hay, grass etc, over the soil to prevent soil erosion
and loss of water to improve the fertility of the soil.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF FERTILISER ON THE ENVIRONMENT
a) Contaminating drinking water: Inorganic fertilisers are poisonous chemicals that can pollute ground
water. Polluted grounded water can harm or even kill the living organisms that drink it.

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If fertilizers are not properly mix with soil, they can easily be carried away by surface water running into
dams and rivers and contaminate sources of drinking water.
b)Scorching may occur if too much fertilizers is added to young seedling, or if the grains of fertilizers are
dropped onto the leaves or if they come into direct contact with the roots.
c) The soil structure could be destroyed. The soil becomes compact/harden if there is continued use of
inorganic fertilizers.
d) Fertilizers can result in weeds and green algae growing in water, in rivers and dams. Large numbers
of dead algae cause lack of oxygen in the oxygen in the water which can lead to death of fish and other
animals living in water.

SOIL PH
Soil p.H is the measure of the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. The letter p.H stands for potential
Hydrogen. Soil p.H is therefore a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil. Soil ph is
measured using ph scale.
On the scale the value ranges from 1 - 14, 7 are neutral, and a value less than 7 indicates acidity and a
value greater than 7 is alkalinity. The lower the pH, the more the acidic the soil and the higher the pH, the
more the alkaline the soil.

pH SCALE

EFFECTS OF SOIL pH ON PLANT GROWTH

A soil pH between 5 and 9 is good for most of the crops. A soil pH below 5 and above 9 can be harmful
to the growth of the crops.
Soil pH can affect the growth of crops in the following ways:
 Availability and uptake of nutrients
- A low pH (acidic soil) lower the availability of phosphorus and molybdenum becomes difficult
to dissolve and it is more difficult for roots to absorb it. The phosphorus forms insoluble
compounds with elements such as iron.
- A high pH (alkaline soil) means that potassium, manganese, boron, iron and zinc are not
available for plants so the farmer has to dissolve the elements in irrigation water that is sprayed
on to plants so that they can be absorbed by the leaves.

 Reduces activity of microbes

A low soil pH reduces the activities of soil microbes and this may results in low levels of nitrogen
in the soil.

 Toxicity of some nutrients

- A very low soil pH may increase the amount of iron and aluminium in the soil solution to a level
where they become toxic (poisonous) to plants.
- When the soil pH is above 9, plants absorb sodium in amounts that poison their roots.

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 Leaching of nutrients
A very low soil pH can lead to the breakdown of clay minerals, which contain high amounts of
nutrients. If the clay minerals are disturbed, leaching of nutrients can easily occur.

 Formation of saline soils

In dry parts of the country, where the soil pH is more than 8, saline soils are formed. These soils
are highly alkaline and may not be good for growing crops.

DETEMINING THE pH OF THE SOIL

There are three different ways to determine the soil pH which includes:
1. Using the litmus paper method
2. Using the universal indicator method
3. Using the electric pH meter

DETERMINING SOIL pH OF THE SOIL USING THE UNIVERSAL INDICATOR PAPER:

1. Place a soil sample in a plate and insert one end of the universal indicator paper into the soil.
2. Pour distilled water over the soil and wait for about 15 minutes.
3. Take out the universal indicator paper and compare its colour with the colours on the pH colour
chart.
DETERMINING SOIL pH OF THE SOIL USING THE LITMUS PAPER:

1. Place a soil sample in a plate.

2. Add distilled water in the soil and shake thoroughly and wait for 5 minutes.
3. Drain the distilled water from out of the soil.
4. Place one end of a blue and a red litmus paper in the drained distilled water.
5. Note the colour to which it changes.
NOTE:
- If the red litmus paper changes colour to blue, it means the soil is alkaline.
- If the red litmus paper remains red, it means the soil is acidic.
- If the blue litmus paper changes to red, then it means the soil is acidic.
- If the blue litmus paper remains blue, it means the soil is alkaline.

 The reason why distilled water is used is because it is neutral ( not acidic or alkaline)

DETERMINING THE SOIL pH USING ELECTROMETRIC METHOD

Using an electric pH meter is the most accurate method to test soil pH.
CROPS GROWING IN DIFFERENT SOIL PH
Different crops need soil with different pH readings.

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Below are examples of crops and the pH best suited to their growth.
CROP CROP SOIL PH RANGE
Field crops Maize 5.7 - 7.5
Millet 5.0 - 6.5
Sorghum 5.5 - 7.5
Groundnuts 5.5 - 6.5
Beans 6.0 - 7.0
Vegetable crops Spinach 6.0 - 6.8
Rape 5.5 - 7.0
Tomatoes 5.5 - 6.0
Green peppers 5.5 - 7.0
Onions 5.0 - 6.5
Fruits Banana 5.0 - 8.0
Citrus: oranges, lemons, limes, 5.5 - 7.0
grapefruit, mandarines

ACTIVITIES THAT ALTER SOIL pH

ACTIVITIES THAT CAN MAKE SOILS ACIDIC:
1. When the soil is over-irrigated and leaching occurs (leaching makes soil acidic)
Over-irrigation can also make soil become waterlogged. This can make soil more acidic because the
carbon dioxide that plant roots and micro- organisms in the soil breathe out dissolves in the water to
produce carbonic acid.
2. Some chemical fertilizers form acids when they dissolve in the soil water, fertilizers such as
ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate.
3. Organic matter decomposition: When organic matter breaks down to form soil, acids may be released.
4. Leaching of bases: When nutrients such as calcium and magnesium are washed down in the soil and
hydrogen ions take their place.
5. Pollution: Rainfall may dissolve gases, such as carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. These gases
combine with water and form acid rain which gets into the soil and lowers the soil pH. Acid rain also
causes damage to vegetation and soils.
ACTIVITIES THAT CAN MAKE SOILS ALKALINE:
1. Addition of lime: When agricultural lime like calcium carbonate, dolomite and calcium
hydroxide, wood ash and LAN is added to the soil to raise its pH.
2. Poor drainage: if soils are poorly drained bases may be washed into – lying area.
If water then evaporates, the bases remain and increase the alkalinity.
WAYS OF REGULATING THE SOIL pH
IN ACIDIC SOILS
- Apply agricultural lime e.g. calcium carbonate, dolomite and calcium hydroxide and wood ash.
- Reduce irrigation and do not give plants more water than they need so that leaching is limited.
- Apply fertilizers that contain lime e.g. LAN

IN ALKALINE SOILS
- Add inorganic fertilisers such as sulphur, gypsum, aluminium sulphate and ammonium sulphate.
- Add organic matter: Organic acids are formed during the decomposition of organic matter and
will lower the pH of the soil when they are added to it.
- Over- irrigate deliberately as this will cause leaching.

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PLANT GROWTH

WHAT IS GERMINATION?
The process of an embryo within a seed begins to develop into a plant.

Seedling emergence
Emergence is the period in the life cycle of a plant that follows germination. There are two ways that
seedlings can emerge above the soil

1. Epigeal emergence
This is when the cotyledons are pushed above the ground during the growth of the hypocotyl after
germination.

2. Hypogeal emergence
This is when the cotyledons remains below the ground because the hypocotyl remains inactive
after germination.

REQUIREMENTS FOR SEED GERMINATION

1. Water- it is needed for dissolving substances in the seed called enzymes which are needed for growth
of the embryo.
2. Suitable temperature- optimum or best possible temperature is needed to have good germination.
Each type of plant seed has a certain temperature range for it to germinate.
3. Air (Oxygen) - for respiration to take place oxygen is needed and this will give the seed energy for
germination processes.
4. Light- though most crops do not require light for germination, there is some which will not germinate
in the absence of light.

REQUIREMENTS FOR PLANT GROWTH

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1. Water- water occupies 80-90% of the plant mass. It is a solvent dissolving plant nutrient. It is
also required for making plant food through the process of photosynthesis. Water transports
dissolved food substances made in the leaves during photosynthesis. The process is called
translocation. It also helps in cooling the leaves by allowing water vapour and air to move in and
out the leaf through stomata.

2. Sunlight- plants use sunlight to make its own food through the process of photosynthesis.
𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Water + Carbon dioxide 𝑏𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙 Carbohydrates + Oxygen

3. Air- it is a mixture of gases. Oxygen is used during respiration. Respiration is the breaking down
of stored carbohydrates using oxygen to release Carbon dioxide.

Carbohydrates + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy

The carbon dioxide released during respiration is used in photosynthesis or released into the air.

4. Nutrient elements- although plants are able to make their own food, there is need for plants to
get nutrients from the soil. Lack of nutrient element will result in deficiency disease. Farmers
should make it a point that plants have correct amounts of the different nutrient elements in the
soil.

5. Temperature- plants cannot grow below a certain temperature. This is called minimum
temperature. Plants can also stop growing above a certain temperature and this is maximum
temperature.

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FARM IMPLEMENTS

Farm implements are heavier objects used to make work easier and more efficient. These are usually
larger and heavier than tools.

Differences between tools, implements and machines

Tools Implements Machines

Are small, simple and light Are larger & heavier than tools but Are large, complex and heavy
smaller than machines
Operated by hand (human power) Need either animal power or a tractor to Use mechanical power
operate
Take longer to do work Are quicker than tools, especially when Are faster when performing work
pulled by a tractor
Are cheaper to buy Are more expensive than tools but Are expensive to buy
cheaper than machines
WHAT IS A MACHINE?

It is a device with complex parts that does work by using mechanical power such as an engine or electric
motor. E.g. tractor, combine harvester, milking machine, mower etc.......

Diagrams:

Machines and their uses

Machine Use (s)

Tractor
Combine harvester
Milking machine
Mower

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WHAT IS AN IMPLEMENT?

It is a device that is larger than a tool, but smaller than a machine that is used to carry out work but
requires more power than human power, hence is pulled by either animals or a tractor. E.g. ploughs,
harrows, planters, cultivators, etc...

Name Diagram Use

Cultivator Used for preparing the soil before planting.
Used to bury the residues to increase nutrients.
Used for controlling weeds.

Mould board plough Used for cultivating the soil by turning it up-side-
(tractor drawn) down as a way of loosening it for easy planting.

Mould board plough Used for primary tillage.

(animal drawn) (tillage is the preparation of land for growing crops)

Disc harrow Used on ploughed land, the blades break up large

lumps of soil.

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PROPER CARE AND STORAGE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS

 Keep nuts and bolts tight all the time.

 Provide maintenance if damaged or worn out.
 Implements should be used for the work they were made to do
 Clean the tools before they are stored
 Oil machines and implements regularly to avoid rusting and corrosion
 Threaded parts of implements and machines should be greased to allow nuts to move easily
 Check for oil, water and fuel levels regularly in tractors
 Cover farm implements to be painted regularly to help prevent rust
 Do not use a tool to do things for which it is not designed. For example, use a fork and not a rake to
break up large clods of soil, because the delicate prongs of the rake may get damaged.
 Return tools to their proper storage place after use. If you don’t do this, you could easily lose them.
 Store tools, implements & machines in a roofed storeroom/shed. Do not leave them outside, because
if they get wet, they might rust.
 Apply grease/oil on moving parts to avoid friction hence reducing wear & tear.
 Paint implements and tools to avoid rusting.
 Tighten loose bolts on implements such as ploughs, cultivators and harrows to avoid damage to the
implement.
 Ask skilled personnel to service machines according to the manufacturer’s recommendations & avoid
amateurs’ jobs.
 Replace serviceable & worn out parts of implements and machines on time to avoid further damage.
 Make sure all electric cables are well insulated. Exposed electric cables often cause costly fire
damage to buildings & machinery.
 Make sure that people who use machines have been trained. Incorrect use can cause damage.

PROPER STORAGE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS

 Tools, implements and machines to be stored properly to avoid accidents

 Place them where they will be protected from rain, dust and heat.
 Farm implements to be used for the purpose for which they are designed

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY THE USE OF TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES ON THE

ENVIRONMENT

PROBLEM SOLUTION
Machines pollute the air and soil Service the machines regularly
Machines are heavy and they compact the soil leading to Till the soil to loosen it
problem of infiltration
Farm implements damage the soil structure Use farm implements when the soil is not too dry and too wet
Farm implements destroy plants that grows naturally in the Keep a border of natural vegetation around ploughed field
area
Farm implements carry weeds and diseases from one farm Clean farm implements thoroughly before using them in a new
to the other place
Farm implements destroy animals that live under the soil Avoid burrows and nests of soil animals

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MECHANIZATION
This means the use of machines in the production, processing and storage of farm produce.
Advantages of mechanization
 It is time saving, farm operations such as cultivation, harrowing, harvesting, can be done quickly &
large areas covered in a short period of time.
 It is less laborious, so reduces drudgery (hard work) in farm work.
 It protects animals from doing hard work on the farm e.g. horses, cattle, etc..
 It helps in earning income, a farmer can use his/her machines to do work for other farmers & charge
them a fee.
 Machines do not get tired and do work more efficiently, but animals do.
 A farmer can produce much more food with machines.

Disadvantages of mechanization
 It leads to unemployment since it is labour saving.
 Running and maintenance costs for machines are high.
 Mechanical skill & knowledge are required to maintain & operate machines.
 Heavy machines can destroy soil structure if they are not used properly.
 Machines can widen the gap between rich & poor farmers.
 Pollution of the environment: poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide released by some machines
may pollute the environment.

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS & MACHINES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

AND THEIR SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
Problem Solution
Too much movement of machines on the farm makes the Reduce movement of machines to avoid making the soil
compact/hard, this affects drainage, aeration & root compact.
penetration and also reduces underground water. Where the soil is compact, it can be loosened to enable water
Destroyed soil structure leads to poor plant growth on the to sink easily and be used by plants.
farm. Use farm implements & machines when the soil is not too
wet/too dry.
During ploughing & planting machines & implements When ploughing, farmers should leave a border of natural
loosen the soil & destroy the plants that grow naturally in vegetation around ploughed fields to reduce soil erosion.
the area, making it easy for erosion to take place.
The smoke, oil and scrap metal from tools, implements & Regular servicing of machines & correct disposal of used oil
machines can pollute the environment, pollution negatively & scrap metal can control pollution.
affects the health of plants & animals in the environment.
Farm implements can spread weeds and plant diseases. Clean implements thoroughly before using them in a new
Seeds of weeds & pathogens cling to the blades of the place.
implement.
Farm tools & implements destroy the animals that live Look out for the burrows & nests of soil animals. If the
under the soil by uncovering their habitat, killing them & animals are accidentally uncovered, they must be covered
destroying their eggs. These organisms are important in again.
decomposing organic matter & burrowers improve
aeration.

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ANIMAL NUTRITION
All livestock need food to live and grow healthy. The food eaten by livestock is called feed. The part of
food eaten by plants is called nutrients.

REASONS FOR FEEDING LIVESTOCK

 For maintenance
The feed provides enough nutrients for the body of an animal to carry out essential life processes such
as blood circulation, respiration, excretion and digestion. If animals do not receive enough food, they
will lose weight and become thin.

 For production
Production in livestock is seen when animals grow, produce offspring and yield products such as eggs
and milk.
Feed composition
Livestock feeds contains different nutrients. Those are; carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, vitamins
and water.
1. Proteins
Proteins are used for the formation of new cells and repair damaged ones. They are important for building
new tissues in the body. Proteins are present in most animal products such as milk, eggs, lean meat and
fish.
(sources ;legumes, sunflower seed cake, cotton seed meal, meat meal)
-repairs worn out tissues and build body tissues such as muscles and bones
-are necessary for growth especially of young animal
-proteins are also needed for production of products such as wool, milk and eggs
-needed for reproduction
-are a component of chemical compounds such as enzymes, hormones and antibodies

2. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates provide the energy that is needed or required for all life processes
(includes sugars, starch and fibre (cellulose))
-provide heat and energy
-carbohydrates in the form of fibre or cellulose aids in digestion
-extra carbohydrates are changed into fats and stored for future use

3. Lipids (Fats and oils)

They give the animal energy. Fats is stored under the skin of an animal. It provides insulation and
protects delicate organs like the kidneys and intestines.
-source of energy in the animals body
-forms part of the animals products
-warm the animals during cold weathers
-cushion up delicate body organs
-facilitate absorption of calcium and soluble vitamins

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4. Vitamins
They are needed by the animal to keep them in a good health.
( are needed in small amounts)
a) Vitamins A :needed for bone growth, fertility and reproduction : Also improves night vision
b) Vitamin B :important in the breakdown of carbohydrates and absorption of amino acids
c) Vitamin C :prevention of infection
d) Vitamin D :assists in the utilisation of calcium in the process of bone formation
e) Vitamin E : essential for fertility and reproduction : prevents degeneration of brains
f) Vitamin K :plays an important role in the clotting of blood

5. Minerals
These are important elements such as phosphorus, calcium and iron.
(are present in small amounts in feeds)
a) Calcium :bone and teeth formation
: Part of blood plasma
: Egg shell formation
: helps the animal to be alert

b) Phosphorus :bone and teeth formation: improves fertilization

c) Potassium :important for nerve and muscle activity
d) Iron :important in the formation of blood cells and some enzymes

6. Water
-acts as a solvent in the animals body i.e. dissolves substances so that they can be transported around the
body
-medium for chemical reactions
-cools and regulates body temperature through perspiration
-aids in excretion of body waste products
-main constituent of blood (blood is made up of more than 90%water.
-maintains the shape of body cells
TYPES OF RATIONS
A ration is the amount of feed taken in by an animal in one day. A balanced ration is one that contains all
the nutrients in the correct proportion to meet the needs of the animal for one day.
TYPES OF BALANCED RATIONS

 Maintenance ration
This is a ration that contains enough nutrients just to keep the animal alive and in good health.
Animals fed on a maintenance ration will neither lose nor gain weight.
 Production ration
This is a ration that provides enough nutrients for production of things like milk and eggs.
TYPES OF FEEDS

 Roughage
 These are animal feeds that contain high proportions of fibre/cellulose and low proportion of
digestible nutrients. These feeds are mainly of plant origin. There are two types of roughages (Dry
roughages and wet/succulent roughages)
 Roughage is a plant material such as grass and stovers (dried maize stalks) that is coarse and consists
mainly of fiber or cellulose. It contains only small amount of nutrients. For this reason, it is usually
fed to animals in a large amount.

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 Roughages that contains a lot of water are called succulent roughages

 Roughages that contains less moisture are called dry roughages.
 Roughages that comes from legume plants, such as Lucerne and beans, contains more protein than
that derived from cereal like maize stover.

The nutritional value of roughages

 Roughages give bulk to the feed and helps in digestion

 Animals that have large compartments of stomach i.e. ruminants can benefit from roughages because
their digestive system are able to break it down
 Non ruminants such as pigs can only use little roughage
 Roughages are sufficient if used as maintenance ration
 Roughages are usually rich in minerals but deficient in phosphates
 Roughages contain very few vitamins and proteins (except legume hay)

 Concentrates
These are commercial feeds derived from both plant and animal products such as maize meal and
carcass meal. They contain a lot of nutrients and so they are usually fed to animals in small amounts.
Concentrates that have a high percentage of carbohydrates are called carbohydrate-rich
concentrates.
Concentrates that have a lot of proteins are called protein-rich concentrates.

The nutritional value of concentrates

 Provide proteins and carbohydrates needed by the body
 Are rich in energy needed to do work and other activities
 Are rich in minerals and fats needed by the body
 Are tasty and thus help the animal develop appetite for food
 Are easily broken and release nutrients needed by the body.

COMPARISON BETWEEN CONCENTRATES AND ROUGHAGES

Concentrates Roughages
-high amounts of carbohydrates and proteins -low in carbohydrates and proteins
-fed to all types of livestock in small amounts -fed to ruminants in large amounts
-low fibre content -high fibre content
-easily digested -not easy to digest
-amount of nutrients is constant -nutritive value of roughages varies with age and season
-not suitable for feeding ruminants on their own -can be fed to ruminants on their own
-can be used as supplementary feeds for ruminants -can be used as maintenance and production ration for livestock

Supplementary feeds
This is the food that is given to the animal to give it extra feed to supply nutrients that are not present in
their ration. The extra feed may be in a form of a roughage or concentrates.
Examples
 Molasses meal/powder; is a thick, sticky and very dark syrup. It is produced in the process of
making sugar from sugar cane.
 Mineral licks;
- Usually contain salt to make them tasty
- are a mixture of chemicals and nutrients that animals lick out of a container (drum or trough)

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- a winter lick contains extra proteins and carbohydrates

 Bone meal; feeds made from ground bones or horns, reduced to fine powder
 Di calcium phosphate; made from phosphate rocks and contains both phosphorus and calcium

NUTRITIONAL DISEASES OF ANIMALS

These are diseases caused by lack of or too much of certain nutrients in the feed. Many supplementary
feeds are given to animals to avoid nutritional diseases. Nutritional diseases are not infectious i.e. they do
not spread from one animal to another.
Examples of nutritional diseases that affect livestock in Botswana:
A. Rickets :caused by lack of phosphorus and calcium
Shortage of vitamin D is responsible for rickets where animals are kept indoors. Sunlight is a source
of Vit D.
B. Milk Fever: shortage of calcium in the blood, usually after a cow has given birth and large
volume of milk is suddenly produced
C. Bloat: too much gas fills up the stomach when an animal eats a lot of green fresh plants
D. Anaemia: shortage of iron
E. Aphosphorosis: shortage of phosphorus
APHOSPHOROSIS (stiff sickness)
Cause: shortage of phosphorus
Symptoms:
-animals eat hard objects like old bones, wood, wires, sticks and stones
-its bones become weak and soft and thus cannot walk properly
-leg joints become swollen, stiff and painful making it difficult to walk
-it losses weight and becomes thin
-it may die if there is no treatment provided
Treatment:
-animal is given feed containing phosphorus
Control and prevention
-ensure the animal’s feed contains enough phosphorus at all times
-Dicalcium phosphate or bone meal contain phosphorus and thus should be given to animals

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PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

A cropping system refers to the arrangement of the crops in a field. The different ways of growing crops
include:
 Monoculture
 Mixed cropping
 Continuous cropping
 Inter cropping
 Crop rotation
1. Monoculture
This is when farmers grow same crop (for example maize) on the whole field year after year.
This system can also be referred to as mono-cropping.
Advantages of monoculture
 It allows farmers to develop good skills in growing a particular crop therefore specialize in the
growing of the crop.
 It allows mechanization of irrigation and other processes such as harvesting.
 Costs are kept low and less labour required because can do most of the work
Disadvantages of monoculture
 It can lead to poor soil fertility where the crop uses up the same nutrients all the time
 It can lead to the spread of pests and diseases as they may remain on the old crop residue and spread
to next sowing
 High risk of total crop failure. If the crops are attacked by pest and diseases, farmers may loose the
whole crop

2. Mixed cropping
This is the growing of more than one type of crop in the same field at the same time without distinct rows.
For example maize, sweet potatoes and beans may be grown in the same field. This is a common practice
for traditional farmers in Botswana who do broadcasting of seeds.
Advantages of mixed cropping
 Several crops are produced (so there is more variety of food)
 Farmers develop skill in growing several types of crops.
 Farmers take less risk of crop failing because if one crop fails, the other may not.
 Diseases and pest will not spread easily
 Labour requirements will be spread out if long term crops are mixed with short term crops.
 Efficient use of water and plant nutrient elements.
Disadvantages of mixed cropping
 Using machines for harvesting may be difficult because different methods may be needed to harvest
the different crops.
 Competition for nutrients if all crops planted require the same nutrients.
 Fertilizers may be wasted on plants that do not need them.
 More skill is needed since different crops are planted.

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3. Continuous cropping
It is growing of crops in succession over a given period without giving the land a period of rest or fallow.
As soon as one crop is harvested, another is planted so the field always has crops growing on it.
Advantages of continuous cropping
 Possible year round production (crop produce available over a long time) earning money for the
farmer.
 Efficient use of labour as farm labour is occupied all the time.
 Land will be used all the time and there is no need to clear areas for growing crops.

Disadvantages of continuous cropping

 Land over-use lead to soil erosion as the structure of soil is destroyed
 It is expensive if irrigation is carried out and fertilizers are added.
 It leads to poor soil fertility if fertilizers are not added.

4. Inter cropping
This is a form of mixed cropping in which two or more crops are grown in the same area alongside each
other in alternate rows. Example; beans may be planted between rows of maize. (Inter means between)
Advantages
 It allows for good use of land because the same land can produce a variety of crops
 There is less risk of losing the entire crop since there are several crops planted
 It allows for a variety of produce to be grown
 Crops that are useful to other can be grown together. For e.g. tall bean plants can shade low growing
pumpkin plants
 Increased plant cover that allows for better erosion control
Disadvantages
 Lt lead to low yield especially in dry area as crops will compete for water
 It requires more labour to plant, fertilize, weed and harvest the crops
 Cost of production may be high due to the farmer having to manage many crops
5. Crop rotation
This is planting different crops on the same field at different times in an orderly sequence rotating them
yearly. Some farmer s have their land divided in to different areas for planting different crops in a
rotation. Usually farmers adopt a three or four crop rotation system and may allow a period of rest for a
piece of land. A leguminous crop such as cowpeas, beans or groundnuts may be included to increase
fertility of the soil naturally.
A useful rotation to follow will be Roots then Leaves then legume
Field Plot A Plot B Plot C Plot D
Year 1 Cowpeas Sorghum Fallow Sunflower
Year 2 Sorghum Fallow Sunflower cowpeas
Year 3 Fallow Sunflower cowpeas sorghum
Year 4 Sunflower cowpeas sorghum fallow

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Advantages of crop rotation

 Soil fertility can be maintained because legume plants leave nitrogen in the soil.
 Pests and diseases can be controlled more easily
 Parasitic weeds can be controlled more easily
 Total crop failure is avoided
 Improves the structure of the soil and reduce soil erosion
Disadvantages of crop rotation
 Skilled labour is needed to plan and practice a good rotation
 No money is made from the land when it is fallow.

Principles of crop production

 Crops that belong to the same family should not follow each other, for example beans should not
be planted after cowpeas, because they are both legumes.
 Crops that are attacked by the same diseases and pests should not follow each other in a sequence
e.g. maize and sorghum.
 Long rooted crops should follow shallow-rooted
 A legume crop must always be included in the rotation e.g. beans and cowpeas.
 The sequence should include a period of rest/ fallow for the land to recover.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING A SITE FOR CROP PRODUCTION

 Quality of the soil
The soil should be fertile, well drained, well aerated and easy to cultivate. Crops grown on fertile soil give
better yields. Dark soil shows that there is plenty of humus, so the soil is fertile.
 A good supply of water
The garden or field should be near a good supply of water, which is one of the most important
requirements for plant growth. If the water is not enough, crops may wilt and die.
 Close to the market
The garden or field should be near a market where the produce can be sold. Some produce like tomatoes
are perishable that is they will rot if it takes a long time to get to the market. It costs the farmer less to get
produce to a market that is nearby.
 Topography
This is the description of land features and characteristics. The garden or field should be as flat as
possible to avoid the run-off of rainwater, which leads to soil erosion. The land should also be free from
big stones, trees and bushes so that it does not cost too much to prepare it for growing crops.
 Climatic conditions
The climate of the area should be good for whichever crops chosen to be grown.
 Shelter
Crops should be protected from the effects of strong winds. To provide shelter, windbreaks should be
planted around fields e.g. netting and hedges used in vegetable gardens.
Land preparation
It involves land clearing, destumping, cultivation, leveling and fertililser application.
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Land clearing
It is the removal of unwanted materials from a field e.g.
 cutting down trees
 distumping
 removing grasses, stones

Distumping
It means the removal of stumps from the ground.
Reasons for land clearing
 So that cultivation can easily done by tractors and animals.
 Trees and shrubs compete with crops for water and nutrients.
 Trees shade crops from direct sunlight

TILLAGE
This is working in the soil with tools or implements resulting in an area suitable for growing crops.
There are two types of tillage
 Primary Tillage
 Secondary Tillage

PRIMARY TILLAGE SECONDARY TILLAGE

It is the initial breaking and loosing of soil to a depth It is the working in soil after ploughing aimed at
greater than 15cm. This is also called Ploughing soil refinement to a depth less than 15cm

Implements for Primary Tillage Implements for Secondary Tillage

-Animal mouldboard plough -disc harrow
-Tractor drawn mouldboard plough -zig zag harrow
-chisel plough -rotary cultivator

For small areas; digging fork, spade, hoe or pick axe can be Small areas; rake
used

Ploughing
It is the turning of soil upside down.
Reasons for cultivation
 Loosen the soil for easy plant root growth and penetration.
 Improve soil aeration, drainage, water infiltration and water holding capacity.
 Control weeds by burying them.
 Control pests and diseases by exposing pest eggs and diseases causing microbes to the heat of the sun.
 Mix fertilizer with soil

Leveling
It is making the inside of a plot or field evenly equal. It is done using by using a rake in plots, harrows
and cultivators in fields.

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Reasons for leveling

 Allow equal distribution of water across the plot or field.
 Avoid run-off of water which leads to soil erosion.
 Leveling also help to break down clods or lumps so that soil becomes smooth and fine.
 To obtain a uniform depth of planting.

Fertilizer application
Application of fertilizer before planting is known as Basal dressing. Compound fertilizers such as 2:3:2
(22) and kraal manure and compost are used as a basal dressing. It is important to apply fertilizers before
planting so they can mix and dissolve into the soil.
Reasons for basal dressing
 It is important to apply fertilizers before planting so that they can be mixed and dissolved into the soil
before planting
 To replace nutrients lacking in the soil according to soil analysis.
 Some fertilizers such as compost and kraal manure improve soil structure.
 To ensure good and healthy start for seedlings.
 To promote healthy root development of seedlings.
 To activate microbial activity in the soil.
Fertilizer Application Implements
 Planter; which add fertilizers at the time of planting
 Fertilizer spreader; spreads fertilizer before planting
 Sprayers; spray fertilizer in liquid form
 Sprinklers; spray liquid or dissolved fertilizers on the leaves of crops
 Wheelbarrow, Can and buckets are used to carry manure to wherever it is needed.
PREPARING A PLOT FOR GROWING CROPS
A plot is a prepared bed where crops can be grown. They can be used as either temporary or permanent
plots. There are three main types of plots used.
RAISED PLOTS

They are about 20 to 30cm above ground level. Top soil is used to raise the bed so that it is full of good,
fertile soil for plants. It is normally used in rocky areas where cultivation is difficult. It may also be used
in area where there is a lot of rainfall to raise seedbed to avoid Water Logging.
Advantage
- more nutrients are made available to plots by adding top soil.
- provide drainage and aeration
- encourage better root penetration
- help to prevent washing away of crops during rainstorms

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Disadvantages
- poor at conserving rainwater so unsuitable for dry areas
- it is time consuming and labour intensive
- nutrients are easily leached

SUNKEN PLOTS
Sunken plots are 10-15cm below ground level. They are used in areas where there is normally little
rainfall. During rainfall, water will run into the seedbed.
Advantages
- conserve a great deal for water
- suitable for dry seasons
Disadvantages
- allows water to stay in one place so are water logged
- soil easily becomes hard and poorly aerated
- plant roots find it difficult to penetrate into soil therefore not suitable for root crops
FLAT PLOT
These are most common type of beds used. They are prepared at ground level where boundaries/ridges
are made around the bed without digging. The surface is not lowered or raised.
Advantage
- They are easer to prepare
- Needs less labour
- Top soil is not disturbed
-flood irrigation is possible

Disadvantages
- Soil erosion is common in flat bed
- Plant roots do not penetrate deep therefore is not good for root vegetables
- difficult to manage where soil is having a slope.

PREPARING A HOLE FOR PLANTING TREES

Holes are prepared in an Orchard when planting trees. They must be big enough to allow roots to grow
and spread.
STEPS
1. Mark the size of the holes and spacing for planting of trees
2. Dig the holes approximately 0.5m to 1m deep and 0.5 to 1m deep.
3. Put the top soil on one side of the hole and sub soil on the other side
4. Mix top soil with fertilizers and put the mixture back in the hole

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5. Keep the sub soil to use for firming after transplanting

PLANTING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

DIRECT PLANTING AND INDIRECT PLANTING
Direct planting
It is when the seeds are sown in the plot or field where the crop will grow and mature(be ready for
harvesting). All cereals like maize, most root vegetables like carrots and beetroots and all leguminous
crops like groundnuts, beans, and peas are sown directly.
Advantages of direct planting
 Seedlings are not disturbed; there is no break in their growth
 Less labour is needed because the plants are not moved from the place where they were sown.
Disadvantages of direct planting
 Many seedlings may die during thinning.
 Wastage of seeds is high.
 When seedlings die, it is difficult to replace them.
 Difficult to provide suitable environment for seedlings on large area.
Indirect planting
This means seeds are planted in a nursery and seedlings are later transplanted to a permanent site.
Examples of seedlings that can be transplanted include all leafy vegetables like cabbage, lettuce,
choumollia (kale) and fruit vegetables like tomatoes, green peppers as well as fruit tree crops.
Advantages of indirect planting
 Special attention is given to seeds and seedlings in the nursery.
 Fewer seeds are used
 Only strong and healthy seedlings are transplanted
 It is easy to control the environmental factors for germination and seedling growth on a small plot,
e.g. temperature, water supply.
 Seedlings that die after transplanting can easily be replaced with others from the nursery.
Disadvantages of indirect planting
 More labour is needed for transplanting
 Time consuming
 Some seedlings may die after being transplanted
 A farmer needs to be skillful to carry out indirect planting properly

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT PLANTING OF CROPS

BROADCASTING AND ROW PLANTING
Broadcasting
It is planting seeds by randomly scattering them on the surface of the soil. This is mostly done by hand or
using machines
Broadcasting is the most common method of planting seeds in Botswana. This is because it has been the
traditional method for a long time, and is a very easy technique.
Advantages of broadcasting
 It is easy and quick to use
 It does not need a lot of labour
 Does not require any specialized skills

Disadvantages of broadcasting
 It can waste seeds where some fall outside planting area.
 Crops can be overcrowded can be overcrowded if too many seeds germinate
 Overcrowded crops competing for nutrients, space and water leading to low yield.
 Difficult for cultivation, weeding and harvesting using machinery because the crops grow anywhere

Row planting
This is planting seeds in rows at the recommended spaces in straight lines
Advantages of row planting
 Good spacing between crops is possible, which means crops are not crowded.
 Right spacing for crops, so there are higher yields.
 It is easy to use machines to cultivate, weed, spray and harvest.
 Crops do not compete for water, nutrients and sunlight.
Disadvantages of row planting
 More skill is needed
 More labour and time is needed than for broadcasting
 It is more expensive because machines are needed
DEPTH OF PLANTING
Correct planting depth ensures quick and uniform seedling emergence leading to a uniform plant growth.
The depth of planting is determined by:
 Size of a seed
Generally seeds should be planted at a depth of 3-5 times their diameter, so the larger the seed, the deeper
it is planted. If small seeds are planted too deep, the seedling may fail to emerge due to shortage of
energy.e.g. A sorghum seed with a diameter of 2mm will be planted 6mm -10mm deed
depth of planting = diameter of seed x 3
= 2mm x 3

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= 6mm
 Type of soil
Seeds are sown less deep in clay soil and more and more deeper in sandy soils because seedlings cannot
easily emerge from heavy soils (clay).
 Moisture content of the soil
Seeds should not be planted so deeply in soil that has too much moisture. If the seeds are too deep, the
seedlings may rot before they can emerge.
SPACING OF CROPS
It is the distance within and between plants in rows. Plants need to be planted with a suitable distance
between them. When plants are too close to each other, they are forced to compete for nutrients, water,
sunlight and space leading to lower produce.
SPACING OF CROPS IS DETERMINED BY;
 How a crop grows (growth habit)
Plants with large, spreading branches and roots that grow sideways need more space than crops which
have fewer branches and grow upwards.
 Amount of moisture in the soil
When soil has less moisture, crops can be widely spaced to avoid competition between them but when
there is enough moisture they can be closely spaced
 Purpose for which the crop is grown
Crops grown for feeding livestock (fodder crops) are needed in large quantities so they are always grown
close to each other. Crops intended for human consumption are planted at a wider spacing to improve the
quality of the produce.
 The fertility of the soil
Larger spaces are needed between plants in poor soil so that plants do not have to compete for nutrients.
 Types of machinery to be used
The spaces between the rows should allow machines to move between them.
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
1. Mulching
This means placing a layer of material on top of the soil to conserve moisture or to reduce evaporation.
- More common in small fields and gardens.
Reasons for mulching
 Keep soil moist and allow early seed germination and emergence of seedlings.
 Keep soil temperature low and reduces the rate of evaporation from the soil.
 Helps to kill weeds by preventing them from getting sunlight.
 Turns into humus after decaying in the field.
 Protects seed from birds and soil erosion.
 Reduce the impact of heavy raindrops, preventing splash erosion.
 Encourages microbial activities in the soil.

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Materials used as mulch

Organic
 Dry grass
 Dry leaves
 Stalks (from sorghum, maize)
 Paper
 Wood shavings, saw dust
Inorganic
 Plastic sheet
 Sacks (oranges)
Appropriate time for removing mulch
 Mulch should be removed immediately after the emergence of seedlings to receive sunlight for
photosynthesis. This is done to prevent them growing tall and thin (etiolating) as a result of lack of
sunlight.
 If termites starts eating the mulch
2. WATERING
It is the application of water to planted area or to crop plants. It is also known as irrigation.
Reasons for watering
 Water dissolve nutrients and will be then taken up by plant roots.
 Helps in translocation of food to different parts of the plant.
 Keeps the plant cells turgid and maintain their shape.
 Keeps plant cool and protects them from wilting during hot days.
 Keeps soil temperature low.
 Water helps plants to make their own food (photosynthesis).
Methods of watering
1. Watering can fitted with a rose - A watering can should be fitted with a rose to prevent the force of
the water damaging the young seedlings. It is easy to use a watering can but it takes a long time to cover a
large area.
2. Hose pipe - Pipes can be fitted with sprinklers to avoid damaging seedlings. They may damage plants
while pulling the hose pipes across the plots.
3. Sprinkler irrigation - This is when the water is forced out into the air under pressure and falls on the
filed like rain.
4. Drip irrigation - This is when water passes along tubes and drips out slowly beside each plant.
NOTE!
A. Avoid over watering.
Applying too much water can lead to the soil becoming waterlogged, and may destroy soil structure.
Water logging can result in the following;
 Water fill air spaces in soil
 Leaching
 Increase fungal diseases

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B. Under watering
Too little water can lead to wilting and death of crop plants.
3. WEEDING
It is the removal of weeds from a field of crops.
Weed
It is a plant that grows where it is not wanted. It may be grass, broad leafed plants or woody bushes.
Reasons for weeding
 They compete with crop plants for water, nutrients, air, space and sunlight.
 Can be a home for pests which will damage crops.
 Make it difficult to carry out management activities like harvesting, cultivation, top dressing and
harvesting.
 Some weeds are poisonous to animals and humans.
 Can contaminate the harvest and reduce the seed quality of the crop.
Weeds commonly found in Botswana
English Name Setswana Name Scientific Name
Black jack Moonyana Bidens pilosa
Mexican poppy Lopero Argemore Mexicana
Large thorn apple Mokhure Datura stramonium
Couch grass Motlhwa Cynodon dactylon
Pigweed Thepe Amaranthus species
Poison leaf Mogau Dichapetalum cymosum
PARASITIC WEEDS
They are plants which depends on other plants for survival. They absorb their food directly from the host
plants. Parasitic weeds grow only where there is a host crop on which they depend for food. Some
parasitic weeds found in Botswana;
Scientific English Setswana Host crop
Striga asiatica Red witch weed Molelwane Sorghum, millet, maize
Striga gsenenoids Purple witch weed Molelwane wa dinawa Cowpeas
Alectra vogelli Yellow witch weed Molelwane wa dinawa Cowpeas

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

 Mechanical control
It is the physical removal of weeds by handpicking, use of farm tools; hoeing, slashing or implements for
primary and secondary tillage; cultivator or mouldboard.
 Cultural control
It is the use of recommended farming practices to control weeds such as mulching, crop rotation and early
planting.
 Chemical control

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The use of poisonous chemicals called herbicides to control weeds. Examples of herbicides are 2.4D
glyphosate, Atrazine, Simazine and Gardomil.
 Biological control
This is the use of living organisms to control weeds. Cattle, sheep and donkeys can be used to control
grass weeds, while goats can control the spread of bush weeds.
4. THINNING
It is the removal of some seedlings to allow enough growing space for the remaining plants. Usually
smaller and weak seedlings are removed. Thinning is done about 2 - 4 weeks after seedling emergence.
DETERMINE THE CORRECT SPACING FOR THINNING CROP SEEDLINGS
CROP INTER ROW INTRA ROW
Sorghum 35cm
Sunflower 40cm
Cowpeas 10cm
Maize 20 - 30cm
Millet 35cm
Tomatoes 50cm
Carrots 5cm
Groundnuts 30cm
Cabbage 50cm
Onions 10 - 15cm
Spinach 20 -
Reasons for thinning
 Prevent overcrowding of crops which will lead to competition for water, air, nutrients and light.
 Make farm operations such as cultivation, weeding, spraying and harvesting easier.
 It helps to prevent pests from hiding.
 Increases the quality of the produce
Disadvantages of thinning
 It needs a lot of labour and time.
 It is a waste where seedlings cannot be used.
 The roots of plants growing close together become entangled and therefore thinning may damage the
roots of plants.

5. TRANSPLANTING
It is the transfer of a seedling from a nursery or seedbed to the permanent site or main plot where they
will grow and mature.
The appropriate time of transplanting seedlings
The time of transplanting differ according to the crop. Tree seedlings are transplanted when they are
about 30 cm high. Vegetable seedlings are transplanted when they are at a height of 5 to 10 cm.
Transplanting is best be carried out
 In the morning
 Late in the afternoon
 On a cloudy day when it is not hot.

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When it is carried out in a hot time of day, the plants and the soil may lose a lot of water and the seedlings
may die.
Tools used for transplanting
Common tool used for transplanting is a HAND TROWEL.
PREPARATIONS FOR TRANSPLANTING
1. Hardening-off of seedlings
This means gradually exposing seedlings to less favourable conditions. It will improve their chances of
survival after transplanting. In the nursery, seedlings are regularly watered, cared for and probably shaded
from the sun. However, in the main plot or field the growing conditions are less favourable; plants may be
watered less and are not protected from the sun. Hardening off is done by:
 Reducing watering at least one week before transplanting
 Exposing seedling to bright sun light or outside the house for longer periods
2. Preparation of the main plot
Cultivate, apply fertilizer and level the main plot to prepare it for receiving the seedlings.
3. Watering
Thoroughly water both the nursery and the main plot the day before transplanting. The seedling will then
be able to absorb all the water and will be less likely to wilt after transplanting. Moist soil will stick to the
roots and the roots will not b e exposed during transplanting. If the soil is dry, it will crumble and fall off
the roots and expose them.
HOW TO TRANSPLANT SEEDLING
Advantages of transplanting
 Make or provide enough space between the plants.
 Only healthy and fast growing seedlings are transplanted.
 It is easy to replace seedlings if they die after during transplanting
Disadvantages of transplanting
 It requires more time and labour.
 Some seedlings may die after transplanting.

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 It slows down growth soon after transplanting.

 Roots may be damaged while transplanting.
 Seedlings may transfer pest and diseases from nursery beds to the main field.
PRUNING
It is the removal of unwanted parts of a plant such as leaves, branches and stems to improve the health
and growth of a plant.
Fruit trees may be pruned once a year if possible. However pruning is not necessary for most vegetables.
Leafy vegetables such as spinach and rape can be pruned to remove lower older yellow leaves which
cannot be harvested. They may also be removed because they encourage spread of diseases such as leave
spot and black rot.
TOOLS USED FOR PRUNING
 Secateurs
 Pruning saws
 Knives
Advantages of pruning
 remove dead, diseased and otherwise damaged branches
 easy air circulations and light penetration
 form and maintain a desirable shape
 facilitate movement within an orchard especially during harvesting of fruit
 promotes new growth in plants
 control pests and diseases
 increase quality and yields of fruits
 induce fruiting in certain fruit tree e.g. grapes
Disadvantages of pruning
 may cause injury to the plant which may take long to heal
 infections can easily spread from one plant to the other through the tools used if not disinfected
 the cuts may also expose the plant to disease infections
 more time and labour are needed to prune plants
 it requires skill to prune plants
SUPPORTING PLANTS
Some plants have weak stems or tall stems that need to be supported so they can grow upright. Such
plants includes tomatoes, grapes, climbing varieties of peas and beans. These plants also need support to
expose leaves to sunlight for photosynthesis to occur and raise fruits from the ground in case of a mature
fruit tree.
Plants can be supported by STAKING and TRELLISING.
STAKING
This is where an individual plant is supported with a stick and loosely tied to it at different heights e.g.
tomatoes and garden peas.

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TRELLISING
It means using a frame work of parallel wood or wire on which the stem
grow and spread e.g. grape plants.
Advantages of supporting plants
 It allows easy harvesting
 It is easy to control pests and diseases
 Ensures exposure of plant leaves to sunlight.
 Facilitates working between the rows during spraying, watering, cultivation and top dressing.
 Allows watering without wetting the leaves which would lead to disease infection.
 Promotes better quality produce as pods, fruits and leaves do not hang in soil.

Disadvantages of supporting plants

 Time and labour consuming
 Expensive to carry out
 Requires skill

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FIELD CROP PRODUCTION

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

From the time of planting seeds ,until harvesting field crops need a lot of care so that they can grow well.
These include the following activities;

-Watering
-Thinning
-Weeding
-Cultivation
-Applying fertilizer
-Pest and disease control
PEST THAT AFFECT FIELD CROPS
PEST DAMAGE CONTROL
Stalk borer The larvae feeds or eats flowers, -Practice crop rotation
seeds and bores stalks of the -Destroy plant remains after harvesting
plant. -Early planting
-Using insecticides e.g. Endosulfan, Malathion
Corn cricket Eat seeds, grains and leaves of -Building trenches around affected field to trap the corn cricket
plants -Remove weeds and bushes around the field of crop
-Hand pick insects off plants and kill
-Dust with Carbaryl
Aphids Suck juice from leaves -Early planting
-Spray with Endosulfan
-Use plant resistant varieties
American Eats flower and grain and same as for stalk borer
bollworm sorghum
Quelea bird They eat cereal grain (sorghum -Scaring them off field
and millet) -Spraying and killing them in their nesting areas
-Harvesting sorghum and millet earlier (stoking)
Locust Eat leaves and seeds of crops -Spray with Bromophos (nexion)

Other pests include:

- Grasshoppers
- Termites
- Armyworm
- Cutworm

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DISEASES AFFECTING FIELD CROPS

DISEASE CAUSE SYMPTOMS CONTROL

Maize rust Fungus -reddish brown patches/lumps on the -Plant resistant varieties
leave surfaces -Practise crop rotation
-patches may cover the stem -Remove and burn all infected plants
Leaf spot Fungus -dark brown to black spots on the -Crop rotation
leaves -Early planting
-leaves may fall off -Spray with Dithane M45
Maize Streak and Virus -leaves turn yellowish pale green -Practice early planting
stripe with white stripes along the veins -Plant resistant varieties
-Spray with Carbofuran
-Remove and burn all infected plants
Powdery downy Fungus -patches/spots of white to greyish -Plant resistant varieties
mildew powder like growth on leaves -Avoid overhead watering
-leaves may turn yellow -Pruning over crowded plants
-Seed dressing with Metalaxyl.
Root knot nematode Nematode -formation of knots or galls near the -Crop rotation.
tips of the roots -Good sanitation.
-plants are stunted and show leave -Use of Carbofuran and Nemacur.
chlorosis -Add organic fertilizer to the soil to
-there will be excessive branching of minimise infestation.
the affected roots
Bacterial blight/wilt Bacteria -Small circular water soaked spots on -Crop rotation.
the underside of leaves. -Early planting.
-serious attack leads to yellowing -Use disease free seeds.
and death -Not causing wounds or injury to plants as
this can spread bacteria.
Other disease include;-
- Leave blight
- Cob rot
- Rosette
- Maize smut

PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING PESTICIDES OR CHEMICALS

 Read and follows instructions on the container before using them.
 Wear protection clothing when using them eg; rubber gloves
 Never eat, drink or smoke when working with pesticides.
 Keep pesticides closed and well labelled containers.
 Never clear blocked nozzles or hoses with your mouth.
 Never wash spray equipment in dams or streams.
 Shower or bath thoroughly after applying pesticides.
 Store them away from food, children and animals in a locked room or cupboard.

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EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES OR CHEMICALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

 When pesticides are used continuously, pests may develop resistance to them, resulting in an increase
in their number.

 They pollute soil, water in river, dams and wells if used excessively.

 Non-selective pesticides such as DDF may kill helpful organisms like predators and pollinating
agents along with pests intended.

PEST CONTROL METHOD NOT HARMFUL TO THE ENVIRONMENT

These are methods which control pest that are not harmful to the environment .Some of these methods
include the following;
1. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: This is the use of living organisms such as predators, parasites or
diseases causing organism to control pests e.g.
-cats will eat mice in grain silos.
-ladybird beetles feed on aphids

2. CULTURAL METHOD: This is the use of management practices such as;

- Crop rotation: growing different types of crops helps to break life cycle of pests
- Early planting: planting early when the pests are not yet many can help to control them. Crops
can be ready for harvesting much earlier before pest multiplies.
- Deep cultivation to expose pest eggs
- Destroying or burning crop remains after harvesting to break life cycle of pest

3. MECHANICAL METHOD: This involves the use of physical means such as

- picking insects by hand
- crushing them,
- digging trenches to control corn cricket
- using traps and baits to control them.
- Spraying with homemade poisons such as nicotine, garlic, chillies or onions because insects are
repelled by their strong smell.
- Use of resistant varieties or cultivars.

CORRECT WAY OF USING A SPRAYER A KNAPSACK SPRAYER

FUNCTIONS OF THE
PARTS OF A SPRAYER
Kind of sprayer which is
strapped to the back off an
operator. It consists of the following

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1. Tank/container ; - into which pesticide is placed

2. Strainer ; - prevents foreign objects from getting into tank with pesticide
3. Pump ; - builds up pressure inside the reservoir/tank
4. Rubber Hose ; - conveys pesticide from the tank to the lance
5. Lance ; - along which pesticide moves to the nozzle
6. Nozzle ; - release a fine spray of pesticide
7. Handle ; -operates the pump
8. Trigger ; - controls movement of pesticide through lance and out of the nozzle.

HOW TO USE A SPRAYER

1. Clean, sterilise and test the sprayer for any leaks before it is used.
2. Fill the sprayer up to two thirds with water and then add the chemical.
3. Follow the instructions on the pesticide label when mixing pesticides for use in a sprayer
4. Carefully shake the tank to mix the chemical with water
5. Relief the sprayer tank pressure through the shut off valve and spray wand before adjusting the
pressure regulation valve or control knob.
6. Adjust the shoulder strap and then mount the sprayer on your back while squatting on the ground.
Take care not to spill any liquid on your clothes or skin.

CHEMICALS USED TO CONTROL PESTS

-Carbaryl
-Malathion
-Endosulfan
-Dimethoate
-Cutworm bait
-Dursban

HARVESTING FIELD CROPS

Harvesting means picking the crop when it is ready to be eaten or sold. Different field crops can be
harvested at different times of maturity depending on the purpose of use e.g. maize can be harvested when
green to be eaten as green mealie or when cobs are full and dry.

WAYS OF HARVESTING FIELD CROPS

Using a knife: used for cutting heads of crops
Sickle: also used for cutting heads
Handpicking: most of the field crops are handpicked when ready for harvest e.g. beans, maize etc
Using machines (e.g. combined harvester): used to harvest cereal crops planted in rows and usually in
large commercial fields
Uprooting crops: digging forks and hand forks are used to harvest root crops e.g. sweet potatoes

MARKETING OF FIELD CROPS

After harvesting and processing field crops, they can be sold directly to:
- Individuals
- Milling companies
- Cooperatives
- Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board (BAMB)
- Breweries
- Exported to other countries

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DETERMINING THE MARKET PRICES FOR LEGUME AND CEREAL CROPS

The price depends on
- The quality of the crop
- The quantity available (supply) on the market
- Demand for the crop
- Cost of production e.g. transportation, buying pesticides, seeds, packaging etc
- The form in which the product is marketed.
STORAGE PESTS AFFECTING FIELD CROPS
STORAGE PEST DAMAGE CAUSED
WEEVIL Eats inside parts of sorghum grains
Rodents(rats and mice) Consume grains and contaminates them with their faeces,
urine and hair
GRAIN MORTH Contaminate cereal grain

METHODS USED FOR TREATING OR PROTECTING STORED SEEDS FROM PEST

DAMAGE
 Wood ash and cow dung can be used as a traditional method for protecting seeds against pests.
 Malathion can be applied to seeds at the rate of 90g/100kg

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BEE- KEEPING
Bees are insects that produce honey. There are many different kinds of bees. Some make only enough
honey to feed themselves. However, African honeybees are capable of producing large quantities of
honey.

Although this honey is meant for the bees to use themselves, people can also harvest this product. In
Botswana, people have been harvesting honey from the wild for many years, but bees have only been kept
for the production of honey in the last 20 years.

Honeybees live in hives, which may be in hollow trees in the wild, or in specially made boxes which
contain a honeycomb. The practice of keeping bees is called apiculture. The place where bees are kept
in a collection of hives is called an apiary.

Bees will do well anywhere if there is sufficient water and flowering vegetation. This means that bees can
be kept in many areas of Botswana.
The level of honey production depends largely on how one looks after the bees rather than where they are
kept. To make a success of keeping bees, we have to understand how their bodies function, their general
behaviour and their relationship with the environment.

Government strategies to encourage beekeeping

In Botswana beekeeping is a relatively new practice but a fast-growing one. The Ministry of Agriculture
has beekeeping officers in all districts to help groups and individuals who wish to engage in beekeeping.

The importance of beekeeping

 Bees collect pollen and nectar which have a high nutritional value for both bees and humans. Pollen
and nectar are also important as a health food supplement for humans.
 In nature bees play an important role in the pollination of flowers. In agriculture they can be kept for
the pollination of fruit trees. What happens when there is no pollination? Bees and flowering plants
benefit from each other. Explain why.
 Bees produce honey which is an energy-giving food. The honey is stored in a honeycomb. Honey can
be eaten from the comb or extracted and used as a sweetener.
 The honeycombs are made of wax. This beeswax is used in the manufacture of cosmetics and polish.
 The beekeeper can sell both honey and beeswax to get income.
 As an agricultural enterprise, beekeeping does not compete with other enterprises for natural
resources. Why do we say this?
 Bees have no damaging effect on the environment. Why can we say this?

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How bees make honey

A bee collects nectar from flowers by sucking the nectar into its honey stomach or crop. In the stomach,
enzymes are added to the nectar. When the bee gets back to the hive this nectar is forced out of the
stomach as semi-honey, and spat into the holes or cells of the honeycomb.

Other bees in the hive spread the semi- honey droplets. They reduce the water content of the droplets by
using their wings as fans to cause evaporation. The semi-honey droplets are swallowed by the bees for
the second time and more stomach enzymes are added. The droplets are again spat into the cell until it is
three-quarter full. The cell is then sealed with a thin layer of wax. This is now ripe honey and can be
harvested.

How bees reproduce

In the hive, the majority of bees are females. All these females, except one bee called the queen bee, are
worker bees. The worker bees do all the work both inside and outside the hive. They do not reproduce.
The queen is much bigger than the female workers and is responsible for reproduction. When the time for
mating comes, the queen is mated by between 8 to 20 males. These males are called drones. The mating
takes place during a special flight called a mating flight. The drones die after mating with the queen.

The reproductive system of a queen bee

The queen has a special sac or gland in her abdomen in which she stores the sperm from the drones. Back
in the hive, her eggs are fertilised as they are formed. This process continues for a long time after mating.

The bee colony and how it is organised

1. The queen
There is one queen bee in each colony. The queen has a long tapering abdomen and her wings do not
cover the back part of it. She can live for three to five years.
She is the only female that can reproduce. Her only duty is to lay eggs - both fertilised and unfertilised
eggs. She can lay up to 3 000 eggs per day and each egg is laid into a cell in the honeycomb. This means
that she lays more than one egg a minute for her whole life.

The queen is cared for, fed and cleaned by worker bees called nurse bees
The bees know that she is there because she secretes a special chemical substance. This substance unites
the members of the colony. The presence of the queen is therefore very important to the members of the
colony.

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2. The workers
The worker bees are females, but they do not usually lay eggs. They are smaller than the queen. There are
about 3 000 to 5 000 of them and they make up most of the bees in the colony. They do all the different
duties in the colony.

You have already learnt that there are worker bees called nurse bees.
These are young workers and nursing the queen is one of their main duties. Other hive duties of nurse
bees include:
 Covering and warming the cells in the honeycomb where young bees develop. These are called the
brood cells.
 Keeping the comb cells clean.
 Feeding the brood and the queen.
 Producing wax and building combs with regularly shaped cells.
 Maintaining the temperature inside the hive at 35°C by fanning the air inside when it is too hot or
covering the hive entrance if it is too cold.
 Converting nectar into honey and storing it in comb cells.

3. The drones
These are male bees. They are bigger than the workers and are fat and sluggish. They do not have stings.
They live for only a few weeks, and their only duty in the colony is to mate with the queen.
If there is a shortage of food in a colony, drones are usually thrown out by workers. Then they die of
starvation because they cannot forage for themselves.

Adaptation of bees to the environment

Being adaptable means being able to change one's behaviour to suit changing conditions. Bees have learnt
to do this over many years. This is why they are found living successfully in different environmental
conditions. Their success is a result of their ability to adapt. Bees easily adapt to changes in the
environment because of the following:

o Efficient foraging. Worker bees are able to fly as far as three kilometers from the hive to collect
pollen and nectar.
o Storage of food. Bees store food in the form of honey, which is kept as a reserve for times when food
is scarce.
o Communication. Bees can communicate with each other chemically through smell and also through
a type of body or sign ant visman language called the bee dance'. This enables them to find food
more easily, especially when it is in short supply.

Recycling of water. Bees are able to clean dirty water in the hive.
They are also capable of extracting water from other liquids such as urine of other animals.
Colony defence. Worker bees are armed with stings, which they use to defend the hive from intruders.
Temperature control. We have already mentioned that the workers keep the hive temperature at 35°C
using water and their wings as fans when it is too hot. When it is very cold, the bees close up the entrance
to the hive.
Population control. When there is a serious shortage of food, bees reduce the number of broods reared
and also throw the drones out of the hive.
Swarming. In nature bees find suitable places to make their hives, such as hollow tree stumps. As time
goes on, the numbers of the members of the colony increase, resulting in overcrowding. When this
happens and there is not enough food, the colony splits up. It moves and this is known as a swarm.

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FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A SITE FOR AN APIARY

There are several factors to consider when choosing a place to keep your bees. Here are some of them:
Distance from people
The apiary must be some distance away from people so that the bees are not disturbed and do not attack
people.

Shelter
The apiary must be protected from rain and strong winds that tend to make bees aggressive. It must be
placed where there are windbreaks.

Type of vegetation nearby

Bees depend on flowers for their food. This means that the vegetation near the apiary must produce a lot
of flowers. Bees will not normally go more than 3 km away in search of food.

Water
Bees need water to cool the hive. This means that water must be nearby.
The water source must not be the same one that people use.

Shade
The area must have shade to keep the hives cool.

BEE MANIPULATION
Bee manipulation means making bees change their natural behaviour to suit the beekeeper's needs.
Bee manipulation practices include swarming, capturing and hiving of bees, feeding, queening, mixing
colonies, moving hives to new sites, inspections and harvesting of honey.

BASIS OF MANAGEMENT OF BEES.

When the hive has been constructed, the inside is smeared with either propolis or beeswax. This helps to
attract the bees. The bees may move into the newly constructed hive on their own. If this does not happen,
the beekeeper must capture a swarm and hive it.

PRECAUTIONS AND EQUIPMENT FOR MANIPULATING BEES

1. Precautions
The beekeeper needs protection from bee stings, which means that his or her whole body must be
covered. Suitable protective clothing includes a helmet, bee veil, gloves, overalls and boots
Treatment of a bee sting:
If you are stung by a bee, the following steps should be taken:
Do not panic.
Find the sting and remove it from the skin by scraping it off with a sharp object.
If there is a swelling, you may rub fresh onion on it to prevent further swelling.
If swelling continues, seek medical help.

2. Equipment
The beekeeper needs the equipment listed below;
Bellows smoker
The bellows smoker produces smoke, which calms the bees. Cow or donkey dung is burnt inside it to
produce the smoke. A small tin with holes on the sides may be used for the same purpose.
Bee brush
This is used to brush the bees off the combs during harvesting. It is also used to sweep bees into a catch-
box during capturing. A feather may be used instead of a brush.

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Queen excluder
This is a grate that is wide enough to allow worker bees through, but not the queen. It is used at the
entrance of the hive so that the queen cannot escape from the newly captured swarms or colonies. A small
paperclip may also be used for this purpose.

Hive tool or knife

A hive tool or a knife is used to separate top bars during inspection. It is also used to cut the combs during
colony capture and harvesting.

Matchbox
A matchbox is used to cage the queen. It can also be used to introduce a queen into a new colony.

Capturing bees
1. Types of swarms
You have already learnt about swarming of bees. There are two types of swarms:
The reproductive swarm is the one that has separated naturally from its colony. The swarm is normally
docile and can be captured without problems.
The forced swarm is one that has been forced out of its hive by people or pests. This swarm tends to be
aggressive. It might be difficult to capture.

2. Capturing swarms
Steps to be followed in capturing reproductive swarms:
 Make sure that you are wearing all the protective clothing.
 Hold the catch-box under the swarm. Shake the swarm into the box
 Smoke the place where the swarm was resting.
 Find the queen among the bees in the catch-box
 Cage the queen in a matchbox and place the matchbox in the catch-box.
 Wait for the bees that are still flying about to go into the catch-box.
 When all the bees are captured, seal the box and take it to the apiary.
 Place the swarm in the hive with the queen excluder at the entrance to the hive
 Remove the queen from the matchbox and close the hive. The queen excluder will prevent her from
leaving the hive.

Steps to follow when capturing a forced swarm of bees:

 Prepare two catch-boxes.
 Open the nest and force the bees out by smoking. Place one of the catch-boxes near the nest.
 Place the hive so that it faces east. Bees need the sun for direction.
 Prepare a syrup sugar at the ratio of 1:1 (sugar to water) and feed the bees
 Check the hive after a week. If the queen has started laying eggs, remove the queen excluder so that
she can get out for mating.
 Remove the combs from the nest.
 Place the brood combs in the catch-box nearest to the nest and honeycombs in the other catch-box.
 Find the queen and cage her in a matchbox. Then put her in the catch-box with the brood combs.
 Allow most of the bees to go into the catch-box with the brood. Seal the box and take it to the apiary.
 At the apiary, tie at least five brood combs to the top bars, the correct side up.
 Put the caged queen at the bottom of the hive and shake the other bees into the hive.
 Place the queen excluder at the hive entrance and release the queen from the matchbox. Put the rest
pieces on the top bar and close the hive.
 Check daily for problem pests such as ants and bee pirates (wasps).
 Remove any dead bees from the hive entrance.
 Open the hive and check the progress after a week.

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Colony management
From time to time the beekeeper must open the hives to check the bees.
There are two main reasons for opening the hives to inspect the brood nest and to harvest honey. The best
time to open the hive is on a calm, cool day.
The hive is first smoked through the entrance holes to calm the bees.
Then the hive is opened from behind. After lifting the first top bar, the hive is smoked again.
Top bars are removed one at a time until the combs can be seen. Smoking continues as necessary. Care
must be taken not to squash any bees. The smell of dead bees makes the other bees aggressive. If the bees
remain aggressive after smoking, the hive must be closed and opened again the following day.
Once the first comb is seen, lift the top bars carefully. To lift the bars, a knife is first used to loosen them.
The bars may be tight because of humidity in the air that can cause swelling.
Sometimes bees fix the bars with propolis. The propolis must be scraped off and reserved. The combs are
lifted out together with the bees, using the top bar, and inspected.
The brood combs are located in the middle of the hive. This is because the queen starts laying eggs in the
centre of the hive.

Harvesting of honey
Harvesting of honey is usually done during or after the main flowering season. In Botswana, this is
usually between November and June.
Between ten and twenty kilograms of honey can be harvested from each hive. The honeycombs are light
brown in colour. They are filled with honey and no brood. The cells of these combs are sealed with wax if
they are ripe. These are the ones to harvest

The following steps are taken in harvesting honey:

 The combs are taken out and smoked on both sides. Bees remaining on the comb are swept back into
the hive, using a brush.
 The combs are cut off with a knife and the top bars returned to the hive. The harvesting must stop
when the first of the brood can be seen. The combs with unsealed honey are pushed back towards the
brood nest. Bees coming out between the top bars must be smoked back into the hive.
 Finally the top of the hive is closed with top bars and the lid replaced.
 The honeycombs are taken home for processing or for immediate sale.
 Processing and marketing bee products
 The primary product of bees is honey. Other useful products are beeswax, pollen, propolis (bee-glue),
royal jelly and bee venom.
 In Botswana the main products are honey and beeswax.

HONEY PROCESSING
Honey is sold as comb honey or liquid honey. To get liquid honey, combs are placed in a kitchen sieve or
strainer. The strainer is placed over a container to collect the honey. The combs are then crushed so that
honey can drain into the container. This apparatus is then placed in the sun or a warm place. Why do you
think this is done?

The honey is allowed to settle in the container. It is then bottled and sold.
Commercial beekeepers use a machine called a honey extractor to get the honey out of the cells .This
machine will work comb frames loose from the supers in a Langstroth hive. A knife is dipped into hot
water and dried, and then used to remove the capping from the tops of the cells. Four frames are placed
inside the machine and spun around so that the honey is flung out of the cells. This honey runs down the
sides of the extractor to the bottom. The frames are removed and turned around, so that the honey can be
removed from the other side.
The honey is left to stand for two to three days to allow any air bubbles to rise to the top. After this it is
bottled and sold.

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FISH FARMING
IMPORTANCE OF FISH IN BOTSWANA
 Fish are a very important source of proteins, vitamins and minerals for humans.
 Fishmeal is also part of many livestock feeds (e.g. starter mash for broiler chickens). The liver of
some fish is a source of medicinal oil (i.e. cod liver oil).
 They can also be an important source of income for many families.
 Fishing provides useful employment for people living near rivers, lakes and dams. Fish-processing
factories also provide employment.
 Many tourists come to Botswana to fish in the Chobe River and the Okavango delta.
 The skin from certain types of fish (e.g. Nile perch) is used to make very expensive leather.
 Fish can be kept as pets, e.g. goldfish.

WHAT LIMITS FISH PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA

After looking at the value of fish, one wonders why not much fish farming is done in Botswana. Some of
the factors that limit fish production are:
 There are very few perennial rivers in Botswana. Most rivers flow 10 only for short periods of time.
 Most of the rain comes during the hot summer months. This means that a lot of rainwater evaporates
before it can start flowing in rivers. The sand in most rivers also absorbs the water soon after it stops
raining.is on
 Most parts of Botswana do not have a tradition of eating fish.
 The market for fish is in towns like Gaborone, Selebi-Phikwe and
 Francistown, which are usually far from the areas where fish are caught.
 Facilities to process and freeze fish as soon as they are harvested are lacking.
 Many people do not have the skills required to keep, harvest and process fish.

PARTS OF THE BODY OF A FISH AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Fish are aquatic animals, which means that they spend all their lives in water. They have gills, fins and a
skin covered with scales. Just like land animals, they have to eat, breathe, move, reproduce, excrete and
respond to their surroundings.

Feeding
Some fish are herbivores and feed on plants. Others are carnivores and feed on other animals living in
the water, including other fish.
Carnivores have teeth-like structures in their jaws that help them to hold and crush their prey. Other fish
are omnivores, which means that they feed on both plants and animals.
Most fish kept in ponds are herbivores and feed mainly on plant materials. They use their mouths to sieve
or strain plant materials into their bodies, leaving the water behind.

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Breathing
Since fish live in water, they do not breathe in air like land animals. Instead they absorb the oxygen that is
dissolved in water using gills that lie under the gill cover. Gills have a lot of blood capillaries that absorb
oxygen from the water. The water enters the mouth, washes over the gills where the oxygen is absorbed
and then passes out under the gill cover.

Movement
Fish move by using their fins. The dorsal fin keeps the fish upright. The tail fin moves it forward. The
pelvic and pectoral fins make it possible for the fish to twist and turn.

Reproduction and excretion

Fish have a vent which functions in the same way as that of birds in getting rid of waste matter. Eggs (in
females) and semen (in males) are also released through the vent. Fertilised eggs hatch into young fish
called fry.

Responses to their surroundings

Many fish have scales which protect the inner parts of their body from injury. Most fish also have large
eyes that allow them to see under water. Some fish can also smell substances dissolved in water, using
their nostrils. Although fish have no external ears, they can sense changes in water pressure and
movement using organs located under the lateral line.

TYPES OF FISH
Fish are classified according to the type of water in which they live and their skeletal structure. There are
freshwater fish like tilapia, carp and catfish, and saltwater (sea) fish like hake and haddock.
Some fish have skeletons made of cartilage, such as dogfish and sharks. Others have a skeleton made of
bone, such as tilapia, catfish, carp, African pike, tigerfish and perch Cartilage is a strong white tissue that
bends easily.
Most of the fish in the world are bony fish, including all the fish we keep in fishponds.

COMMON FISH IN BOTSWANA

1. Tilapia
These are tropical fish that are indigenous to Botswana. This means that they occur naturally in Botswana.
They grow quickly and are resistant to many fish diseases. They can withstand wide changes in pond
water temperature. Tilapia are mostly herbivorous, or and feed on plant material and small floating green
algae called plankton.
There are several types of tilapia. The most common are the red-breasted tilapia, green- headed tilapia and
the three-spot tilapia.

2. Catfish
The name catfish or barbel comes from the whisker-like features on the upper and lower mouthparts of
the fish. These are used for touch, taste and smell.
This is a tropical type of fish that survives well in ponds with a water temperature above 18˚C. Barbel can
also survive in very shallow water.
They have a special breathing organ, called an air sac that allows them to breath out of water. They are,
therefore, able to survive for a short period if their pond dries up. They are mainly carnivores, feeding on
a variety of small animals in the pond. Types of catfish include the butter catfish and the silver catfish.

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FORM 2
INTRODUCTION TO FARM MANAGEMENT

What is farm management?

It means the best utilization of available resources such as land, labour, capital and time for maximum
production and profit on the farm.

Importance of farm management

 Helps the farmer to make correct decisions on how to produce and what to produce.
 The farmer can get high yields without wasting resources.
 A well-managed farm can create employment.
DEMAND
It is the quantity of a commodity the consumers are willing and able to buy at a certain price at any given
time.

Low Price

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DETERMINANTS OF DEMAND
1. Price of product
If the price of a commodity is lower, people tend to buy it in large numbers. If the price is high, less
people tend to buy.
2. Taste and preference/ fashion
Some goods are in high demand because they are nice to taste than others. N.B oranges are preferred
during winter because they help control flu and cold.
3. Consumer Income
When consumers have more money, they buy more goods. i.e the greater the income the higher the
demand and the lower the income the lower the demand.
4. Quality of a product
There is high demand for good quality products. People will pay more for good quality fresh fruits than
bad quality ones
5. Population / market size
This refers to the number of consumers in a particular area. If the number of consumers increases, the
demand will also increase.
6. Advertising
If a product is well advertised, consumers will turn to buy it more because of the way it was well
advertised.
7. Competition from similar products
Consumer will have an option to buy maize meal or sorghum meal. Or an option between Butter and jam.
This will increase the demand on the good that is competing well against the other one.
SUPPLY

It is the amount of a product the producer offers for sale at a certain price. e.g. if the price of sorghum
goes up, farmers will be keen to produce more. And if the prices go down, they will produce and sell less.

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DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY
1. Cost of production
If it is expensive to produce a product, that product it will be low supply; e.g. it is expensive to produce
cheese in Botswana, so the supply of cheese will be low.
2. Number of suppliers
Farmers are suppliers of farm produce; if the number of farmer’s increases, then the amount of food
offered for sale will also increase

3. Improved methods of production

If people use new methods of production like the use of machinery in farming, it will increase the supply
of produce. This is because machinery i.e. tractors are efficient and takes a shorter time to do work.
4. Natural factors/ Season
Natural factors include climate and soil. If there is a lot of rain this season, a lot of crops will be
harvested. Floods, hail storm, fires and frost will lead to decreased supply. Poor rainfall and infertile soil
also limit crop production in Botswana. Some products are seasonal; they will be more during a certain
season and scarce in another one. i.e. Oranges are abundant during winter time
5. Time
Different types of crops take different lengths of time to mature and become ready for harvesting or sale.
This affects the supply of a product; e.g. Vegetables take a short period of time (few months) to mature
and harvested, but fruits take a long time (years) to mature and harvested.
7. Availability of inputs
If the inputs for a certain product are not enough, that product will be in short supply; e.g. yoghurt is
made from milk, if milk supply is less, it means less yoghurt will be produced.
MARKET PRICE
It is the point where quantity demanded is equals to quantity supplied. It is the price at which the supplier
maximizes profit and the consumer maximizes satisfaction. It is at this point that the supplier can sell and
the consumer can buy. It can also be defined as the Equilibrium price (EP).

A market is any place where buying and selling takes place.

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FACTORS DETERMINING THE MARKET PRICE

1. DEMAND
If the demand is high or increase, the market price will also be high or increase e.g. if more people need
meat, the meat price will be high or increase.
2. SUPPLY
If the supply is high, the market price will be low e.g. at the moment there is a high supply of vegetables,
the prices of vegetables are low.
NB. All the determinants of Demand and Supply influence the market price.
DIFFERENT LEGAL FORMS OF A BUSINESS ORGANISATION
1. Sole Proprietorship
This is a business owned by and operated by one person and exists until the owner retires or dies. It is the
simplest type of business organization. Many farms in Botswana are owned by Sole Traders.
Advantages
 The owner receives all profits hence motivated to work hard
 The owner has direct contact with the customer therefore addresses their needs better
 Decision making is not delayed because only one person is involved
 It is simple for the owner to operate
Disadvantages
 The owner bears full responsibility over costs incurred by the business
 There is no one to consult on business matters
 If the business is sued /loses, it goes directly to the owner and he might end up losing his property.

2. Partnership
This is a business made up of two or more people (maximum of 20 people) who contribute their resources
to the business. In this business a legal document known as DEED OF PARTNERSHIP is drawn and
signed by all partners. The document includes;
Ways in which profits are shared
Amount of money to be invested
Salaries
Ending and inclusion of new members’ e.t.c
Advantages
 There is more capital invested in the business
 Responsibilities are shared amongst members
 Members contribute in decision making hence concrete decisions are made\
 It is easier to form, liabilities /losses are shared among the partners hence its impact is reduced.
Disadvantages
 Having to consult all members before action is taken cause delays
 If one member is not effective the business may suffer
 There is unlimited liability of each member hence partners’ personal assets can be claimed to pay
debts.

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3. Company
This is business owned by shareholders and run by a Board of Directors that has been elected by
shareholders. There are two types of companies; Private limited company and Public limited company

Setting up a company involves the following;

a) Name of the company
b) Address of the office
c) Purpose of the company (i.e. manage layer and grow vegetables
d) Many invested and profit distribution
e) Number of shares available for purchase i.e. 1000 shares at P50/share
f) When meetings are to be held for shareholders I.e. last Friday of November
g) Number of directors and how they are elected into directorship (Board of Directors)
h) A company is registered with the Registrar of Companies
Advantages
 Shares are sold to a large number of people hence high capital investment (public)
 Shareholders have limited liabilities (they are only responsible for the capital they have invested in
the corporation )
 If one has shares in a company he/she can transfer or sell them
 A company enables individual /shareholder to pull their resources together
 Credit may be obtained more easily by a company than by an individual
 Professional skilled people are employed to manage the company.

Disadvantages
 Company are more expensive to form, legal fees cost a lot of money.
 The company may grow very large and become difficult to manage
 There are a lot of legal matters involved
 It takes a lot of time to register and to start operating the company

4. Cooperative
It is registered organization created by producers/retailers who have decided to come together for mutual
benefit. Farmers bring their resources together, to construct farm structures or purchase equipment which
they will share to enhance their production. They are brought together by their common economic needs.
They are responsible for;
a) Bulk buying- of seeds and cattle therefore farmers will be able to buy at lower prices.
b) Selling produce- 200 farmers may own among themselves a Dairy and the milk produced will be sent
for processing industries.
c) Financing- may loan money to farmers at lower rates of interest in order to buy machinery and inputs.
d) Back Up services- like Veterinary services, free advice on farming, linking farmers with processing
industries such as milling and cheese production.

Advantages
 Members share transfer equipment, structure which tend to be more profitable than when each
farmer organizes his /her own.
 Members are also employees in the same business therefore it is labour saving.

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Disadvantages
 There may be conflicts between members
 Some members are reluctant to work hard hence poor performance of the business

AN EFFECTIVE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE IN A FARM

An organizational structure shows how responsibilities are placed among various levels of the work force.
 It shows the hierarchy of authority and responsibility on a farm
 It makes effective and clear communication from one level to the next between all levels

Below are two examples of organizational structure of a simple business and a big business
TOP DOWN SYSTEM

SHARED DECISION

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
1. SETTING GOALS FOR THE FARM
– Before production can begin, farm managers must know what they aim on the farm. Usually most
manager’s aim is to earn the highest profits.
2. DECISION MAKING
Farm managers must make three very important decisions
- what to produce
- how to produce it
- how much to produce

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3. PLANNING
Planning the activities of the farm on daily basis; a plan showing dates of planting, addition of fertilizer,
harvesting time e.t.c.
4. IMPLEMENTATION
The farm manager carries out the plan. He makes sure that crops are grown, fertilizers are added e.t.c
5. MONITORING AND SUPERVISING
The manager sees to it that workers do the work which is supposed to be done. He constantly checks the
progress of the activities carried out on the farm.
6. EVALUATION
At the end, he checks to see if the results have been achieved, if the planned activities on the farm have
succeeded or failed.
ROLES /DUTIES OF MANAGEMENT
1. Board of directors
Made up of directors of the company and the chairperson.
 They make major long term policies and decisions i.e. expansion of the vegetable production over
the next 10years
 Appoint the lower management officers
 Decide on how profits are distributed

2. Managing Director
Main function is to ensure that the decisions made at Board Level are carried out

3. Farm Manager
Is responsible for day to day running of the farm and decision making. i.e. what type of livestock feed to
buy and when to plant maize. He also work closely with managers of different departments

4. Department Manager
These are people responsible for activities which take place in their departments
a) Production Manager
Is responsible for production of crops and /or livestock on the farm. He ensures that all materials are
available such as machinery, labour, materials etc.
b) Personnel Manager
Personnel refers to the people employed on the farm. A personnel manager will choose the right people
for the right job, motivate and train them, set wage levels and bonuses, monitors and supervises the
workforce.
He looks after the welfare of workers like provision of housing and may terminate employment of
workers who perform badly.

c) Purchasing Manager
Responsible for buying the inputs to be used in production of crops and livestock. E.g. beef producer will
purchase feed for livestock and vaccines
d) Maintenance Manager

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Ensure availability of correct tools and machinery, regular servicing and arrange for repair when broken
e) Marketing Manager
Responsible for choosing the best way to sell farm produce. Stages involved in marketing are; storage,
preparation for sale, processing, transportation, advertising, market research and financing.
f) Finance Manager
Refers to anything to do with money, financing manager must obtain funds, control all expenditure for the
benefit of the farm. He/she needs to ensure that enough money is available for the payment of debts and
that the farm makes a profit.
g) Security Manager
Manager ensure protection of all expensive farm machinery and assets from loss and theft

h) Supervisors
These people closely supervise the workers in various departments to ensure that they carry out their
duties well
QUALITIES OF A GOOD FARM MANAGER
1. Honesty; A manager must always tell the truth and keep accurate records of money spent and
received. In so doing he will be trusted by his workers
2. Fairness; A manager should treat all workers in the same way (equally) and not favor others
3. Confidence; This is needed when introducing new methods of production on the farm. Farming is a
risky business and success is not always guaranteed. A manager must have confidence in himself so
that the workers can also have confidence in him.
4. Good health; He often works long hours. He must be healthy to keep up with the demand (extra
hours) of the farm
5. Skillful; A manager must have skills and knowledge of the work so that he can guide the workers
6. Ability to lead people; Leading people does not only mean giving instructions. The manager should
be willing to listen to the opinions and feelings of workers on the farm and even learn from them.
7. Motivation; The manager must be able to motivate the farm workers to work hard
8. Adaptability; This means that the manager must be willing to change the way things are done in the
farm even at short notice.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE STARTING AN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
ENTERPRISE
 Market
 Current and potential consumption
 Distribution system
 Buyers (retail stores, wholesalers, and farmers)
 Prices
 Minimum size
 Availability of raw material
 Capital needs
 Labour needs
 Operational cost
 Management skills

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PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED BY COMMERCIAL FARMERS IN BOTSWANA

1. Unreliable rainfall- in some years, rains come very late, so farmers are forced to plant crops late and
crops production is affected negatively.
2. Crop pests and diseases- during years when there is good rainfall, Botswana experiences severe
outbreaks of insects and other pests that cause a great loss.
3. Traditional living patterns- Batswana traditionally have three living places: the village, the lands and
cattlepost. In many cases these places are far apart which makes it difficult to take care of crops at the
same time with taking care of animals.
4. High production costs- most of the implements, machines and fuel needed for modern farming
methods must be imported from other countries and are very expensive.
5. Lack of capital- the average farmer does not have the money to buy better implements, fertilizers and
certified seeds.
6. Poor soil quality- only about 5% of the soil in Botswana is suitable for crop farming.
7. Lack of technical skills in agriculture- some farmers do not have training in commercial agriculture.
8. Poor record keeping- many farmers in Botswana do not keep correct records and cannot keep track of
the performance of the operation.
9. Unavailability of agricultural inputs- some of the production inputs are not readily available in
Botswana, and hence they take a long time to arrive in the country.
10. High temperature- the summer temperatures in Botswana are very high, this leads to high evaporation
of moisture from the soil and crops.
11. HIV and AIDS- many farmers and farm workers are affected by HIV and AIDS. This has reduced
labour on the farms.
SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED BY COMMERCIAL FARMERS.
 Farmers should make use of government programmes such as CEDA that are there to provide loans
and assistance in developing skills.
 Farmers can seek loans from commercial banks.
 Farmers and farm workers should be trained to use modern farming methods.
 Farmers should dig boreholes and use water for irrigation; build more dams to collect rain water.
 Add fertilizers to the soil to improve soil fertility.
 Chemicals can be used to control pests and diseases.
 Farmers can plant crops that are drought and disease resistant.
 To improve the supply of labour, farmers should pay better salaries and improve working conditions.
 To reduce the harm caused by HIV and AIDS, FARM OWNERS AND WORKERS SHOULD BE
encouraged to go for HIV and AIDS testing.

MARKETING
What is marketing?
1. This is delivery of customer satisfaction at a profit.
2. When individuals or groups obtain what they need or want through exchange of products.

Marketing brings together the consumer and sellers of the goods and services to do business. Sellers
ensure that they satisfy the needs and wants of their consumers and get appropriate value in return for the
product sold.

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MARKETING CONCEPTS
These are ideas that firms/businesses should use to analyze the wants of their customers and make
decisions to satisfy those wants and needs. It is about matching a company’s capabilities with the
customer’s wants and needs.
But there are threats when analyzing the needs
 Competition
 Political changes
 Economic, social and technological environment in trying to match their capabilities with the
needs and wants of their customers
REASONS FOR MARKETING
 Bridges the gap between needs of producers and consumers
 Helps producers better understand the needs of consumers so that producers can better meet those
needs
 Help producers decide what product to produce and when to produce it.
 Leads to satisfaction of consumer and higher profits for the producers.
 Used to retain the customers
 Helps build customer relationship (well planned activities, implemented properly enhances the
relationship)
 Marketing also help build a brand image( will let customers to know what to expect)
 Builds value in your product and services for your customers.
MARKET MIX
Every business owner needs to plan how to sell his or her products in order to get the most profit possible.
The marketing mix is a model that outlines the most important elements of successful marketing plan.
These elements are also called the four Ps of marketing, because each of them starts with a P.
P1 P2
Product Promotion
P3 P4
Price Place

1. Product ; is anything that can be offered for sale

; is anything that satisfy a need
; must bring benefit to the consumer.
2. Price ; is the amount of money that the consumer has to pay for the product
; product must carry the right price (right) in light of market forces
; set the right price for the product because it will affect the consumer choice of product
; price determines the income that can be generated by the business
3. Place ; the right product must be at the right price in the right place for the consumer to
purchase

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4. Promotion; means methods of communication used by a marketer to persuade consumers to buy

a product
1. Advertising (news paper, magazines, radios and TV)
2. Personal selling ( sales persons/people)
3. Sales promotion ( specials and free samples
4. Public Relations (sponsorships)
METHODS OF MARKETING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS/ CHANNELS
This are channels for transfers of goods from point of production to point of consumption
MARKTING CHANNELS; path that a farm product takes from producer to consumer. The length of the
path depends on the type of product marketed.
CHANNEL 1 producer consumer
Product s are sold directly to consumers without middle men. E.g. fresh cabbage sold at a farmers road
side stall
CHANNEL 2 producer agent consumer
Product sold through a middle man, middle is entitled to payment. E.g. agent buys cattle on behalf of a
farmer.
CHANNEL 3 producer Retailer/Vendor consumer
Producer sells to retailer / street vendor and they sell to consumer
CHANNEL 4 producer wholesaler Retailer consumer
There are more middle men which make the path longer. E.g. producers sells beans to BAMB, BAMB
grade and pack the beans in small quantities; 1kg, 2kg, 5kg and 10kg, the packages are sold to retailers
who will then sell to producers.
CHANNEL 5
Three middle between the producer and the consumer

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UTILIZATION OF ICT TO PROMOTE

ICT stands for Information Communications Technology. ICT in marketing involves the use of phones,
newspaper, television, the internet, email and other forms of communication to attract customers to buy a
product.
FARM RECORDS
Farm records are written statements of day to day events which occur on the farm.
Reasons for keeping farm records
1. They allow the farmers to compare performances between enterprises on their farms
2. They help farmers obtain loans from financial institutions.
3. They help farmers work out how much income tax they must pay.
4. They remind farmers of any debts they owe
5. They help farm advisors or extension officers give better advice.
6. They help farmers plan for future.
7. They allow farmers to compare the farm’s performance with other farms.
8. They record the history of the farm.

There are different types of farm records such as:

 Physical records which include the farm inventory, farm diary, livestock and field records.
 Production records such as milk or egg production.
 Financial records.

1. PHYSICAL RECORDS
The farm inventory
An inventory is a list of all the farm’s assets and their value. It shows a farmer how much his farm is
worth. To prepare an inventory you need to count, record and value all the assets on the farm.
Date of inventory: 27 June 2022
Item Quantity Value per Total
unit (pula) value(pula)
Tractor 1 100 000
Mould board plough 1 10 000
Broiler chicks 2000 5.50
50kg bag starter mash 200 70
50kg bag finisher mash 300 85
Bull 1 4 500
Dairy cow 10 3 200
Calf 7 600
50kg bag wheat bran 50 30
70kg bag maize 70 40
50kg bag super phosphate 20 80

Total

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Farm diary
A farm diary is a day to day record of everything that takes place on the farm.
School farm diary
Date Description of activities Time taken
16 January Our teacher divided us into pairs. Each pair was given a plot, 3m by 1m, 2 hours
2022 to grow maize. We dug the plot with a fork and removed the weeds by
hand. We leveled the plot with a rake and made a ridge around the plot
using a rake and a spade.
19 January 2×50kg bag of broiler starter mash arrived 10minutes
2022
20 January We prepared the poultry house for the arrival of one day old chicks. We 1 hour
2022 swept and disinfected the floor.
21 January We placed wood shavings on the poultry house floor. We used a hosepipe 45 minutes
2022 to water the fruit trees. 30 minutes
22 January We planted two rows of maize in a plot. The rows were 70cm apart. 1 hour
2022 Along each row we made a small hole every 30cm. We placed two seeds
in each hole and covered them with soil. We watered the plot with two
watering cans.
23 January The layers started to lay eggs. We collected eight eggs and graded them. 10 minutes
2022

Livestock records
Livestock records include information on the type of livestock on the farm, their dates of birth, their
physical and health status, and any diseases or deaths they experience.
Field records
Field records contain all the information about the crops growing on a farm. They show the size of the
fields for each crop, the variety of the crop planted, the dates for sowing, weeding, fertilizer application,
pest control, harvesting and any other activities carried out.
2. PRODUCTION RECORDS
Production records are kept for each enterprise.
 The inputs used. Inputs are the materials and equipment that the farmer needs to grow crops or
rear livestock.
 The outputs obtained. This is what the farmer produces.

Crop production records

Crop production records include the following information:
 Amount of inputs used; amount of fertilizer, seeds sown etc.
 The outputs or yield obtained; maybe stated in bags, kgs, or tons.

3. FINANCIAL RECORDS
 Costs or expenditure; this is the money a farmer spends on buying inputs such as seeds,
fertilizers, vaccines, livestock and feed.
 Income, revenue or returns; this is the money a farmer receives when selling his produce.

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 Profit or loss; profits are made when income is greater than costs. A loss happens when costs are
greater than income.

Sales book for broiler production

Year: 2011
Month: May
Enterprise: Broiler (batch No.1)
Date of Sold to Amount sold Selling price Income Receipt
sale received number
15/05/11 Spar, moleps 135 P45.00each 0265
17/05/11 Choppies 41 P42.00each 0166
18/05/11 Ookeditse 3 P40.00each 035
19/05/11 Eric 8 P40.00each 1002
Total
An expenses book for broiler production
Year: 2011
Month: February to April
Enterprise: broiler ( batch No. 1)
Date of Item Bought Amount Buying Amount Receipt
purchase from bought price spent number
(Pula per
bag)
24/02/11 1×50kg bag starter BAMB 5 75 0204
mash
24/02/11 1×50kg bag finisher BAMB 15 85 0205
mash
01/03/11 1×50kg bag finisher BAMB 10 85 0217
mash
03/03/11 One day old chicks Jims 200 4.50 0218
farm
11/03/11 1×100g tin of LAC 1 20 per tin 0223
Oxyphen powder
11/03/11 1×200g tin of LAC 1 20 per tin 0224
terramycin
24/04/11 1×100g tin of LAC 3 20 per tin 0226
Oxyphen powder
Total

Financial records may be used to produce a profit and loss account and a budget.

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PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

The profit and loss account is a summary of costs and income during the year. It shows the valuation or
value at a particular time, eg;
 Permanent buildings e.g. tool shed and barn
 Equipment e.g. tractors, ploughs and spades
 Farm materials e.g. chemicals and fertilizers

A profit and loss account for a crop

Name of farm: Bonnington
Year: 2011
Period: 1 January – 31 December
Crop: onions
Income Expenditure
Item Amount Item Amount
Closing valuation of P9 000 Opening valuation of P10 000
buildings, equipment buildings, equipment
and farm materials. and farm materials
Sales: Expenses:
Onions Seeds
Fertilizers
Labour
Utilities
Total Total
BUDGETING AND FUNDING AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES
Budgets
A budget is an estimate of how much money a farmer may spend on, or receive from, a particular
enterprise in the future. This type of record is used for planning on the farm.
Reasons for budgeting
 It shows whether a business is likely to be viable.
 The budget will show how to plan to spend the loan.
 You can estimate future tax payments by looking at your expected income.
 It can be used to estimate the expenditure.
 It can be used to compare the profitability of various ways of doing business.
 It estimates how much money you will need to have to continue business in the following year.
 It helps you avoid over spending.
 It helps you identify weak points in farm operations.

How to prepare a budget for a farm enterprise

A budget is prepared as follows:
1. Preparing a plan

To make a plan, you must decide on the following:

 Types of crops to be grown
 Area to be planted for each crop
 Numbers of each type of livestock

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 Production and harvesting methods

2. Estimating the costs and income

Costs -Make a detailed list of all the inputs you will need for your farm to succeed.
Income - List all the products your farm will produce and sell, together with the expected selling
quantities.

3. Working out the estimated costs and income

In the expenses column, add all the estimated maximum costs of production to give the total maximum
expected costs.

FUNDING AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES

In Botswana farmers are funded through:
 Grants – grants are non – refundable but farmers may be required to fulfil certain conditions.
 Subsidies – the subsidy sponsor pays a portion of the price for specified inputs. You pay the rest.
The subsidy percentage is non – refundable.
 Loans – these are sums of money lent to farmers with interest for a period of time. Farmers have
to pay loans back with interest.

Institutions and organizations or agencies assisting agriculture enterprises

1. Government

Current government schemes include the Integrated Support Program for Arable Agriculture
Development (ISPAAD), Livestock Management and Infrastructure Development (LIMID) and cluster
fencing of arable land.
2. Parastatal organizations

Parastatals are organizations that are partly owned by the government, although they are managed
independently as a profit – making entities. This includes Citizen Entrepreneurial Agency (CEDA),
National Development Bank (NDB) and Botswana Corporation (BDC)
3. Commercial banks

These are banks such as Bank Gaborone, Barclays, Bank of Baroda, Capital, Stanbic, Bank ABC and
Standard Chartered bank.
The conditions attached to funding of agricultural enterprises / criteria for funding
1. Private banks

All private financial institutions demand that farmers who apply for loans must be 18years of age and
above. The applicant should have an account with the bank so that the bank can directly take its
repayment installments from the account.
2. CEDA

The scheme is intended to help:

o Citizens over 18 years wishing to start a business
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o Citizens over 18 years wishing to expand a business

o Citizens and foreign investors who have joined together to start and run a business.

3. ISPAAD

It is for arable agriculture and is open for both Batswana and foreigners with residence and work permit.
Applicants must be over 18yrs and must provide proof that they own or lease the fields. The elements
funded are:
o Cluster funding: the farmers must establish a cluster management committee, have properly
drawn site plans and constitution.
o Provision of potable water: the farmers must establish a cluster and a constitution.
o Provision of seeds: all rain fed farmers are eligible and the land should be a maximum of 16
hectares
o Provision of fertilizers: all rain fed farmers are given certain fertilizers.
o Facilitation of access to credit: helps farmers get loans from NDB,
o Establishment of agricultural services centers (ASCs): these centers assist farmers with
machinery for ploughing, planting and harrowing.

4. LIMID

This scheme is not a total grant but requires applicants to make varying percentage contributions.
o Animal husbandry and fodder support
o Borehole and well-equipment support
o Borehole drilling and reticulation support
o Small stock support programme
o Cooperative poultry abattoir facilities
o Small scale guinea foul production
o Tswana chicken production

The conditions attached are:

o ID and over 18 yrs
o Should be owning cattle or small stock
o Must be in possession of land board certificates for residential or business plot.
o A registered cattle brand
o Goats and sheep supplied may not be sold for three years
o Those who benefited before may not re- apply
o All equipment supplied will remain the property of the government.

5. Young farmers fund

o Botswana citizens 18 to 40 years old
o The maximum size of the loan is P500 000 and the interest is 5% per annum.
o The grace period for loans will not exceed 24 months
o Asserts financed by the fund must be pledged as security
o The beneficiaries will be required to sign binding loan agreements with the fund.
o The beneficiaries will must provide CEDA with regular reports on the performance of the
projects
o Beneficiaries must be willing to be guided and developed as entrepreneurs.
o No applicant can be granted more than one loan at a time
o The project must be full – time owner managed
o The project location must be approved by the ministry of agriculture extension services.

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Application forms for funding

Application forms for government assistance programmes are available from departments of the ministry
of agriculture, the ministry of Youth Sports and Culture, CEDA offices and NDB.
BUSINESS PLAN
Reasons for conducting market research
Market research is making a detailed study of consumers, competitors and industry conditions. Market
research is conducted for the following reasons;
1. Identify demand
Market research gives information on whether or not there is demand for your product or service.
2. Identify customer needs and wants
Market research identifies customer needs and wants.
3. Identifying completion
You should compare what your customers need to what your competitors offer.
4. Identifying a customer profile
Market research helps you to identify the kind of people likely to buy your product.
5. Starting a new business
It is necessary to conduct market research before you start a new business such as an agricultural
enterprise.
6. Launching a new product
Before you launch the product you need to know if there is demand for that product.
7. Finding new markets
Market research helps to find and enter new markets.
8. Increasing sales
Market research helps to make decisions on marketing targets and strategies such as advertising and
packaging.
9. Tracking changes in market
It will help you about the increases and decreases in demand for your product.
BUSINESS IDEAS AND OPPORTUNITIES
1. The business idea

A business idea is a thought or concept that can be developed and turned into a profitable business. It
forms in the mind because a person sees a solution to the problem.
2. The business opportunity

A business opportunity is a chance for getting into business that may involve selling or leasing any
product or service. Often people’s needs and wants provide an opportunity for doing business.
Agricultural business opportunities
 Crop production
 Poultry production
 Beef cattle production
 Dairy cattle production
 Fruit production

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 Game farming

Reasons for preparing a business plan

A business plan is prepared for two main reasons:
 Funding purposes

Lending or funding institutions need business plan to satisfy themselves of the viability or profitability of
a proposed business.
 Operational guidance

The entrepreneur is able to make proper decisions based on what the plan stipulates. The manager is able
to stay focused on the goals because they are clearly laid out in the objectives.
ELEMENTS OF A BUSINESS PLAN
1. Summary statement

This is a brief description of the business and what it is all about and why it is being conceived. It also
captures the name, address and location of the business.
2. Strategic objectives

This is what the business intends to achieve in all aspects of its operations. Its mission and principles.
3. Key players

This section refers to the human resource base and its structure.
4. The customer

The market base for the business, the geographic location and demographic details of the market.
5. Competition

It includes detailed information about competitors and their way of operating.

6. Penetration strategies

These are general marketing plans and strategies such as advertising and promotion to reach the potential
customers.
7. Forecasts

This is the financial part of the business plan and it contains the financial budgets – the cost budgets and
the income budgets.
PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF A BUSINESS PLAN
1. The idea
 What is the idea and why is it unique? Is the idea feasible?
 Describe the type of business you are interested in.
 State the overall aim and specific purpose of the proposed business.

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2. Study the competition

 Who are the competitors, suppliers and potential clients?
 What is the price of the products presently on the market?
 Can you compete with the quantity and quality?
 What is the percentage of market share that you expect?

3. Production process
 Describe the products that you will produce.
 Which production methods do you plan to use?
 State your labour requirements.

4. Your resources
 The guaranteed available resources, at a competitive price, to produce the product.
 What is your financial position?
 What facilities are available to you?

5. Structure
 Which organizational structure and type of enterprise do you prefer?

6. Location
 What is the intended location of the business?
 Why do you select this area?
 Will you purchase or lease?

7. Marketing plan
 How will you introduce the product?
 How will you encourage the purchase and use of the product?
 Determine you’re your budget.

8. Price structure
 How will profit be determined?
 How will you determine production cost and selling price?

9. Human resources management

 Who are the people you wish to employ?
 What are their skills and experience?
 How will you recruit and retain them?
 List the principal function each person will perform.
 Describe the objectives of the management team.
 Describe the business arrangements and responsibilities of the owner.

10. Financial plan

 Provide a budget for initial costs, a cash flow projection for the financial year and a balance sheet
for the year.
 Outline anticipated profits or losses.
 State where the money will come from (funding).

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CHICKEN PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS OF REARING CHICKENS
There are three systems of rearing chickens:-
 Extensive
 Semi - Intensive
 Intensive

A. EXTENSIVE SYSTEM/ FREE RANGE

This is a system whereby chickens are allowed to move freely to find their own food and shelter. Free
range birds eat mostly worms, insects, animal waste and sometimes given little maize or sorghum grain.
At night chickens sleep on poles, trees or anything suitable. In some cases chickens can be provides with
shelter to protect them from predators. Chickens lay eggs in the bush or whatever place they can find
(nests).

Advantages
 It has low input cost therefore is a cheap method.
 Birds are not crowded so they are unlikely to develop vices(bad habits such as feather pecking and
cannibalism
 Birds do not suffer from dietary deficiencies because they have a varied diet
 There is no accumulating of litter which may act as a breeding ground or diseases causing organism
 It does not require any skills because there is minimal management.
 The birds pick up grit, which helps in digestion.

Disadvantages
 Chickens are not protected from thieves and predators such as dogs, jackals and hawks.
 Chickens can destroy vegetables and flowers in other people’s garden
 There is no controlled breeding. Any cork mates with any hen
 Diseases and parasites can spread very easily and is difficult to control.
 Chicken manure is not collected and cannot be used in gardens
 Chickens may become sick because of dirty food and water.
 There is low production as few eggs are laid and growth is slow

B. SEMI – INTENSIVE (Fold system)

This is a system whereby chickens are kept in movable folds or arks (usually placed on fresh pasture).
Folds are made up of wire mesh, poles and can hold about 25 chickens Nest boxes, feeding troughs and
drinking troughs are provided in the unit.

Advantages
 It protects birds against poor weather conditions and predators
 It is easy to control diseases
 Birds are unlikely to develop vices due to low stocking rate

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 Birds have access to grit (small stones) which helps their digestion
 The system is relatively inexpensive
 Birds are unlikely to suffer from dietary system
 Birds can eat fresh grass and their droppings can fertilize the land

Disadvantages
 Not many chickens can be kept in this system
 Contamination by diseases and parasites is likely to occur in the opening area
 A fairly large area is also needed
 Feed is wasted through spillage and being eaten by wild birds in the open area.
 Time and labour consuming to move folds.

C. INTENSIVE SYSTEM
This is whereby chickens are kept indoors for the rest of their lives. (Deep Liter System and Battery Cage
System)

DEEP LITTER SYSTEM

This system is suitable for both layers and broilers. Chickens are kept in the house with the floor covered
with litter 10 -15cm depth providing the chickens with bedding and also absorb moisture from chicken
faeces (droppings). This keeps the chicken house dry and stops it from being smelly. The litter can be
saw dust, dry chopped grass, crushed maize cobs e.g. chickens are never allowed to go outside. They are
provided with food and water in feeders and drinkers.

Advantages
- Chickens are protected from predators and thieves
- Chickens are protected from harsh climatic conditions
- Parasite and disease control is easy
- Chickens do not need to go and look for food
- Chickens cannot destroy other people’s crops
- Collection of eggs and keeping of records is easy

Disadvantages
It is expensive e.g. building structures and purchasing of feeds and drugs.
Chickens can easily develop bad habits e.g. cannibalism (chicken eating another chicken), egg eating,
and feather pecking.
In layers, eggs usually get dirty, this system is best for broilers.
An outbreak of disease or parasite attack could kill all the chickens.
Feed and water are contaminated by chicken droppings
Not easy to keep accurate records.

BATTERY CAGE SYSTEM

The chickens are kept in small wire cages, usually 3-5 per cage. Food and water are provided to them in
these cages. The battery cage system is most suitable for commercial egg production. Chickens are kept
until they stop laying in these cages and lot of eggs would have to be sold to make profit.

Advantages
o It is easy to keep records for the production of each chicken
o Eggs are usually clean
o There is no chance for chickens to develop bad habits e.g. Egg eating.

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o Chickens do not waste energy looking for food

o Cannibalism and egg eating is not common
o Parasites and diseases can be controlled easily because the hens do not come in contact with their
waste products
o It is easy to clean and disinfect the poultry house
o Many chickens can be kept on a small piece of land and thus egg production can be increased.
o The hens do not get broody because they cannot sit on their eggs.

Disadvantages
 An expensive system to run as cages, feeds and equipment have to be purchased.
 Chickens get cage paralysis as their movement is restricted by the cages.
 The cages can only be used for layers.
 The risk of disease outbreaks especially respiratory diseases is very high
 Good management skills are needed to run the system profitably
BREEDS OF CHICKENS
1. Broiler breeds
These are chickens kept for meat production. They are usually bought when they are a day old and then
raised until they are ready for slaughter. e.g.
Broilers Characteristics of chickens
Cornish Game  Originate from Britain
 A hybrid chicken
 Dark blue to green feathers with brown patterns on hens
 Large and produce good quality meat.
Plymouth Rock  It has stripes of black and white feathers
 Originates from America
 Medium sized breed
 Can also produce many eggs
Ross and Cobb 500  White in colour
 Hybrid chickens (results from crossing two different breeds)
Light Sussex  Originate from Britain
 Has white feathers with some black feathers in the wings and tail
 Large chicken with white skin, legs, feet, and beak
Black Australorp  Originate from Australia thus Australorp
 Black in colour and white skin
 Lays brown eggs
 Small bright red comb and wattle
 Dual purpose breed but good for meat production

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2. Layer breeds
These are chickens kept for egg production. Chickens lay eggs that are either white or brown, depending
on their breed. e.g.
Layers Characteristics of chickens
White Leghorn  Originates from Italy
 White with yellow shanks
 Small, thin bird
 Lays large white eggs
Hyline  It is a hybrid
 Good egg producer
 It is brown but has white patches towards the tail.
Amberlink  Hybrid chicken
 White in colour with black tail and neck
 Lay large numbers of eggs
Isa Brown  Brown in colour
 Hybrid chicken
 It is a hybrid (developed from other breeds of chickens)
 Lay large number of big brown eggs
3. Dual purpose breeds
Chickens kept for both meat and egg production e.g.
DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS Characteristics of chickens
Tswana  Originates in Botswana
 Has varied colours because of unplanned breeding
 Medium comb and wattle
 Dual purpose breed
Rhode Island Red  Developed in USA
 Heavy bird with dark red and black feathers
 Yellow skin, legs, feet and beak
 Produce fairly large number of brown eggs
New Hampshire  Developed in USA
 Light red feathers and yellow skin, legs, feet and beak.
 Lays large number of light brown eggs. Produces good quality meat

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LAYER

 Large, bright prominent eyes
 Lean chest with very little fat
 Well-developed bright red comb and wattle
 bleached shanks, beak and toes
 Large oval and moist vent
 The pelvic bones should allow 3-4 fingers between them, and they must also be flexible.
 It must not be broody

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BROILER

 High feed conversion ratio (eats less food and gain more weight).
 It must have a wide large and fleshy carcass.
 Healthy birds have bright and prominent eyes
 Broiler should preferably be yellow soft and supple.
 Resistance to diseases and have low mortality rate

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN

The reproductive system of a hen includes the OVARY and the long OVIDUCT.
OVARY
The ovary produces ova (female sex cells) and the yolk. The yolk is the yellow part of the egg.
THE OVIDUCT CONSISTS OF:
1. THE INFUNDIBULUM OR FUNNEL
The funnel guides the released yolk into the oviduct. This is where fertilization occurs because sperm
(male sex cell) introduced by the cock during mating are stored here. The egg yolk will remain for about
15 – 20 minutes. Whether there is sperm to fertilize the egg cell or not, it then moves downwards into the
magnum.

2. THE MAGNUM
This is the albumen-producing region. The egg cell spends about 3 hrs here, during which it is covered
with albumen.

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3. THE ISTHMUS
This is the membrane-producing region. The egg cell spends about an hour in this region while the shell
membranes are laid around it.
4. THE SHELL GLAND OR UTERUS
In this region, the shell is laid around the egg cell. The process takes 18-20 hours. A good laying hen
requires 2.5kg of calcium per day to produce a strong egg shell.
5. THE VAGINA
The complete egg stays here for 1-10 minutes before it passes to the cloaca. The vagina produces the fluid
(mucus) that reduces friction when the hen is laying the egg.
6. CLOACA
The cloaca is the opening or vent that serves both as an excretory n and a reproductive organ. The vagina
opens into the cloaca and the egg is passed out. Sperms from the cock would also be deposited through
the cloaca into the vagina and swim through to the whole oviduct.

A complete egg takes about 24 hours to be formed.

STRUCTURE OF AN EGG

THE FUCNTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE EGG

1. THE SHELL
The outer cover of the egg made mainly of calcium and phosphorus. The egg shell protects all the inner
parts of the egg. It is porous and allow air(gases) to flow in and out which will allow a developing chick
to take oxygen in and release carbon dioxide.
2. THE SHELL MEMBRANE
The two membranes are between the shell and the albumen. They are separate at the larger end of the egg
to form air space. They prevent micro-organism from entering into the egg. They are also porous.
3. THE ALBUMEN
This is also called the egg white. It is rich in proteins, carbohydrates and minerals which are used by the
developing chick. In a raw egg the albumen is a clear liquid, but when cooked it becomes solid white.
4. THE CHALAZA
It the twisted white material found on the opposite sides of the yolk. It holds or keep the yolk on the
center of the albumen. Also protects the embryo by acting as a shock absorber.
5. THE EGG YOLK
This is the yellow part of the egg. It contains proteins and fats. The yolk provide nutrient to the
developing chick.
6. THE GERM DISC
It is attached to the surface of the yolk. It undergoes cell division so as to form an embryo when the egg is
incubated.
7. THE AIR SPACE/AIR SAC
Found at the larger end of the egg between the two shell membranes. It provides the developing embryo
with oxygen and keeps the egg fresh or in a good condition.

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FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DECIDING THE TYPE OF CHICKEN TO RAISE

1. Type of chicken production
 Egg production
 Broiler production
 Day old production

2. Availability of reliable supplies of feeds, medicines and equipment

3. Cost of raising the chickens
4. Availability and cost of labour and skills necessary for running the enterprise
5. Availability of starting Capital
6. Infrastructure (availability of electricity and roads to the farm)
7. Availability of adequate land
8. The market –knowing what people are willing and able to spend money on.

RECORDS IN A POULTRY PROJECT

Financial Records
These records show all the transactions involving money. They show how much money was spent and
how much money was earned. Farmers use this records to tell if their enterprises are VIABLE or not.
They must work out if they are making a profit or loss. Examples of financial records include;
expenditure record, income record, creditors and debtors Acc, profit/loss Acc, Cash Acc e.t.c

PROFIT /LOSS ACCOUNT

ENTERPRISE: EGG PRODUCTION
INCOME /RETURNS COSTS / EXPENSES
Date Items Amount Date Items Amount
2/3/10 30 dozen eggs @P8 per P240.00 1/3/10 10 bags of layers mash @ P50
dozen per bag. ……………..
6/3/10 …………
20 dozen eggs @P8 per …… 7/3/10 Medicine and drugs P200.00
12/3/10 dozen
P283.50 31/3/10 Salary for 1 employee P600.00
23/3/10 35 dozen eggs @P8.10 per
dozen …………
31/3/10 …
61 dozen eggs @P8.10 per
dozen P309.70

38 dozen eggs @P8.15 per

dozen

Total Returns Total costs

Profit / Loss for the month = Returns – Costs NB. +ve (profit) -ve(loss
=
=

Production Records
These are all details of production of individual enterprise of a farm business. They show all the details on
input needed for the enterprise and how much output/produce was obtained from the enterprise. Examples
of production records includes;

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Inventory record, egg production record, feed record, mortality record, labour record, vaccination record.
A) Egg production record

Collection of eggs
Date Number of morning afternoon evening TOTAL
layers
1/6/09 80 28 16 20 64
2/6/09 80 30 26 15
3/6/09 80 29 27 18
4/6/09 80 36 27 16
5/6/09 80 27 25 20
6/6/09 78 24 20 16
7/6/09 78 26 25 14
Total number of eggs collected per week

QUALITIES OF S GOOD CHICKEN HOUSE

A good chicken house should have the following characteristics
1. Good Ventilation
Fresh air from outside must circulate in the house to replace air inside the house
2. Protection from predators
A good chicken house must prevent animals such as cats, snakes, dogs, cats, birds and thieves from
getting into the chicken house.
3. Protection from harsh weather
It should prevent chicken from bad condition such as high and cold temperature, rains
4. No direct sunlight
Materials such as empty bags and plastic nets help prevent chicken from becoming too hot. Chicken tend
to peck each other when they become too hot.
5. Easy to clean concrete floors
The concrete floor must be easy to clean and to disinfect
6. Water proof roof
When the roof leak, the litter will get wet and diseases such Coccidiosis could develop.
The house must be built and placed in such a way that flood water cannot enter it.
7. Smooth Walls
The walls should be smooth and without cracks because parasite and tampans will hide there.
8. Cost Effective
A chicken house should be cheap, easy to build and provide enough floor space for each bird .i.e. 20
chicken per m2 in the first four weeks then increase to 12 birds per m2
MATERIALS FOR BUILDING A CHICKEN HOUSE

Materials Tools and equipment

Bricks Shovel
Treated / Gum poles Wheel barrow
Cement Hammer
River sand, pit sand and gravel Saw
Corrugated Iron sheet for roofing Tape measure
Diamond mesh wire/chicken wire Pliers
Nails Spirit level
Timber rafters Etc.
Strings
Doors

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 Cement bricks, concrete stone, river sand cement, pit sand and gravel
The materials will make a strong chicken house, floor will be easy to clean and make litter
management easy
 Timber rafters, corrugated iron sheets and nails.
These will make a strong roof which will protect chickens from bad weather and provide a shade

 Wire mesh, window and doors

These materials help in the ventilation of the chicken house. Doors will provide an entrance to the
chicken house

 Treated poles
Used to support the roof. They are treated to protect them against termites.

Construction of a chicken house (Steps)

Step 1. Draw up the plan
Step 2. Mark out the area for the building
Step 3. Put the poles in the ground
Step 4. Construct the foundation floor/ floor slab
Step 5. Construct the Walls
Step 6. Construct the roof structure
Step 7. Fit the netting
Step 8. Fit the heavy Duty Canvas

SOURCE OF SUPPLY FOR LIVE CHICKENS

 Private Chicken Farms
Notwane Farm, Star Poultry, Ace Farm, Tswana Pride, Goodwill.
 Individual Chicken Producers
These are people who raise chickens in their homes
 Imported from other countries
South Africa and Zimbabwe
 Hatcheries
Feed centre, Jims Farm Supplies, Notwane, Otse farms e.t.c.

PREPARATION FOR THE ARRIVAL OF LAYERS

1. Clean and disinfecting the house.
This will get rid of disease causing organisms. If there were chickens in the house, all the old litter and
any dirt must be removed, equipment (drinkers and feeders) should be cleaned and disinfected

2. Buying appropriate and adequate feeds and medicinal supplies (vaccines and drugs).

3. Installing feeding and drinking trough and making show they are clean

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4. Placing new litter on the floor (if raising them under deep litter system). If using battery cage system
place the litter under the cages.

5. Ensure that there are enough people who will be taking care of chickens

6. Installing laying nests if you are expecting to receive point of lay hens.

7. Placing a brooding unit if expecting day old chicks. A heat source must be provided and switched on a
day before chicken arrive so that there will be warmth in the unit.

IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING THE CHICKEN HOUSE CLEAN.

 To prevents build-up of parasites and diseases causing organisms.
 Cleaning prevents bad smell on the chicken carcasses. Chickens that are reared in dirty litter have a
bad smell that will drive away the customers.
 The litter in the house must be turned after two weeks. All wet spots must be removed and replaced
with clean fresh litter in the poultry house.
 It reduces dirt on eggs.

CLEANING OF THE HOUSE involves;

1. Removing the litter from the flow by shoveling into the wheel barrow and carrying it out of the house
2. Sweep the floor with floor using hard broom.
3. Wash and scrub the floor and walls with water and detergent
4. Disinfect the floor and walls using any appropriate disinfectant
5. Allow the floor to dry for a few days
6. Spread clean dry litter on the floor.
7. If there are external parasites, it may be necessary to fumigate or spray the building and equipment
with pesticide.
8. Always provide a foot bath at the entrance of the chicken house.

REASONS FOR PROVIDING CLEAN WATER

 Chickens need water for easy digestion of food in the chicken’s digestive system.
 Water transports nutrients in the body.
 Plays an important role in excretion of waste products.
 Water helps in functions such as egg and meat production. Less water intake will decrease feed intake
which will lead to low production.
 Dirty water may contain germs which can cause and spread diseases.
 Water is also used when slaughtering and dressing chickens.

BROODING
Chicks need to be kept warm for few weeks after hatching. This is because they do not have well
developed feathers to keep them warm. Brooding means raising or taking care of chicks until they have
well developed feathers that will keep them warm.

There are two methods of brooding chicks namely;

1. Natural Brooding
This is when mother hens takes care of her chicks by providing them with warmth. The hen put the chicks
under her wings, help the chicks to find food and protect them from predators. A small number of chicks
are usually kept under this method.

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2. Artificial Brooding
This is when chicks are raised without their mother and have to be provided with heat or warmth until
they have well developed feathers. This is usually done under commercial production. A brooding unit
(also called brooder) set aside for the care of day old chicks during the first few weeks, has to be
constructed.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT A BROODING UNIT AND MATERIALS NEEDED

A Brooding unit may be a whole house or part of a house. Galvanized iron sheets, cardboard material and
hardboard can be used. The sheets are tied together with a wire and supported by bricks to make them
stable. The sheets are tied together such that they form a circular or oval shape. The circular or oval
shape prevents crowding of chicks in corners. Chicks crowd in corners when they frightened or excited
and may suffocate each other leading to death.

Floor of the brooder must be covered with litter so as to absorb the wet droppings from the chicks and to
provide comfort. The feeders and drinkers are also set in the unit high enough for chicks to be able to eat
and drink. Finally, a source of heat must be provided in the centre of brooder. The brooding unit is
removed at about 4 – 5 weeks of age. That is when the chick will have well developed feathers.

METHODS OF HEATING A BROODING UNIT

1. Mbawula System
This is the most common method of brooding chicks in rural areas. A bucket with holes made in the sides
filled with burning firewood or coal is used to provide warmth. Make fire in the bucket outside the
chicken house. The bucket is then taken into the house when the firewood or coal have burned completely
and there in very little smoke coming from it. To prevent chicks from burning themselves, wire mesh is
put around the bucket. A cut drum can be hung above the bucket to keep the warmth in the unit for
longer.

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Advantages of the Mbawula

o It is cheap
o Easy to set up

Disadvantages
o Fuel must be added to the fire to it burning
o If the house is not properly ventilated, the chicks and people going into the house may be killed by
carbon monoxide fumes released by the fire.

2. The Gas heater / Brooder system

A gas brooder uses a gas from cylinders to produce heat for the unit. It has a filament and it is lit using
matches. The heating filament glows once it has been lit and gradually heats up the whole brooding unit.
The temperature of the heater can be changed to make it hotter or colder. The heater must be placed
beyond the reach of chicks to prevent death by burning.

Advantages of the gas brooder

 It does not produce any carbon monoxide.
 The temperature of the brooding unit can be turned up or down.
 It is easy to light the heater.
 It can be switched off if it is not needed.

Disadvantages of the gas brooder

 Gas is very expensive
 It may not be very easy to get gas in rural areas.
 If any gas leaks, it may cause an uncontrolled fire

3. Paraffin lamps / Heaters

These are heaters which use paraffin to provide warmth to the chicken house. They are placed in the
centre of the brooding unit. They can also be suspended above the chicks so that they do not come in
direct contact with them. The size of the heater depends on the number of chicks.

4. Infra-Red Lamp
This system uses infrared heaters to provide warmth to the chicks. These lamps have reflectors which
direct or reflect heat on to the chicks. The lamps are suspended above the centre of the brooding unit. The
problem with this system is that it can only be used where there is electricity.

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5. The drum system

A drum is fitted into the wall of the brooding unit. The open end of the drum is on the outside of the wall
and much of the drum is inside the house. The drum may need to be supported to make sure it does not
fall down. A fire is lit inside the drum and as the drum becomes hot it heats the inside of the house. If the
house is large, then more than one drum can be used. No smoke goes into the house.

Advantages of the drum system

 There is no danger of carbon monoxide inside the house.
 It is very easy to use
 It is cheap because it uses local materials.

Disadvantages of the drum system

 The drum needs to be replaced regularly because the fire damages it
 The drum is not in the centre of the brooding unit so chicks will crowd near the walls underneath the
drum.

6. The tunnel system

A pipe is fitted to the wall of the brooding unit. The pipe or tunnel goes from one side of the brooding
unit to the other, and is connected to a chimney at one end. A fire is made at the opening of the tunnel and
the heat spreads through the tunnel and makes the whole house warm. The smoke leaves the tunnel
through the chimney and so there is no danger from carbon monoxide.

Advantages of the tunnel system

 There is no danger of poisoning from carbon monoxide fumes.
 The method is cheap because it makes use of local materials.

Disadvantages of the tunnel system

 Big tunnels can lose a lot of heat
 Tunnels need to be replaced frequently because the fire damages them.
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7. Hay Box Brooder

This is a simple wooden box that is lined with either hay, straw or grass around the inner walls and soft
material such as cotton wool, old rags or feathers on the floor of the box. This brooder is used for small
numbers of chicks and is not suitable for commercial production.

CARE GIVEN TO YOUNG CHICKSIN A BROODING UNIT

1. Fill the feeders and drinkers with food and water. Stress pack mix (tranquilizer) should also be added
to water to relieve the chicks from travel stress.
2. Take chicks out of the boxes and count them to make sure that you have received the correct number.
Prepare a record book for the chicks.
3. Observe chicks and help those that do not drink water or eat food. The chicks have no experience and
are just learning.
4. Observe the chicks and see how they respond to the warmth. They should be kept at temperature of
32°C to 35°C if they crowd together close to the heat, then they are too cold. If they move far away
from the heat, then they are too warm. If the temperature is correct, the chicks will spread out all over
the unit.
5. Fill the feed trays or sheets of paper with food for chicks on a regular basis. Clean the feed trays and
water containers daily
6. Chicks are provided with light during the night so that they can eat at night
7. Diseases and parasites are also controlled.

INCUBATION
This is providing a fertilised egg with necessary condition so that the chick will develop and eventually
hatch out.
Incubation takes about 21 days and the process requires
 warmth temperature about 39°C
 moisture in the air and proper ventilation
 regularly turning to prevent the developing chick embryo from sticking to one side.

There are two types of incubation

A. Natural Incubation
The hen become broody and sits on her eggs, after laying 10-15eggs. Broodiness is natural instinct in
hens to sit on and incubate eggs until they hatch. After laying eggs, the hen continuously turns the eggs to
prevent the yolk sticking to one side and also help ventilation. The hen controls temperature of the eggs
by leaving the nest occasionally to feed

B. Artificial Incubation
This is when eggs are placed in a machine called an Incubator to keep them warm until they hatch. Eggs
are collected from the nest while they are still fresh and should be fertilized. Artificial incubation is
carried out by imitating natural incubation. Incubators are basically box like structures heated by
electricity, paraffin lamp or gas heaters. Incubators can hold 50 -10 000 eggs. Incubators have several
vents that can be opened and closed to adjust temperature and humidity. Inside the incubator is a
thermometer that helps the farmer to keep right temperature (37.0C – 39.0C).
CULLING
It is the removal of undesirable or unwanted birds from the flock. Unproductive or unwanted chickens are
those that produce few eggs or poor quality meat. It also includes chickens that are sick time and again,
weak, deformed or injured.

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CRITERIA USED WHEN CULLING CHICKENS

1. Low Production
• Poor layers and non-layers must be culled
• Broiler birds that show retarded (slow) growth must be culled
2. Poor Heath
• Sick, injured or disabled birds should be removed from the flock
• Weak and deformed birds must be culled
3. Bad Habits / Vices
• Birds that exhibit bad habits such as eating eggs, fighting other chickens, pecking others
(cannibalism) and broodiness should be culled immediately.

DEBEAKING
This is cutting of about one-third of the upper beak and a quarter of a lower beak of a chick. A debeaking
blade or a special machine is used for this operation.

REASONS FOR DEBEAKING

 Reduce fighting
 Reduce egg breaking and eating
 Reduce feather pecking and cannibalism

DEBEAKING PROCEDURE
Both upper and lower beak of a chick is cut with a red hot blade. The beak is then pressed against the red
hot blade for 3 seconds to cauterize blood vessels. Avoid damaging the chick’s tongue. The lower beak is
left longer that the upper one.

VACCINATION
It is making an animal (chick) immune to a disease by introducing mild or dead pathogens which
normally cause the disease.

The presence of a small amount of the disease causing organism in the chicken’s blood causes the
chicken’s immune system (the body’s natural defence system) to react and get rid of the disease causing
organism. Once a chicken’s immune system has reacted to an organism, its body has a defence system in
place. The next time the chicken is infected with the same organism, its body will be able to fight the
disease and the chicken will not become ill. By spending some money on vaccination against common
diseases, the farmer avoids losing money from the deaths of large number of chickens.

PARASITES
A parasite is an organism that lives in or on another animal. There are two types of parasites:
• Internal
They live inside the chicken’s body. Common internal parasites are roundworms and tapeworms. They
leave the chicken body with the faeces. If a healthy chicken eats infected chicken droppings or eats an
infected insect, it will get the parasite.
• External

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External parasites are found on the skin of chickens. They live by sucking blood from the chickens. If a
chicken loses too much blood, it will become very weak and unproductive. Common external parasites
include lice, fleas and mites.

MITES/ RED MITES

They are small reddish brown crawling parasites with eight small legs. They attack chickens mainly at
night coming from cracks on the walls or dark areas such as corners in the house, bedding material such
as litter and in the nest boxes. They have piercing and sucking mouth parts and such blood tissue fluids.

HARM CAUSED BY MITES TO CHICKENS

 Mites suck blood and lymph (clear liquid from body tissues) from chickens therefore cause anaemia
(low red blood cell count)
 The chickens are irritated and scratch themselves
 Chicken lose their appetite resulting in poor growth for broilers and few eggs for layers
 If birds are badly bitten they may lose their feathers
 Mites cause blemishes and marks on the chicken body which will make the carcass unattractive to
the consumer
 Mites do not usually kill chickens but small chicks may die from weakness.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

 Spray the walls and floor of the house with an emulsion of mercapthion. Carbaryl powders can also
dusted on to the chicken. A cheap alternative will be using an emulsion of paraffin and soap. This can
be sprayed onto birds and the house.
 All wooden structures, such as poles and rafters should be painted with carbolinium.
 All wild birds should be kept away from chicken houses because they often carry mites and other
parasites
 Clean and disinfect the house thoroughly before putting in a new batch of chickens.

DISEASES
A disease is an illness or condition when the body does not function normally. It is the deviation from a
normal state of health whereby normal life processes are disturbed. Diseases can be caused by micro-
organisms such as bacteria, protozoa and viruses while other disease may be caused by poor nutrition or
poor management of chickens.
Some common chicken diseases are;
 Newcastle disease
 Coccidiosis
 Marek’s disease
 Fowl typhoid
 Fowl cholera
 Infectious bronchitis

1. SLAUGHTERING CHICKENS
Chickens must not be given food 12 to 24hours before they are slaughtered. This will reduce spilling of
digestive contents onto the meat during slaughtering. The most common methods of slaughtering
chickens are;
• Chopping or cutting the head.
• Breaking or dislocating of the neck.
• Piercing the brain and cutting the jugular vein.
The last method is the least cruel and also the best because it ensures the carcass loses most of its blood.
The dead chicken is then hung upside down to drain the blood. Piercing the brain paralysis the chicken
and cutting the jugular vein means that bleeding is thorough.

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2. PROCESSING OF CHICKENS
Scalding: Slaughtered chickens are put in hot water at 55 - 60˚c for two minutes to loosen feathers for
easy plucking. If the water is too hot, it will cook the tender meat and the skin will come off.

Plucking: This is the removal of feathers from the chickens’ body. Scalded chickens can be plucked
manually or using machines. Not all the feathers will be removed from the body of the chicken and hand
plucking will be necessary to get ready of the remaining feathers. Cleaning with cold water or lukewarm
water is necessary after plucking the carcass.

Evisceration: this is the removal all the interior organs/giblets/offals (gizzard, liver, heart intestines)of a
chicken. Always make sure not to break the gall bladder (santlhoko) and throw it away after evisceration.

Trimming: remove the neck and cut off the feet which can also be packed and sold separately. The
carcass is then washed thoroughly with clean water.

Chilling: the carcass is then dipped into iced cold water for about 30 minutes. This reduces the
temperature of the carcass and eliminate or remove the bacteria that cause food poisoning. The carcass is
then hung on the rack so that water drips off it.

Packaging: the dressed chicken are packaged into clean plastic bags, weighed and the weight is recorded.
Dressed chickens are then stored in the freezers ready for selling or cooking. The carcass can be also cut
into different parts and sold as chicken pieces. These portions include half chicken, quarter chicken,
drumsticks, thighs, wings, breast and abdomen cut. Giblets (offal) are also washed, packed separately in
plastics and can be sold separately.

CANDLING OF EGGS
It is passing a powerful light through an egg to determine its internal quality. This is done to test freshness
and fertility.. The eggs is held against a powerful ray of light and the contents of the egg can be seen.
Abnormalities, cracks on the shell and blood spots can be discovered through this method. Candling is
done as part of grading eggs according to their quality.

The apparatus used for egg candling is called a CANDLER.

PURPOSE FOR CANDLING OF EGGS

 Determine the presence of meat or blood spot.
 Determine the condition of egg yolk and egg white
 Presence of cracks.
 To detect the infertile eggs and those with dead embryos during incubation

GRADING AND PACKAGING OF CHICKEN EGGS

Grading eggs means sorting eggs into different groups according to size, weight and internal quality.

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Grading helps to reduce wastages and makes uniform packaging and easier pricing. The external quality
of an egg depends on its;
 Shape
 Shell strength
 Colour
 Size
There are four egg grades used in Botswana. They are based on weight;
SIZE MASS
Extra large (size 1) More than 60g
Large (size 2) 51 – 60g
Medium (size 3) 41 – 50g
Small or pullet Less than 40g

Once graded, the eggs are packed in the egg trays with the narrow end of the egg facing downwards so
that the air space is on top. This prevents the inner contents from spilling into the air space and causing
spoilage. Eggs need to be stored in a cool place at a temperature of 10-15˚c. Eggs easily absorb odours or
strong smells. This affects their flavour and is called tainting. Eggs must be stored away from substances
that give out strong smell such as onion, fish or petrol.

MARKETING OF EGGS
Eggs must be marketed daily so that they are as fresh as possible when they reach consumers. Only
surplus (remaining) eggs need to be stored. Egg producers (large scale) sell directly to wholesalers,
retailers and hotels. Small scale farmers sell to their community.
Price of eggs is influenced by the demand and the supply as well as by the grade. The largest eggs are the
most expensive, cracked eggs are usually the cheapest.

MARKETING OF CHICKEN PRODUCTS

Marketing means the promotion and sale of products. When layers reach a certain stage they begin to
produce eggs that can be sold. When they stop laying, they can be sold for meat. Broilers are sold for
meat from the age of 6 weeks until about the age of 12 weeks.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PRICE OF CHICKEN PRODUCTS;
Size of the products
People will pay more for larger chickens and eggs.
Quality of the products
People will pay more for good quality chickens and eggs.
Cost of production and advertising
If the production and advertising costs are high, the farmer will have to ask for higher prices for the
products so that a profit can be made.
Demand
When the demand for chicken products is high, farmers can raise the prices because people will pay more
for them.
Supply
When the supply is high, farmers may have to lower their prices because there is a lot of the product on
the market and people do not have to pay a lot for it.

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THE PRICE OF CHICKEN PRODUCTS

Broilers can be sold live or dressed (ready for cooking). To sell live chickens, a farmer needs a ready
market so that they sell quickly. Keeping of the birds (broilers) longer reduces profit. The price of chicken
is influenced by the supply and demand of that commodity in the market. The price the farmer sets must
cover his/her production cost so that the enterprise operates at a profit. The farmer’s price is found to be
lower than that of wholesalers and retailers because he/she is a producer and must sell to wholesalers and
retailers. If birds are sold live, the price is usually set per bird. Dressed birds are usually sold at a specific
price per kilogram.

FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION

The fruit trees found in Botswana may either be indigenous or exotic.
1. Indigenous fruit trees
These are fruit trees that are native to Botswana. They are not imported from other countries.
Examples of Indigenous fruit trees:
 Marula (morula)
 Monkey orange (mogorogorwane)
 Wild medlar (mmilo)
 Bush Raisin (moretlwa)
 Baobab (mowana)
 Snot Apple (morojwa)
 Large sour plum (moretologa)
2. Exotic fruit trees
These fruit trees are native to other countries and have been imported into Botswana
Examples of exotic fruit trees
 Oranges -guavas
 Peaches -mangoes
 Paw paws -pomegranates (garenate)
 Grapes -apples
 Bananas -pear
 Lemons -pineapples
 Avocado -apricots
IMPORTANCE OF FRUIT TREES AND FRUITS
1. The nutritional value of fruits
 they contain large amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals
 they help in the digestion as the fiber they contain has a laxative effect
 they add a variety of colours, textures and tastes to our food
 they contain a lot of water when fresh and very little fat
 they stimulate one’s appetite

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2. The economic value

o they earn income for a farmer
o they provide foreign exchange when exported
o source of raw materials for food industries
o sources of foreign exchange as they help reduce imports of fruits and fruit products
o provide employment for those working in orchards, nurseries and fruit processing industries
An orchard: It is an area of land where fruit trees are grown.
Fruit: It is part of a plant that develops from a ripe ovary of a flower.
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN ORCHARD
 Permanent supply of good quality water for irrigation; especially at seedling stage, fruit trees require
adequate water to grow properly. At flowering stage or when fruits are being produced trees must
receive enough water.
 Topography; the land should be level or have gentle slope.
 Land with deep, rich and well drained soils
 Availability of dependable, experienced labour force (workers); some methods for propagating trees
require special skills and experience in order to be successful.
 Existence of high demand for fruits; first establish if there will be a good and sustainable market for
the fruits/produce. It may be neccesary to conduct a market survey to establish if there will be
sufficeint long term demand for the produce.
 Availability of support services such as horticultural experts
 Enough money to buy young fruit trees, tools and equipment, fertilizers and insecticides and to pay
for water and labour etc.
 Suitable climatic conditions
 Existence of wind breakers to protect an orchard against strong winds
 Fencing to protect an orchard from animals and trespassers
FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF A FRUIT TREE TO GROW
 Type of soil; fruit trees can grow in a wide range of soils.
 Climatic conditions; differences in temperature, light duration and intensity, humidity and altitude
have a major influence on choosing the type of fruit to grow. Many deciduous fruit trees rest during
cold period, grapes require short cold followed by apricot, peaches, pears and finally apples. Some
fruit trees are frost sensitive and will be damaged by cold winter.
 Farmers knowledge and experience; grow type of fruit trees that you know about.
 Market for fruits; choose fruit trees that has the greatest demand
 Resistance to pests, disease and drought
 Farmers preference and taste; the farmer will also have to decide which type of fruit tree to grow
especially for family consumption.
 Fruitfulness of a tree (fruit bearing capacity of a tree); how many fruits can a fruit tree bear
 Production life of a tree; how long the fruit tree will live and will still be producing fruits
 gestation period; how long it takes from planting stage to fruit bearing stage, some fruit trees take a
long time to start producing fruits and will more management before they give out fruits
 A tree nursery; It is a place where young trees are raised from seeds or vegetative parts before being
transplanted.

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Materials and Equipment needed for nursery construction

Materials Tools/ Equipment
-Treated gum poles -pillars -hammers
- Net Shade -doors -wheelbarrow
-Treated timber poles -Nails -shovel
-Cement, Sand and Gravel -pegs -measuring tape
-Wires/strings -bricks(for concrete ridges0 -saws

SIGNIFICANCE OF NET SHADING IN A NURSERY

 protects young plants from high temperatures and high light intensity
 minimizes evapotranspiration, so reduces water stress
 protects seedlings from direct beating by raindrops
 encourages cool conditions at ground level which favours growth of emerging seedlings
 protects seedlings from bird damage

PREPARING THE SOIL OR MEDIA AND FERTILISERS USE IN A NURSERY FOR

PROPAGATING TREES
1. Soil (loam and sandy soil) needs to be sterilized to kill micro-organisms, soil borne diseases and
nematodes. The soil can be sterilized through the following methods
a) Use of chemicals/fumigation; use methyl bromide and chloropicrin
b) Heat method; put soil in a drum and make fire underneath the drum in order to heat the soil

2. Mix the soil with kraal manure in ration 1:1 and remove clods,, stones and objects that might prevent
seedlings to emerge
3. Separate the soil into small plastic bags, trays or seed beds
4. Have seeds ready, if needed, treat seeds to improve germination
Types of fertilizers in a nursery; Compound fertilizers such as 2:3:2 (22) are usually used
NB; premixes can also be bought from the nursery shops and supermarkets

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUITABLE SOIL MIXTURE

 supply sufficient plant nutrients
 free from soil-borne pests and weed seeds
 well aerated, have a good water holding capacity and allows excess water to drain away
 low salinity level (amount of salt in the soil)
 capable of being pasteurised by steam or chemicals

METHODS OF PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES

There are two methods of propagating tree plants: SEXUAL propagation and ASEXUAL propagation
1. Sexual Propagation
This is the production of fruit trees from seeds. Examples of exotic fruit tree propagated by seeds are
granadilla, paw- paw, peach and guava. Most indigenous trees are propagated by seeds.
Fruit trees produced sexual are never exactly the same as the parent plant from which the seed was
obtained. There are usually differences in size, colour of fruit, shape, quality and seasons of maturity.
The propagation of trees by seeds is therefore not usually desirable.
Advantages of Sexual Propagation
 it is an inexpensive method of propagation
 it does not require a great deal of skill to raise plants from seeds
Disadvantages of Sexual Production

o It is a slow process because many seeds require a period of dormancy (sleeping period of a seed)
before they germinate
o the new plants that are produced may not resemble the parent plants from which the seeds were
obtained
o sexual produced plants are often not resistant to a certain pests and diseases especially during the
seedling stage of the plant
2. Asexual Propagation
This is a production of trees using the vegetative parts of a plant such as the root, stem or leaves. These
vegetative parts have the ability to grow and develop into new individual plants e.g. roots, which initiates
the development of leaves and the stem will initiate the development of roots and leaves.
Unlike sexual propagation, asexual propagation result in plants with the same characteristics as the parent
e.g. if the parent plant from which the vegetative parts (stem, leave or roots) which was taken is resistant
to diseases then the daughter plant is likely to inherit these characteristics. If the parent plant bears many
fruits, so will the daughter plant.
Advantages of Asexual Production
 It is the only way of propagation plants that do not produce seeds e.g. pineapple and banana.
 it is easier and quicker than sexual propagation
 Asexual produced plants are more resistant to diseases, especially during the early period of
establishment

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 this method allows the nature of growth of the plant to be changed e.g. A tall plant may be dwarfed
and a thorned plant may be made thorn less
 Asexual propagation fruits often produce seeds earlier e.g. it takes a 9-12yrs to get fruits from orange
raised from seeds and only 2-3 years from asexually propagated oranges.
Disadvantages of Asexual Propagation
 some plants are difficult to produce asexually
 it may be expensive because of the cost of the materials required to propagate plants in this way
 it requires knowledge and experience to select the vegetative parts used
 diseases may spread to the daughter plant if the material used is already infected
 great skill is required to carry out techniques such as a bud grafting and air layering
Types/Method of Asexual Propagation

 Use of Cuttings
 Use of suckers
 Layering
 Budding
 Grafting
1. Use of Cuttings
This is the production of a new plant by using a piece of stem, whole leaf or piece of root. These pieces
are cut from a parent plant and planted in containers or nursery beds. Stem cutting are commonly used
e.g. mulberries and grape stem cutting of between 15-25cm are usually used. The leaves are removed (to
reduce water loss by transpiration leaving a few buds which will develop into stems later. The cutting is
then dipped in containers with root formation. Then it is planted in containers with soil or in seed beds
and then watered regularly.
e.g. figs, some plum cultivars

2. Use of Suckers
Suckers are underground shoots (bananas) top shoots (pineapple) which develop from buds of the parent
plant. When these suckers are carefully separated from the parent and planted, they develop into new
plants identical to the parent.

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3. Layering
This is the development of the roots while the stem is still attached to the parent plant especially on
guavas. Once the stem has rooted it cuts off from the mother plant. Rooting of the stem is encouraged by
using root growth hormones (rooting powder). Layering can be done in guavas, pomegranate and apples.
There are many types of layering methods; simple and air layering will be shown below. The stem (once
the roots have been formed) is cut off from the parent plant and is grown as an individual plant.

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4. Grafting
This is a form of asexual propagation which involves joining two separate wood structures. These
separate structures are joined together in such a way that they unite and continue to grow as one plant. A
stem can be joined to a stem and also to a root. The upper part of the union is known as the scion and the
lower part of the union is known as the root stock. Grafting is used to grow plants that are related e.g.
peach to peach, orange to lemon, apple to apple.
Grafting is usually done during the dormand period (late winter or early spring) when the sap is rising in
the tree and the buds are actively starting to grow.
Grafting Improves
-growth rate
-productivity
-resistant to diseases

5. Budding
This is also referred to as bud grafting. It involves joining a bud with root stock. Buds are taken from
parent plant which show high growth rate, resistance to disease and high fruit yield. The rootstock chosen
should also have disease resistance and high growth rate. It cab be used on peaches plums and grapes.
There are different methods of budding e.g. T budding, H budding, patch budding, top budding, shield
budding and I budding

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MANAGEMENT OF SEEDLINGS IN A NURSERY

1. Watering
A good supply of water is necessary for the growth of seedlings. Watering should be done twice in a day
the 1st week after germination because the roots are still small and do not reach germination because the
roots are still small and do not reach deep. After that they should be watered once a day, but thoroughly.
Too much watering reduces root growth and encourages the growth of fungi and makes the stem of
seedlings long and soft.
2. Weeding
Weeds should be removed immediately. They should not be allowed to flower and product fruits cause
this will make it difficult to control.
3. Controlling pests and diseases
Seedlings that are free of diseases and pests will have a better chance of survival in an orchard. They
will look healthy and attractive and fetch a good price at marketing time.
4. Thinning
Thinning out of seedlings is done to avoid overcrowding, competition for nutrients. When thinning, those
seedlings that are growing poorly should be removed.
5. Cultivation
It should be carried out regularly to improve aeration, water infiltration and destroy weeds growing in the
bed.
6. Shading
If it is very hot and seedlings show signs of wilting, shade must be provided using net or any suitable
material such as grass or branches of trees, in winter seedlings must be protected from the cold and frosty
conditions.
7. Fertilizer application
If there are any signs of mineral deficiency symptoms in the seedlings, appropriate fertilizers should be
added to the nursery beds to correct the deficiency.
8. Hardening of seedlings
A week before seedlings are to be transplanted they must be removed from the nursery and put where
they will be exposed to full sunshine. Watering of seedlings should also be reduced at this time. This
hardens the seedlings and prepares them for the harsher conditions in an orchard. This process is known
as hardening off.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SIZE AND DEPTH OF A PLANTING HOLE FOR A FRUIT
TREE SEEDLING
1. Type of roots
A tree with deep and wide system requires a deeper and a wider planting hole and vice versa.
2. Soil Type
If the soil is sandy, it is already loose and therefore the planting hole can be shallow. Where soils are
harder and more compacted such as in clay and where there are gravel particles not far from the top soil,
planting holes should be deeper. This enables the roots of fruit tree seedlings to grow easily and without
hindrance.
3. The size of the fruit tree seedling
The bigger the size, the wider and deeper the hole should be.
4. Soil Fertility
In soils of low fertility, the hole should be deeper and wider and then filled with more good soil and
manure.
5. Topography of land
On steep slopes planting holes should be deeper and wider than on gentle slope or flat land.
6. Expected productive life of a tree
A tree of a longer life span would need a bigger hole than one of a shorter life span.
FACTORS DETERMINING SPACING OF FRUIT TREES
1. Soil Fertility
As a general rule, the poorer the soil, the further apart fruit trees seedlings should be spread. This reduces
competition for minerals of nutrients already in the soil.
2. Size of a fruit tree (growth habit)
Large trees need wider spacing between planting holes than small trees. A tree without large spreading
canopy requires more space than one with smaller crown.
3. Type of root system
A tree with a wider root system needs more spacing than with a smaller root system.
4. Water availability
If there is adequate rain and irrigation water, fruit trees can be placed closer to each other than if water is
in short supply. If there is little water, closely spread fruit trees will compete for water.
5. Use of machinery
If the machines are to be used for harvesting, the space between the trees has to be wider. Other forms of
operation such as weeding, spraying and cultivation also influence the spacing of fruit trees.

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PREPARATION OF PLANT HOLES FOR FRUIT TREE SEEDLINGS

Holes for seedlings should be prepared well in advance (before transplanting).
Steps involves:-

 Mark the positions at recommended spacing

 Dig out square holes of approximately 60-100cm (1m) deep. Keep holes straight up to the bottom
 separate top soil from subsoil as you did the hole
 Mix up top soil with organic manure at a ratio of 1:1 and also add super-phosphate.
 break up the bottom surface of the hole and make it loose
TRANSPLANTING FRUIT TREE SEEDLINGS
It involves:-
 Lifting and moving seedlings, from an orchard area, trees from a nursery (polythene) baskets and
chibuku containers
 Before being taken from the nursery, trees should be hardened off by exposing them to full sunshine
and gradually reducing the amount of water given to them. This prepares them for full, harsh
conditions in the orchard.
 Hardening off can be done about a week before transplanting
 Back filling the hole - The top soil, organic matter and fertilizer mixture is filled into the hole first so
that the root collar will be level with the ground surface.
 Add some water to the soil in the hole to help remove air pockets. Planting the seedling from a plastic
bag
 Cut away plastics so that the soil is left around the roots. Any broken roots must be clipped away with
sharp clippers.
 Place the seedling in the centre of a hole and add the soil around the seedling up to the root collar or
ground level. Firm soil around root collar to remove air pockets.
 Construction of the basin around the plant
 Use the sub-soil to construct a dish shaped basin round the plant to hold irrigation water.
 Watering: - Finally water the seedlings heavily and repeat it every 2-3 days or for a week
Diagrams’ showing how a fruit tree seedling is planted

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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN AN ORCHARD

1. Irrigation
Regularly irrigation is done to assure normal growth of trees and high fruit yield.
2. Weeding
Weeding is done to prevent weeds from competing with trees for water, nutrients and space. Weeds can
also harbors and attract pests.

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3. Cultivation
It is done to improve water infiltration, aeration, soil and to control weeds. It has to be done shallowly to
avoid damaging the roots. Any leaves or compost material of fertilizer around the base of the trees should
be turned under the soil very shallowly during cultivation.
4. Control of pests and diseases
Insects, pests are usually a serious problem when growing fruit trees as they damage the fruit trees and
affect their growth.
Fruit trees should be regularly inspected for any disease affecting them. If a disease is spreading to other
fruit trees, prevention is always better than cure.
5. Fertilizer application
It is done usually to replace nutrients and ensure continued vigorous growth of trees.
6. Provision of support
In early stages of growth, many fruit trees need staking to maintain upright growth positions. Some trees
like grapes require support throughout their productive life as their stems are weak.
7. Pruning
It is the removal of unproductive parts of a plant.
Reasons for pruning
-remove dead, diseased and otherwise damaged branches
-facilitates easy air circulations and light penetration
-form and maintain a desirable shape
-ensure productive use of plant nutrients
-facilitate movement within an orchard
-prevent overbearing of fruits
-control pests and diseases
-facilitate harvesting of fruit
-increase quality and yields of fruits
-induce fruiting in certain fruit tree

HARVESTING and PROCESSING OF FRUITS

Methods of harvesting fruits include hand picking and machines.
Most fruits are harvested by hand rather than by machines. Fruits do not ripen at the same time, those that
are ripe have to be identified and handpicked carefully without causing damage to them. Many fruit trees
are likely to be damaged or bruised when harvesting using machines. Damaged fruits fetch low price and
hence cause a loss of income to the farmer. Machines can only be used to the fruits which are being
harvested for processing.
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For small scale producer, hand harvesting is most convenient because it is cheap. In large orchards, hand
harvesting is time consuming and requires employment of a large number of people to do the job.
MARKETING FRUITS
In commercial fruit production enterprise, fruits are harvested in large scale for sale. They can be sold
fresh or processed into various products.
Factors to consider when marketing fruits
1. The availability of a market
2. The form in which fruits will be sold
3. Variety
4. Quality
5. Grading
6. Pricing
7. Cleanliness
8. Packaging of fruits
9. Storage facilities
10. Transportation

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FORESTRY
It is the management of naturally occurring trees and man-made trees plantations in order to produce
products such as timber, fruits etc.

Indigenous trees of Botswana

These are trees that are native to Botswana e.g.
 Real Fan palm (Mokolwane)
 Mopane (Mophane)
 Marula (Morula)
 Baobab (mowana)
 Shepherd’s tree (motlopi)
 Umbrella thorn (mosu)
 Camel thorn (mogotlho)
 Snot apple (Morojwa)
 Blood wood (Mukwa)
 Monkey thorn (mokala)
 Weeping wattle tree (mosetlha)
 Lead wood (motswiri)

Exotic trees of Botswana

These are trees originating from outside the country e.g.
Eucalyptus (boloukomo)
Silver oak
Pepper tree
Jacaranda
Pepper tree
Christmas tree
Rubber tree
Tree of heaven

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Tree products found in Botswana

Tree Products Uses
1.Timber and poles Furniture, fencing, poles for electricity, building
2. Wood pulp Paper making
3. Tannin and dyes Dyeing and tanning industries
4. Fuel wood and charcoal Fuels for cooking, warming houses
5. Fibre and fronds Handicraft making
6. Fruits(morula, snot apple, velvet raisin, sour Food for people and animals
plum)
7. Gums and resins Food for people and animals
8. Nectar and pollen from flowers Food for bees
9. Medicinal herbs Treatment for diseases
10. Phane worms Food for people, a source of protein
11. Browse and green fodder Food for livestock
12. Seeds Make necklaces for traditional wear and eaten by birds

IMPORTANCE OF TREES AND TREE PRODUCTS

 they provide timber
 provide shade for animal
 protect soil from erosion by wind and water
 improves soil fertility and assists in nutrient recycling
 provide habitat for various animals e.g. birds
 source of food in the form of fruits and vegetables
 provide browse for livestock and game animals
 provide nectar and pollen for bees and other insects
 source of materials used as medicines or drugs e.g. sengaparile
 source of tannin and dyes
 source of fuel, wood and water cycles
 shade soil, so reduce evaporation of soil moisture

Veld products
These are non-timber products obtained from the animals and plants found in the veld/ field. They are
made available for human or animal consumption or used in any other way except timber.

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Some veld products of Botswana

Name Uses
Gemsbok bean (Morama) Seeds can be roasted and made into morama, butter or their oil also be founded to
powder to make a drink
Kalahari devil’s claw Tubers are dug up, sliced, dried and crushed. Used as medicine for treatment of
(Sengaparile) arthritis, stomach disorders and skin problems
Wild tea (Lengama) Leaves picked, dried, crushed and used as tea. Can be used to treat cold, coughs,
Lemon Bush (mosukujane) asthma, stress, fever and headaches
Pig weed (Thepe) Cooked like spinach for food
Wild okra (Delele)
Tsamma melon (Kgengwe) A source of water, eaten raw or boiled seeds may be roasted

Herero Cucumber A source of water. Eaten row or roasted. Seeds

(Mokapane)
Mophane moth Mophane worms are collected, squeezed, dried and roasted, may be put in brine
solution and tunned.
Pickly pear (motoroko) Fruits eaten fresh
Hereo cucumber(mokapane)
Morula and boabob fruits Fruits eaten by people and animals

Wild silk moth (matlhowa) Use by traditional dancers

Sources of tree seeds

 collection from forests and woodlands
 purchased from shops
 Forestry Association of Botswana

Sources of tree seedlings

 Government forests nurseries (impala) at Francistown
 Commercial private nurseries such as Sanitas, Veld Products Research (V P R)
 brigade nursery ( Serowe farmers brigade, Mochudi brigade, Kweneng Rural Dev Agency)
 Forestry Association of Botswana nursery at Kumakwane
 One-stop Service Centre for Agriculture (OSSCA) nursery at Palapye

Seed Collection process

Seeds collected should be viable, healthy and mature seeds (maturity is the final stage of seed
development of a tree). Seeds can be collected from around the school, near home or in the forest and can
be grown in the garden or homemade nursery.

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METHODS OF SEED COLLECTION

1. Hand picking; ripe seeds are collected by hands. Pick seeds from the top of the trees, the best seeds are
usually found there
2. Shaking the tree; a cloth is spread under the tree and the tree is shaken or hit with a stick. Seeds will
fall to the cloth.
3. Collection of seeds that have fallen to the ground; collect seeds which have fallen to the ground.
Some seeds will become ripe after they have fallen to the ground
4. Cutting off seeds bearing branches; branches that bear cluster of ripe seeds can be cut using pruning
shears or clippers. A sheet can be spread under the tree to collect falling seeds during the cutting process.
N.B
 Do not collect all the seeds from one tree. The seeds from that tree may be of poor quality
 Dry seeds before storage
 Protect seeds from pests and diseases as well as excessive moisture

Reasons for not collecting seeds that have been lying on the ground
 Such seeds might have lost their viability
 Such seeds may be immature and will not germinate
 Seeds may have pests and diseases
 Seeds may be very old and may be unfit for germination

FACTORS THAT INHIBIT GERMINATION OF TREE SEED

1. Lack of moisture - Seeds do not germinate where moisture is low or insufficient for germination.
Water dissolve nutrients within the seed so that the embryo can make use of them.
2. Extreme temperature - If the temperature is too hot or too cold, seeds will not germinate. Most seeds
do not germinate below 100C.
3. Hard seed coat - Some seeds have a hard seed coat that does not allow seedlings to emerge and also
does not allow for water to enter the seed germination/activating the embryo.
4. Pests and diseases - They damage the seed and make it unfit for germination.
5. Immature seeds - Do not germinate
6. Depth of sowing - Seeds that are sown very deep do not emerge

What could be done to improve the germination percentage of seeds?

1. Filing the seed coat / scarification
The seed coat may be removed using a metal file. This method takes a long time however

2. Soaking
Soak seeds in water for 12-24 hours before sowing so as to make their coat soft and also to provide
moisture for activating/embryo enzymes in the embryo for germination

3. Boiling
Very hard seeds are given the boiling treatment. This is done by dipping seeds in boiling water for a short
time and then sowing them

4. Breaking seed dormancy

The dormancy of the seed should be broken before sowing them. It can be broken by hormone
application

5. Mulching
Mulch keeps the soil surface soft and moist

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6. Using Sulphuric acid

Concentrated acid can be used to soften the seed coat

How to calculate percentage germination of seeds

The percentage of seed germination is calculated as follows:-
1. count the amount of seeds to be sown
2. sow seeds in lines and each line should have the same number of seeds
3. observe the amount of seedling that emerged
4. find the difference between the amount of seeds sown and seedlings that emerged
5. Calculate the percentage of seedlings emerged. Say for example, you sow 200seeds and out of 200
seeds sown, only 180 seedlings emerged. In this case the percentage will be:-

180 germinated out of 200 seeds sow

Percentage of germination = number of seedlings emerged x 100
Number of seeds sown

=180 x 100
200
=180
2
=90%

Workout:
1. Taboka planted 60 seeds and only 25 germinated. Calculate the germination percentages of
seeds
2. Lorato planted 300 seeds of mmilo 90% of them germinated. How many seeds germinated?

3. Gorata planted 220 seeds and 120 of them germinated. What is the germination percentage?

WOODLOTS
A woodlot is a place set aside for growing trees.
What is the importance of Woodlots and why should they be managed correctly?
1. protect soil from erosion
2. they help to meet the increasing demand for fuel,, wood and other tree products e.g. poles
3. they help to increase the value of land, that would otherwise be unsuitable for agriculture
4. they make sure that there will always be trees in the future
5. they create employment

How should woodlots be managed?

1. control pests and disease (fungal diseases) by removing and burning desired trees and biological
control
2. Protect woodlots from fire by removing weeds, use of fire breakers and by practicing controlled
burning.

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3. protect woodlots with young trees from animal damage by fencing them
4. harvest only large, older or damaged trees, leave young ones to grow
5. practice thinning of weak trees so that the healthy, best trees are left growing
6. allow livestock to graze in woodlands but only under large trees to reduce growth of vegetation
7. woodlots should be replanted, even after harvesting is done

FORESTRY CONSERVATION
This refers to correct use of forests and their protection against destructions.

What is the importance of forestry conversation?

1. they prevent the spread of deserts and desert like conditions
2. forests help us to preserve plants and animals, and protect them from extinction
3. helps to conserve water and soil
4. forests are also tourist attractions and they also beautify the landscape
5. they provide a home or habitat for animals, birds and in some countries for people

Ways of conserving the forest

1. People should be educated in schools and other forms about the importance of forests
2. Woodlots should be protected from fires by putting fire breakers
3. Woodlots should be established to provide wood for fuel. This will leave forests undisturbed
4. Forests should be protected to prevent people from cutting down trees and anyone harvesting without
permission should be punished. Baobab, Mukwa, Morokuru, Mukuse and Brown Mahogany are
protected by law.
5. Forest areas should be fenced especially if they have young trees to protect them from wind and
domestic animals
6. While young, forest trees should be irrigated (if there is no rain), protected from pests and disease ad
from adverse weather.
7. Clearing of forest should be discouraged. Instead more forestry should be put and create employment
8. Communities should be encouraged to take part in forestry conversation projects

AGRO FORESTRY
This is an agricultural practice where land is made more productive by combining the growing of crops
and forest plants with keeping animals in the same land at the same time.
Agro forestry practices
This is the different ways in which the trees are planted while growing crops and rearing animals.
Examples are;
• silvocultural or silvoarale
This is where crops and trees are grown in the same place. It could be maize alongside trees of
eucalyptus. In this type we benefit from maize as well as eucalyptus products such as poles.
• Silvopastoral
This is where animals are kept in an area where trees are planted. The animals may feed on the trees. This
benefits the animals as well as humans, by producing tree products or even enjoying the shade.

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FORM 3
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Vegetable crops grown in Botswana
Indigenous vegetable crops.
These are vegetables that originate in Botswana, for example;
 Single leafed cleome (Rothwe)
 Pig weed (Thepe)
 Bush Okra (Delele)
 Cow Pea (Morogo wa Dinawa)
 Water lily (Tswii)
 Wild stripped cucumber (Monyaku)

Exotic Vegetable Crops

These are vegetables that originate outside. Botswana for example
-Spinach -cucumber -beans
-Cabbage -cauliflower -kale
-Beetroot -peas -parsnips
-Lettuce -tomatoes -egg plants
-Leeks -onions

Nutritional Value of vegetables

 They are rich in minerals and vitamins which help protect the body against diseases.
 Leafy vegetables and potato skins are good source of fibre which help in digestion and excretion.
 Spinach is a source of iron which is essential for blood formation.
 Eating carrots can help improve one’s eyesight as carrots contain carotene and vitamin A.
 Vegetables such as beetroot, potatoes and legumes are rich in carbohydrates which gives us energy.
 Fleshy fruit vegetables, such as tomatoes contain a lot of water which is needed in the body.
 Vegetables such as garlic and onions increase ones appetite by adding flavour to the food making
food smell good and taste better.

DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION SITUATION IN BOTSWANA

Since most of Batswana recognize the importance of vegetables in their diet, they buy the vegetables at
the market and eat at home. However not all vegetables are readily available on the market. This shows an
imbalance in the supply and demand for vegetables. So the situation shows that the demand for vegetables
is HIGH and the supply for the vegetables is LOW. Therefore we still import vegetables from other
countries as to meet the demand.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR FURTHER VEGETABLE DEVELOPMENT

There are good opportunities in the development of vegetable industry in this country. The large demand
for vegetable means that there are many opportunities for further vegetable development. Instead of
relying on imported vegetables Batswana should use government grants and their own resources to start
vegetable enterprises. Other opportunities include the following
- Marketing
- Processing

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- Distribution of vegetable and vegetable products.

- Waste water from house holds
- Homemade fertilizers

GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES AIMED AT IMPROVING VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

 Providing Financial Assistance: Government provides financial assistance to vegetable producers
through the CEDA programme. People willing to start vegetable production may apply for grants
under this programme.

 Including horticulture in the school curriculum: To increase knowledge and skills in vegetable
production, students are taught how to grow vegetable at an early age. Some of the students may be
interested in starting vegetable production business after leaving school.

 Developing market structures or facilities: Government has built market structures for local
producers and is still planning to build other market structures as to encourage vegetable producers to
produce more without fear with the presence of markets.

 Supply of inputs: Inputs like seeds, seedlings, pesticides and fertilizers can be bought by vegetable
producers at farmer’s centers, veterinary, hardware supply stores and super markets.

 Providing technical support: Agricultural demonstrators have been employed by the government to
help provide technical advice and support to vegetable producers. The demonstrator shows them how
things are done with the production of vegetables.

Requirements for the establishment of a vegetable enterprise

 Enough land with fertile soil
 Permanent source of water for irrigation
 Adequate capital to finance the project
 Correct tools and equipment
 Near to consumption centers or market
 Skilled, experienced and reliable personnel

Factors considered when choosing which vegetable to grow

o Vegetable needs of a family
o Soil type and climatic conditions needed by crop
o Technical knowledge of the crop
o Market demand for vegetables
o Resistance to pests, diseases and drought
o Ease of growing and managing
o Labour requirements
o Value of the crop

METHODS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

1. Open beds or Field Production: This is where vegetables are grown in an open cultivated piece of
land. No individual plots are made instead the whole field where vegetables are to be planted is
cultivated. Vegetable crops are planted in rows and taken care of until harvesting or maturity. Cabbage,
spinach and onions can be produced under this method.

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2. Seedbed/Plot production: Seedbed or plot production is suitable for growing vegetables on a small
scale for example for home use, research or for growing vegetables in the school garden for educational
purposes. With this method, different types of seedbeds are used like flat seedbed, raised seedbed and
sunken seedbed.

3. Concrete bench production: Under this method, several permanent beds with a framework of bricks
or concrete are constructed. The base of the walls is made of concrete. It should have outlet holes that
allow excess water to drain. We then put growth medium in the bench and cultivate our crops. It is good
to use in areas where there are water shortages and where we are to conserve moisture. This production
method is also used in nurseries

4. Greenhouse or tunnel production: Greenhouses are structures with glass or plastic roof and walls that
are usually transparent. This is to allow the sunlight to enter and warm the inside but then prevent the heat
from escaping. Sometimes this house is in the shape of a tunnel. Greenhouses are usually used by
commercial vegetable producers because they are expensive high technology facilities. Vegetables can be
grown here throughout the year because the structures protect the vegetables from heat, cold, strong
winds and pests. Tomatoes for instance, can be sown in green house in winter because they susceptible to
frost.

5. Hydroponics: This method is used where water and soil are limiting factors in the production of
vegetables. Vegetables are grown in a medium such as gravel, sand or sawdust to provide some root
anchorage. Plants nutrients are supplied directly to the roots in the form of a solution.

6. Pots/Containers: With this method pots or containers are filled with medium in production of
vegetables. Support may be provided using stakes or by trellising.

SEEDBEDS/ PLOTS FOR VEGETABLE

1. Raised Plot
They are about 25cm above ground level

Advantages
 -often better soil structure and more plant food for vegetables
 -provide good drainage and aeration
 -encourage better root penetration
 -help to prevent washing away of vegetables during rainstorms

Disadvantages
-poor at conserving rainwater
-it is unsuitable for very dry areas
more work is done to build a heap

2. Sunken Plots
Sunken 10-15cm below path level

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Advantages
 -conserve a great deal for water
 -suitable for dry seasons
 -the seedlings are protected from damage by strong winds.

Disadvantages
 -allows water to stay in one place so are water logged
 -it takes a lot of work and time to prepare
 -soil easily becomes hard and poorly aerated
 -they are suitable for heavy rain areas

This is the type of seedbed suitable for vegetable production in our area as we receive little amount of
rainfall.

3. Flat seedbed
A flat seedbed is level with the ground surface

Advantages
It is easy and less time consuming to prepare than the other types of beds.

Disadvantages
Seedlings can easily be washed away by running water since the beds are level with the ground.

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLE CROPS

Vegetable crops are generally classified according to the part of the plant eaten or used. The common
classes include; leaf, legume, roots, fruit, bulb and flower.

Class Part Used Examples

Leaf Leaves Cabbage, spinach, choumolia, kale and lettuce
Legume Young pods Peas, bush beans and broad beans
Root Root Carrots, beetroot, parsnip, radish, Irish potatoes
Fruit Fruit Tomatoes, eggplants, green pepper, cucumber and pumpkin
Bulb Bulb Onions, garlic, leeks and shallot
Flower Flower bulb Cauliflower and broccoli, Brussels sprout

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Varieties of vegetables under study

1. Spinach/ Swiss chard
- Ford hook Giant
- Lucullus
- Bloomsdale
- Viroflay

SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Soil
Spinach is a heavy feeder and thus it grows well in a fertile, well drained, well aerated and sandy loam
soil. Spinach prefers slightly acidic to neutral soil (with pH range of 6.0-7.0). If soils are acidic lime has
to be added.

Climate
Spinach is a col season crop and grows well in winter and autumn. It can resist frost and prefers
temperature ranging from 10°C to 30°C. It is also a heavy drinker and requires more water as to produce
succulent leaves.

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS OF SPINACH

Basal dressing
Add kraal manure 5-8 kg/m2 or chicken manure 2-3 kg/m2 at least 2 weeks before planting using
broadcasting method
200g/m2 of superphosphate and 80-100g/m2 of NPK are usually used when the soil is too poor

Top dressing
Apply 14g of LAN or 20g of ammonium sulphate per 3m2 three weeks after planting and repeat the
treatment 4-5 weeks. Side dressing or ring method are used as methods of application.

PLANTING AND SPACING (SOWING)

Seeds are sown directly on a nursery or raised or sunken plots. Inter row spacing is 40 - 60cm and Intra
row spacing is 15 - 25cm. The depth of planting is 1 - 2cm

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF SPINACH

Mulching
It should be done immediately after planting using dry grass. It helps smoothen weeds and also protects
loss of moisture from the soil encouraging germination.
Watering
Water plants regularly and sufficiently
Thinning
It should be started 2-3weeks after seedling emergence to allow seedling enough space to grow.
Weeding
Weeds should be removed at all times whenever they are observed.
Cultivation
Regular cultivation of soil is essential before and after planting.
Shading
Provision of net shade to young seedlings is very essential looking at our climatic conditions.
Fertilizer application
Most of the vegetables are heavy feeders and they need to be provided nutrients at all times when needed.
Pest and disease control
Regular inspection of vegetables for attack by pests and diseases is important. When attack is observed
measures should be taken to control them without delay

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PESTS AFFECTING SPINACH

-Aphids - red spider mites
-Cutworms - Thrips
-Birds - root knot eelworms
-Cabbage moth
- Leaf miners - American bollworms

DESCRIPTION OF PESTS AFFECTING VEGETABLES

Aphids
These are soft bodied slow moving insects of varying colours such as black, green yellow, grey and
brown depending on the species. They have sucking mouth parts and are found on the underside of
leaves.
Cutworms
The cutworm gets its name from its feeding habit. It is a greyish and hairless caterpillar produced by a
moth. A common behavior of the cutworm is that it curls into a ring or into a letter C shape when
disturbed or touched. Cutworms hide under the soil close to the surface during the day.
Thrips
These are yellow to brown insects which are 10cm long.

DAMAGE CAUSED BY PESTS ON SPINACH (APHID, CUTWORMS, DIAMOND BACK

MOTH)
 They suck plant cell or juices while on the underside of the leaves.
 They chew the leaves until only a thin layer of the leave remains
 Saliva injected on the leaves while feeding may spread diseases
 Large number of aphids feeding on the leaves cause curling of the leaves.

METHODS OF CONTROLLING PESTS

 Sanitation methods and crop rotation can be adhered.
 Use of insecticides such as Malathion and Dimethoate can be used to kill pests
 Highly infected plants should be removed and destroyed
 Regular weeding should be carried out so that pests do not hide in weeds.

DISEASES OF SPINACH
-Leaf curl - Spinach blight
-Leaf spot - Downey mildew
- Damping off - Anthracnose

SIGNS OF MATURITY IN SPINACH

Spinach will reach maturity within 7 - 9 weeks after direct planting. The leaves are well developed,
tender, and fresh and have dark green color. The leaf tissues or cells will still be soft instead of woody.

HARVESTING AND PROCESSING OF SPINACH

Leaf pickling starts about 2 months after planting and continues for 3 - 10months. Cut off leaves with a
sharp knife just above the ground. Only a few mature leaves are harvested at a time allowing the young
ones to remain and grow well. Leaves should be picked early morning as this will ensure they are crisp.

Spinach is not usually processed as it is sold fresh.

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MARKETING OF SPINACH
After spinach has been harvested, damaged and diseased leaves should be separated from those that are
fresh, tender and of good quality. Good quality leaves can now be washed with clean water to remove
dirt. The selected healthy leaves are tied in bundles or wrapped in plastic bags before they are sold.
Spinach can also be chopped in smaller pieces and put in plastic bags in preparation for sale. Spinach
need to be transported to the market soon be its very sensitive to temperature change. It can be sold
directly to individuals, supermarkets, wholesalers and Botswana Horticulture Market.

STORAGE AND PRESERVATION OF SPINACH

Like most leafy vegetables spinach is very perishable and has a short storage period. To avoid wilting,
spinach is stored in cool place. If there are no refrigerators, spinach leaves can be placed upright in
containers with water as the leaves will keep on absorbing water and remain in good condition. Wrapping
the leaves in plastic will also preserve moisture in the leaves for some time.

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REPRODUCTION AND BREEDING IN CATTLE

WHAT IS REPRODUCTION?
It is a process which involves the fusion / uniting of male and female gametes to give birth to a young
animal.
Male gamete: sperm
Female gamete: ovum

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A COW (female)

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS LABELLED

1. OVARY
A cow has two ovaries; each one produce female eggs or ova (singular- ovum). They also produce
chemical substances known as hormones. Hormones control pregnancy and the sexual cycle in female
animals.
2. INFUNDIBULUM / FUNNEL
This structure receives the released ova from one ovary during each cycle and guides it to the fallopian
tube/ oviduct.
3. THE FALLOPIAN TUBE / OVIDUCT
Guides the ova to the uterus. If sperms have been introduced into the female reproductive tract, this is
where fertilization will take place.
4. THE UTERUS
This is where the embryo that has formed during fertilization attaches and develops. In the uterus, the
embryo is nourished and protected.
5. THE CERVIX
This is a ring of thick muscles that opens into the uterus. During pregnancy, these muscles remain tightly
closed and act as a protective seal that stops the developing embryo from being expelled from the uterus
before the end of the pregnancy. It also prevents pathogens from entering the uterus.
6. THE VAGINA
This is where sperms are deposited during mating. It is also where urine from the bladder comes through
when going out of the animal’s body. The vagina is also the passage through which a fully developed
foetus passes out during birth.

7. THE VULVA
This is the opening to the vagina. It facilitates mating and serves as an exit through which foetus and urine
are expelled. It is seen outside the animal’s body underneath the tail.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A BULL (male)

FUNCTIONS OF LABELLED PARTS

1. THE SCROTUM
This is a bag like structure that contains the two testes and hangs between the hind legs of the animal. It
regulates the temperature so that sperms do not die.
2 THE TESTIS
There are two testes which hang outside the body, one on each either side of the penis. They produce the
male sex cells or sperms and the male sex hormone called TESTOSTERONE.
3. THE EPIDIDYMIS
This is long coiled tube surrounding part of each testis. It is the structure in which sperms are stored until
they are needed during mating.
4. THE VAS DEFERENS / SPERM DUCT
Each testis has a vas deferens or sperm duct, which is a continuation of the epididymis. The sperm-duct
carries the sperms from the epididymis to the urethra.
5. THE SEMINAL VESICLE, PROSTATE GLAND AND COWPER”S GLAND
These are the glands which open into the urethra. They produce sticky fluid in which sperms will swim.
This fluid, together with sperms is called SEMEN. Semen is passed into the female via the urethra.
Semen also neutralizes any urine remaining in the urethra. This is important because urine is toxic
(poisonous) to sperms
6. THE URETHRA
This is a long tube running through the centre of the penis. It passes the semen into the female vagina. It
also carries urine from the bladder to the penis.
7. THE PENIS
This is the organ used during mating and it deposits the semen into the female vagina. The penis also
discharges urine from the bladder.
8. THE SHEATH
It skin that covers and protects the penis
PUBERTY
It is the stage of sexual maturity in both males and females.
Age and weight for reaching puberty by cattle
Female animals (heifers) reach puberty between 9 – 18 months, and males around 8 months.
Although female animals reach puberty at this time, they may not have reached a sufficient body mass to
reproduce. Therefore, they should not be bred or mated at the beginning of puberty, but rather when they
reach a body mass of 200 – 260 kg. This is when they are about 2 ½ years old.

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PUBERTY PUBERTY PUBERTY

It is the stage of sexual It is the stage of sexual maturity in It is the stage of sexual maturity in
maturity in both males both males and females. both males and females.
and females.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PUBERTY

Age
Weight
Breed of animal
Health condition
Type of feed/level of feeding
Exposure to animals of opposite sex
Climatic conditions/environmental factors
PROCESS OF REPRODUCTION IN CATTLE
This is the process by which animals produce young. In animals the process is sexual. It requires two (2)
animals; the bull and the cow to mate.

 It involves production of gametes (sex cells) by mature cow and a bull

 Mating introduce male sex cell (sperm) into the female’s reproductive tract for fertilisation to take
place.
 Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes (ovum) producing a zygote. The sex cells
contain genes which give an animal its characteristics. In this way characteristics are passed from
one generation to the next.
 After fertilization, the Zygote gets implanted through the placenta inside the cow’s uterus and
develop into a foetus.
 And then the end of gestation period (pregnancy) the cow gives birth to a young animal
(parturition).

THE HEAT CYCLE IN COWS

It is the interval between one heat period and another. Female animals come on heat every 21 days,
around the same time as ovulation. During this period, a series of changes occur in a cow’s body under
the control of hormones.
It is marked by;
 Development of ova
 Heat period
 Ovulation
 Preparation of the uterus to receive zygote.
 Preparation of vagina for mating
 Mating

If mating results in fertilization, the cycle stops. Otherwise it repeats every 21 days.

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HEAT (OESTRUS)
This is the time of sexual receptivity in female cattle, when a female will allow a male to mate with her.
This is controlled by the hormone Oestrogen.

Heat period lasts for about 15 - 18hours on average. During this period the egg/ovum is released from the
ovaries of a cow to the oviduct (ovulation) where fertilisation will take place.
NB Male animals can mate at any time once they have reached puberty, but females can only accept a
male when they are on heat.

SIGNS OF HEAT / OESTRUS IN A COW

- Allows a bull to mount her without running away (best sign of heat).
- Mounting of other cows from the front and allow others females to mount her .
- Cow urinates more frequently.
- Cow is restless, excitable and bellows.
- Cow may stand when others are lying down
- There is a slight rise in body temperature
- The cow has a swollen, reddish and moist vulva
- Clear mucus running out of the vulva onto the tail and buttocks
- Milk production goes down in lactating animals

OVULATION
The release of one or more ova from the ovaries into the oviduct. It occurs 12 – 15 hours after the end of
oestrus in cows. It is controlled by the production of special hormones in the cow. After the egg has been
released from the ovary, it travels through the oviduct to the uterus. If the egg meets the sperm in the
oviduct, they will join to form a zygote. The zygote will then move into the uterus where it will develop
into an embryo and then foetus

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FERTLISATION
A process whereby the sperm fuses / unites with an ovum to form a zygote. It occurs in the fallopian tube
/ oviduct. The fertilised egg is transported into the uterus where it will attach itself to the uterine walls,
develop into a fully mature calf until it is born

GESTATION PERIOD
It is the period from fertilization (conception) to parturition (giving birth). Period where the cow is
pregnant. The gestation period in cattle varies from 275 to 290 days, averaging 283 days. About 9 ½
months.

CARE GIVEN TO A PREGNANT COW

 Provide nutritional feed – to support its own body needs and those of the developing foetus. Good
grazing and concentrates are required. Feed is used for maintenance, growth and protection from
diseases by both cow and the foetus. Provide correct and adequate nutrition particularly in the last 2 –
3 months of pregnancy. This is known as STEAMING UP. But, avoid over feeding.
 Protect against parasites and diseases – diseases and parasites make an animal to lose weight and
body condition. This will make difficult for a pregnant cow to carry foetus till calving.
 Provide exercise – provision of good pasture is important as it exercises the pregnant cow by
walking on the pasture. It helps her to maintain her blood circulation and constant weight.
 Provide water – clean water should always be available nearby at all times.
 Remove stress – pregnant cow should not be chased, should be provided with shade or shelter to be
protected from harsh weather conditions.
 Ensure regular check up by a Veterinary practitioner.

The following is done FEW DAYS before parturition;

 Reduce the amount of concentrate feed to avoid difficulties when calving
 They should be given wet bran to avoid constipation
 Separate pregnant animals from others so as to give them more attention
 They should be closely monitored for the signs of calving so as to provide help in case of caving
problems.

PARTURITION
It is the process of giving birth / calving by a pregnant animal.
SIGNS OF PARTURITION
Stages involve;
1. Preparatory stage
 The cow tends to keep away from others and go to hidden places.
 The cow moves around, lies down and gets up more often
 The cow may urinate more often than usual
 It stops eating due to restlessness and discomfort
 development of hollows around her tail due to relaxation of her pelvic muscles
 The vulva become swollen, large and releases some mucus
 Teats and udder become larger, tight and swollen
 Some milk may drip or leak from the teats
 Opening of her cervix and the uterus begins to contract
 The amniotic sack breaks, releasing the amniotic fluid when the cow starts calving

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2. Actual birth; contractions of the uterus continue. The contractions push the calf up into the pelvis and
continue until the calf is born. Calves are normally born with the forelegs extended with the head between
them, then the chest, body and extended hind legs.

3. Passing of foetal membranes and placenta; The foetal membranes and placenta are also known as the
AFTER BIRTH. The after birth is expelled within 12hours after calving. If the after birth is retained for
longer than 48hours, it is abnormal and the farmer should get help from the veterinary officer.
Immediately after birth, the cow licks its calf to dry and remove the mucus on its body.
DYSTOKIA
Means when a cow is having difficulty in giving birth or prolonged parturition. It is at this time that the
cow will need assistant from the Veterinary Assistant. If she is not provided with help, both the cow and
the calf may die, be infured or disabled.
CAUSES OF DYSTOKIA
1. Abnormal presentation of the foetus: Sometimes calves may present themselves with the hind legs
first or with buttocks first.

Abnormal positions of the calf for delivery

2. Large calf birth weight: This is the main cause of dystocia. If the birth canal is too small and the calf
is large, it will cause dystocia.

3. Weakness of mother cow: If the cow is in poor body condition due to poor nutrition, attack by
parasites or diseases during pregnancy, it may lack the energy to push out the foetus at parturition.

4. Inability of the uterus to contract enough or sufficiently

5. Too much fat around the pelvic area
6. Calf defect or disabilities

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CONTROL OF DYSTOCIA

 Cull heifers with small or narrow pelvic area.

 Get rid of cows that had dystocia previously since they are likely to have the same problems in the
next parturition
 Provide pregnant cows with enough balance ration so that they are in good condition at the time of
giving birth. They should not be over fed to avoid too much fat.
 Make sure that heifers are not mated by very big bulls because their offspring will have big weight at
birth
 Provide enough exercise so that the animals are fit at parturition especially those under Zero Grazing.
 Allow heifers to develop before they are mated to allow physical body development
 Have your animals checked regularly by veterinarians
 Protect animals from parasites because they transmit diseases that weakens the cow’s body condition

LIVESTOCK BREEDING AND IMPROVEMENT

BREEDING: It is the process of mating selected males and females for the production of offspring(s).
The main aim of breeding: - Produce and increase animals with qualities or characteristics wanted by the
farmer.
- Get rid of animals with undesirable or unwanted characteristics
- Improve quality and quantity of animal products (meat and milk)

SELECTION
It is about choosing animals with desirable characteristics to be future parents of an offspring.
When male (sire) and female (dam) with desirable traits are mated or bred, they may pass these desirable
characteristics to their offspring.

FACTORS ON WHICH SELECTION IS BASED

- Age of the animal
- Body conformation and presence of physical deformities
- Growth and fertility rate
- Resistance to diseases and drought (temperament)
- Heritability of traits
Heritability is the rate at which a trait can be passed from one generation to another.

Desired characteristics in cattle when selecting

Desired characteristics in a bull Desired characteristics in cow
 The mother should be a high milk  Fertile cow
producer  Regular breeding and giving birth live
 be fertile calves
 mature quickly  A good milk producer
 Body conformation (shape) of the bull  Good body formation
 Be free from any deformity or lameness  Be docile and easy to handle

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METHODDS OF BREEDING
1. CROSS-BREEDING
This is mating of animals of different breeds. E.g. (tswana X brahman), (simmemtal X tuli)
Advantages Disadvantages
 The offspring that results from crossbreeding inherits a  Crossbreeding requires knowledge of the breeds that
combination of traits from both parents. one intends to breed
 Produce Hybrid Vigor in offsprings. Hybrid Vigor is the  Not all characteristics will shown on the offspring as
improved performance of cross bred offspring above expected by the farmer
their parental average  Exotic or Improved bull that are needed for
 Crossbreeding may create new breeds and introduce crossbreeding are expensive and sometimes difficult to
variations in a herd of animals. obtain.
 Results in improvement of low heritable traits in a herd  Requires keeping different breeds of bulls hence
 Results in increased production in regard to fertility, expensive
growth rate and food conversion ratio  Hybrids do not bree true to type
 Results in establishment of new breeds that are more
productive and easy to manage.

2. INBREEDING
It is the mating of the closely related animals e.g. mating brother and sister, brother and mother, daughter
and father.

Advantages disadvantages
 inbreeding makes it possible to develop purebred animals  Inbreeding may result in undesirable
 Inbreeding can produce animals with specific, desirable characteristics in the offsprings
characteristics that were inherited from and can be retained within a  Inbreeding can bring about weakness
family. within the herd
 Desirable characteristics may be more prominent in offspring than in  Inbreeding requires skill careful
the parents who were mated observation and the vigilant keeping of
 Inbreeding can help you figure out where undesirable characteristics breeding records
came from.

3. UPGRADING
It is the continuous mating of inferior cows or heifers with high quality (superior) bulls of a particular
breed so that eventually the calves born have the same features as those of the bulls used.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Upgraded offsprings are adapted to the conditions under which  For the programme to continue there must
they are raised be a heifer in every generation
 Cheaper to upgrade poor quality animals than to buy high quality  The heifer can only be mated once she has
ones reached breeding age, so this method takes a
 Relatively economical as only bulls from other breeds or even AI long time
can be used for upgrading.  Buying and maintaining pure bred bulls can
 Upgraded animals, hygrade, retain some proportion of their good be expensive
traits.  Upgrading requires special management and
 It can easily be done through Artificial Insemination skill to attain the results you are looking for.
 Produces hybrid vigor in the upgraded animals.  Usually it is difficult to get good quality
 There is no danger of developing unwanted offspring since traits bulls in rural areas
of the offspring are known even before birth

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In Botswana, a Tuli bull can be crossed with a Tswana cow for several generations. This would result in an
almost pure Tuli. The Tuli bull could be used as shown below:
In the first generation cross
A Tuli bull is mated with Tswana cow. The calf produced fro this mating will be 50% Tuli and 50% Tswana.
The characteristics of the Tswana breed can still be clearly seen at this stage
In the second generation cross
If the calf produced in the F1 is a heifer, it is mated to another Tuli bull when it old enough to breed. The
calf from this cross will be 75% Tuli and 25% Tswana.

In the third generation cross

If the calf is also a heifer, it is mated again to a Tuli bull resulting in an animal that is 87.5% Tuli and 12.5%
Tswana.
In the fourth generation cross
The heifer is mated to a Tuli bull resulting in an animal that is 93.75% Tuli and 6.25% Tswana. The
offspring in this fourth generation cross will be very much like a pure Tuli in appearance and will have the
characteristics of this breed. Thus, it will be very difficult to see any of the features of Tswana animal at
this stage.

OTHER WAYS OF ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT

- Better feeding and management.
- Embryo Transfer; that involves extraction of embryo from the reproductive tract (oviduct) of the donor
animal and then implantation into the reproductive tract (oviduct) of the recipient animal.
- Gene Transfer; involves injection of a gene from one species to another.
Methods of controlling breeding
 Castration - this is when the blood vessels and sperm ducts leading to the testicles are cut or
destroyed so that blood supply to the testicles is lost. Therefore an animal will no more mate with
cows
 Bull Separation – separation of bulls from cows and only selected ones will be brought for
mating if cows are on heat.
 Culling – this getting rid of unwanted bulls
 artificial insemination – one can decide which cows to inseminate with the semen from which
breed

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MATING (insemination)
It is the act of depositing semen in the appropriate part of the female reproductive tract. This can be done
by natural and artificial means.
1. NATURAL INSEMINATION
The introduction of semen into the reproductive tract of a cow by a bull
A bull can tell that a cow is on heat by smelling her. Once a bull has detected a female on heat, blood rushes
to the penis and causes it to become stiff, or erect. The male then climbs on the female, introduces the penis
into the vagina through the vulva and ejaculates millions of sperms.
Advantages of natural insemination
- More accurate as males are the best detectors of females on heat.
- Useful when oestrus in female is difficult to detect.
- Eliminates the need to check for heat signs in species where males are put to females during certain
periods.
- There are very few injuries to the cow or bull during natural mating.
Disadvantages of natural insemination
- Sexual diseases or parasites can easily be transmitted from one animal to another.
- Expensive to buy and maintain bulls.
- Large bulls can injure small cows
- Waste a lot of semen since semen in one ejaculation can serve several cows.
- Difficult to transport a bull to remote areas to serve cows
- The bull may become sick and die
- The farmer is not always sure of the exact date when a cow was mated and cannot prepare accurately for
the birth of the calf.
2. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
It means deposition of semen in the uterus or cervix of a cow by hand using an inseminating
syringe/cathereter or special pippete. The cow should be on heat before introducing the semen.
Advantages of AI
- Controls or eliminates the transmission of sexual or breeding diseases
- Semen from one good bull can be used to inseminate many cows.
- Allows for more rapid genetic improvement as any farmer can have access to semen from top quality
bulls.
- Semen of a bull that has either died or is injured or is old and cannot mate naturally can be used.
- Frozen semen is readily available and can be stored indefinitely.
- Artificial Insemination is cheaper than keeping a bull that needs to be fed and managed.
- It is also cheaper to import the semen of a bull from another country that importing the bull itself.
- Easy to control breeding.
- Avoid large bulls injuring small cows.

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Disadvantages of AI
- Needs for accurate detection of oestrus in cows to allow insemination at the optimum time.
- Not so successful on females that have silent heat periods or whose heat periods cannot be forecast.
- Requires trained and experienced inseminators to carry it out successfully.
- Storage facilities for the semen are expensive and may not be readily available.
- Harmful traits can be spread quickly by a bull to offspring of the many cows the bull serves.
- In Botswana, farmers who are not trained in artificial insemination techniques have to transport their cattle
to and from the artificial insemination centers.
SEMEN COLLECTION FROM THE BULL
Semen is usually collected by electro-ejaculation(electrical stimulation) method and artificial vagina
method

 Electro-ejaculation method – this method is practised when a bull refuses or is unable to mount a
cow. A probe or electrode is inserted in the bull’s rectum to excite it. The increase of voltage
stimulates reproductive system of a bull which leads to the erection of penis and therefore the release
of semen.

 Artificial vagina method – this artificaila vagina (AV) is designed such that the bull will not feel any
difference between it and the cow during mating. It is a firm tube lined with thin rubber layers. Before
use, warm water at temperature about 42-48˚C is placed between the rubber layers while the inside
lining of the tube is lubricated. The rubber layers stretch just like the wall of the cow’s vagina thus
provide the normal sensation the bull experiences when mating with a cow.

Procedure
A bull is allowed to mount a dummy or teaser cow. Its penis is gently grabbed and directed into an artificial
vagina which stimulates ejaculation. Ejaculation can also be stimulated by an electro-ejaculator. Once the
semen has been ejaculated it is collected in a glass collection tube.
SEMEN STORAGE CONDITIONS

 Equipment and material – proper equipment is needed to safely store semen like ice packs or tubes,
insulated containers, thermometers, refrigerators, straws etc.
 Temperature – appropriate storage temperature is vital. Semen must be kept by freezing in liquid
nitrogen at -196˚C if is for many years but if is stored to be used within a week, temperature should
be about 5˚C.
Changes in temperature can damage sperm cells.
 Handling – before storage, semen should be diluted with egg yolk or nutritious solutions to increase
the number of cows to be inseminated with one ejaculation
 Hygiene – semen should be kept in germ free condition to avoid contamination and damage of sperm
cells.

 Storage rooms – they should be easy to clean and disinfect, with adequate storage space as well as
easy to control temperature.

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SEMEN DILUTION AND STORAGE

Requirements;
* Microscope
* Nutrient solution
* Buffer solution
* Antibiotics
* Dimethyl- sulphoxide
* Disposable straws
* Liquid nitrogen and its container.

Procedure
After collection, semen is examined microscopically to detect abnormalities in the semen and determine its
sperm count. It is then diluted using a mixture of the following.
- Nutrient solution that contains nutrients for the sperms
- Antibiotics to prevent bacterial action
- Buffer solution containing salts to maintain desirable shape and osmotic pressure.
- Dimethyl sulphoxide to prevent cellular damage during thawing.

Diluted semen is packed into disposable straws and placed in canisters within a storage cylinder containing
liquid nitrogen. Diluted semen will be stored by freezing in liquid nitrogen at -196°C

PERIODS DURING WHICH COWS ARE ARTIFICIALLY INSEMINATED IN BOTSWANA

Cows that are accepted at artificial insemination camps should have given birth at least once. They should
not be pregnant. The veterinary officers test cows for pregnancy in September of each year.
Cows which are not pregnant are sent to artificial insemination centers in September. At the camp, they are
provided with better feed and are protected from parasites and diseases.
 The best time to inseminate cows is when they are in good health condition.
 In summer (during the rainy season) when there is a lot of pasture and in autumn.
 From January to March therefore cows will calf from September to December when the pastures
have improved and calves are unlikely to die from cold winter. During these months, grazing is at
its best so breeding animals are in good health and condition for mating, thus increase the chances
of conception.

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A.I. CAMPS IN BOTSWANA

- Morupule - Goodhope - Nokaneng West
- Sefophe - Tsatsu - Sunny side
- Dibete - Ramoalosi - Ncojane
- Kgaenyane - Makoba
- Makalamabedi - Tshubokwane - Metsimantsho -
Sekgwasentsho

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GOAT PRODUCTION

Breeds of goats kept in Botswana

 Tswana
 Boer
 Saanen
 Angora
 British alpine
 Toggenburg

Breed Products Characteristics

Boer Meat  Exotic breed from South Africa.
 White body with dark brown head
 High fertility rate (twins and triplets are common)
 Good mothering ability
 Adults weigh between 55-65 kg.
 Respond well to concentrate feeding.
Angora Mohair  Exotic breed originating from Turkey
 Commonly found in Lesotho
 Body covered with long shiny and wavy hair called mohair
 Can produce 2 to 3 kg of hair per year.
 Fairly adapted to our local conditions
 Has low fertility rate
 Has heavy and droopy ears and spiral horns which point backward away from the
head
Toggenburg Milk  Exotic breed from Switzerland
 Brown body with two stripes down its face and white legs, ears and tail
 May naturally be horned or polled
 Needs good management to be productive
 Adults weigh between 50 to 65kg
Saanen Milk  Exotic breed from Switzerland
 Completely white or cream body
 Does are usually polled and bucks horned
 Does have well developed udders which yield 1-3 litres of milk
 Has good temperament and thus easier to handle
 Ears erect and pointing forward
 Good growth and fertility rate
 Adults weigh between 65 -75kg
Tswana Milk, Meat  Indigenous to Botswana
 Body colour varies and can be white, black, brown or combination
 Adapted to local conditions can withstand harsh weather condition such as drought
and high temperature
 Adults weigh between 30 to 45kg
 Males have beard
British alpine Milk  Exotic breed from the Britain
 Has a shiny black body with white or creamy markings on the face, ears, legs and
under the tail.

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OTHER BREEDS OF GOATS

- Anglo Nubian
- Kalahari red

CLASSIFYING GOATS ACCORDING TO THEIR USES

CLASS OF BREED BREED PURPOSE
Tswana Meat
Meat Boer
Saanen
Milk Toggenburg Milk
British alpine
Fibre Angora Mohair
Dual purpose Tswana Meat and milk

Goat breeds differ in the following characteristics;

 Place of origin
 Colour of hair
 Size
 Presence or absence of horns
Importance of housing in goat management
 Protects goats from adverse weather conditions e.g. intense heat, cold, heavy rain and strong winds.
 Protects goats from predators such as lions, jackals and hyenas and thieves
 Facilitates general management of goats e.g. vaccination, hoof trimming, dosing, ear marking and
easy to observe goats for diseases and parasites.
 Manure production; a good amount of quality kraal manure can be collected from goat houses.
 Used to separate sick animals with infectious diseases from the healthy ones so as to prevent the
spread of the disease.
 Prevents goats from going astray
 Housed goats do not cause damage in crop fields

Importance of feeding goats

 To maintain goats in strong and healthy conditions at all times
 To increase fertility, hence rate of conception in breeding stock.
 To maintain high milk production in lactating goats.
 To allow for rapid growth of foetus.
 Produces fast growth rate
 Reduces mortality among young ones
 Improves resistance to diseases and parasites

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Types of feeds for goats

Adult goats
1. Roughage
Browsing and grazing from natural pastures e.g. hay, silage, lucerne, crop residues etc.
2. Concentrates
Usually fed to lactating goats e.g. carcass meal, wheat bran, sorghum bran.
3. Supplementary feeds
 bone meal and salt
 mineral licks
The feeds should provide energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins for;
 growth
 development
 maintenance
 production
 protection from diseases

Feeding kids
Kids must be allowed to suckle colostrum from their mothers. In milk production, kids must suckle
colostrum for five (5) to seven(7) days. Kids may be fed on cows’ milk after this period. This can be done
using a bottle or kids are taught to drink from pans. Kids should be introduced to grass or pasture or
concentrates at three weeks of age. At three months kids must be weaned. For meat goats, kids must be
allowed to run with their mothers until they are weaned.
Watering
Goats require about five litres of quality water per day. Goats pick up most of their internal parasites by
drinking from rivers, dams and grazing in wetlands. To control possible infestations, goats must be kept
away from such areas and only allowed to drink clean water from troughs.
IMPORTANCE OF PROVIDING WATER REGULARLY TO GOATS
 Forms and maintains shapes of body cells.
 A medium for chemical reactions in the body
 Regulates body temperature
 Aids in the excretion of waste products
 Forms 60-70% of the animal’s body
 Forms part of the cell body fluids
 Essential for the proper digestion of food
 For high milk production in lactating does
 Prevents death due dehydration

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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Some of them are castration, identification, hoof trimming, deworming and vaccination.
1. Castration
It is the removal or destruction of testes to prevent a male animal from breeding.
Reasons for castration
 To control unwanted breeding
 It makes male animals docile
 Improve meat quality as unpleasant smell is eliminated
 To avoid fighting in the herd
 To help bucks to grow fast
Methods of castration
a) Using a burdizzo
It is a bloodless method in which a burdizzo is used to crush the spermatic cords, one at a time.

HOW IT IS DONE:
 Restrain the goat
 Hold the testicles in the scrotum and clamp an open burdizzo midway around the spermatic cords
one at a time.
 Close the burdizzo by squeezing it tightly around the spermatic cord until they are crushed
 Open the burdizzo jaws when the spermatic cords have been crushed and take it off.

b) Using a rubber ring (elastrator)

This method is suitable for a buck that is less than 4 months old.
HOW IT IS DONE
 Restrain the goat
 Place the rubber ring on a n applicator that helps to fit it around the
scrotum
 Hold the testicles in the scrotal sac and place the applicator with the ring
around the scrotum above the testicles.
 Release the rubber ring above the testicles (It will squeeze the spermatic cords and blood vessels
supplying the testes so tightly that the there will be no blood flow to the testicles)
 Let the goat go away with the rubber ring around the scrotum above the testicle.
 After a few weeks, the testicles will die off.

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c) Using a scalpel/knife
Using a knife / scalpel is a surgical method of castration. This causes a lot of
bleeding and flies will be attracted to the wound. This method is very painful
and dangerous for the young animals. It is carried out when kids are 2-3 days
old.
HOW IT IS DONE:
 Restrain the goat
 Hold one of the testicles and press it against the scrotum
 Using a knife, cut an opening at the bottom of the scrotum (slit is cut
on the lower third of the scrotum)
 Squeeze the testicles out of the cut.
 Cut the cords attached to the testicles so as to remove it out of the scrotum.
 Do the same for the other testicles
 After removing the testicles, mop off the blood and apply antiseptic to avoid infection.

2. Deworming
It is treating animals with drugs (anthelmentics) that will kill internal parasites. It is usually done by oral
administration, which means the animal has to swallow the drug. The drugs are usually in liquid form and
are given using a dosing gun which places the liquid drug down the animal’s throat. Deworming drugs
include anthelmentics such as Benzaldehyde (piperazine), copper sulphate, Lintex, Ripercol and Tramisol.
These kill internal parasites such as roundworms, tapeworms and liver fluke. Animals infected with internal
parasites often eat more than normal but cannot put on weight, and they can easily catch diseases. This is
because the parasites are feeding on the host (goat), therefore deworming needs to done to allow goats to
grow fast and gain weight.
Reasons for deworming
 Ensure maximum production of good quality products
 Ensure animals grow well, faster and attain maturity quickly.
 Prevent spread of worms to other animals or people.
 Improve resistance of goats to
diseases.
Tools used for deworming
 Dosing gun or drenching gun
Deworming procedure
A goat is backed in a corner, head held up and drug is placed at the back of the throat using a dosing gun.
 Restrain the animal
 Fill the dosing gun with the drug
 Put your hand under the jaw of the animal and insert the gun into the corner of the animals mouth.
 Squeeze the gun and deliver the medicine over the animals tongue at the back of the mouth.
 Remove the gun from the mouth when the animal has swallowed all the medicine
3. Hoof trimming
It is re-shaping or reducing the size of elongated or overgrown hooves of animals.

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Reasons for hoof trimming

 To allow goats to walk without difficulties
 Control the disease foot rot
 Prevent buildup of dirt and parasites between hooves
 Prevent lameness and stress in goats.

Tools used in hoof trimming

 hoof trimmer
 knife
 rasp

Procedure of hoof trimming

Restrain a goat, clean the hooves and cut overgrown parts of hooves with great care to avoid cutting into
live tissue and causing bleeding. After trimming, the hooves are washed in a disinfectant.
 Restrain the animal
 Remove any dirt, manure, stones, or any material from the hooves.
 Lift the foot to be trimmed and assess the condition of the hoove
 Using a knife or hoof cutter, cut any excess growth from the walls of the foot, the toe, the heel and
the sole
 Continue cutting or trimming excess growth until the hoof is flat or of the right size and shape.

VACCINATION
It is the administration of vaccines (antibodies) in the body so as to produce immunity against certain
diseases.
Reasons for vaccinating goats
 To help protect animals from getting the diseases for which they are vaccinated against
 Vaccination can be done as a cost effective method of preventing the spread of infectious diseases.
 To keep animals healthy and productive by providing immunity for certain period of times.

HOW VACCINATION IS DONE

 Retrain the animal
 Draw into the syringe the amount of vaccine you want to inject into the animal
 Hold the syringe firmly and insert the needle under the fold of skin. Push the plunger to release the
vaccine until the syringe is empty
 Pull the syringe with the needle out of the fold of skin and put these away.
 Massage the injected area for the vaccine to be absorbed.

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4. Identification
It means giving each goat a mark or number to distinguish it from all the other goats.
Types of identification
 Ear tags
 Ear notches
Reasons for identification
 To facilitate record keeping
 Prevent theft of stock
 Facilitate sorting out of animals
Tools used
 Ear tag applicator
 Ear notcher

Ear tagging
a) Metal tags
These must be non-corrosive and be easy to apply. They should be applied to the centre of the ear with the
number on the outside.
b) Plastic tags
These are often larger than metal tags as a result they can be read from a distance.
Ear tagging procedure
A small numbered strip of metal or plastic (ear tag) is attached to the ear of every kid using an ear tag
applicator.
 Identify the animals to be tagged.
 Decide which ear to be tagged
 Position the ear tagger on the area of the ear to be tagged.
 Squeeze the ear-tagger firmly so as to clamp.
 Release the ear-tagger and check if the tag has been properly clamped to the ear.
Ear notching procedure
It is a method of goat identification in which a particular cut is made on the ears of the goat. Small pieces
of an ear are clipped on using an ear notcher.
An ear notch is a hollow cut or slit made at the edge or on the surface of the ear of an animal.
Ear – notching is when making a cut or slit in the animal’s ear for the purpose if identification.
A sharp knife, clippers, pliers or punching tools can be used.
PROCEDURE
 Get the tool that you want to use for notching.
 Restrain the animal with the help of an assistant
 Make the notch of the shape you want on the ear of the animal.
_ if it is a cut or slit at the edge of the ear, a sharp knife would.

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_If a hole is to be made on the ear, a special punching tool should be used.
PARASITES OF GOATS
A parasite is an organism that depends on other organisms for food, its host (goat). There are two types of
parasite; internal and external parasites.
a) Internal parasites
There are parasites found inside the body of animals, especially in the intestines. They survive by absorbing
food swallowed by the animal or sucking blood from the walls of the intestine. Common examples are;
 Roundworms
 Tapeworms
 Liver flukes
Liver flukes
They are flat and live in the liver of their host. The flukes have both male and female sexual organs within
them, they are hermaphrodite. They suck blood from the liver of the goat, damaging the liver and eventually
killing the host.
The life cycle of a liver fluke
The stages are;
 Eggs of the liver fluke live in grass for a few months and then hatch into larvae.
 After about two weeks the larvae invade the bodies of water snails.
 Eventually the larvae leave the water snails, and move up the stems of grass
 The larvae attach themselves to the grass stems and enter a resting stage as cysts.
 Goats feed on the grass with cysts, and the cysts enter the animal’s body.
 The cysts hatch into adult flukes and move through the host’s body to the liver.
 The flukes live in the liver of the host and lay eggs
 The eggs pass out of the host’s body together with the faeces
 After a couple of months in the grass, the eggs hatch into larvae
Effects of liver flukes on goats
 Liver fluke damages the liver of goats by sucking blood.
 The animal suffers from diarrhoea, but in some cases they become constipation
 The animal may have anaemia or be weak because the flukes suck blood.
 The animal loses weight
 Slow growth of the goat
 Fall in milk production
 Poor quality meat
 Post mortem examinations show many liver flukes in the bile tubes of the liver.

Control of liver flukes

 Dosing animals with anthelmintics such as thiabendazole and tetramisole
 Avoiding grazing goats in swampy and very wet areas
 Using rotational grazing, because the eggs will eventually die if no hosts are grazing the grass
(breaking the life cycle of the parasite).
 Draining wet and swampy areas to kill the water snail that is the liver fluke’s secondary host

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External parasites
There are parasites which live on the body of the animals, especially on the soft and hidden areas e.g. under
the tail, between the hooves. They survive by sucking blood from the host. Common external parasites of
goats are;
 Ticks
 Lice
 Mites
 Fleas
 Maggots

External parasites, such as ticks, mites and lice can be controlled by immersing the goats in a dipping tank
that contains an acaricide (chemical that kills ticks). Alternatively, goats can be treated with tick grease,
which is applied to the affected areas.
DISEASES OF GOATS
Goats suffer from many diseases such as
 Contagious abortion Pulpy kidney
 Heart water Foot rot
 Brucellosis Blackquarter (quarter evil)
 Pasteurellosis Bloat
 Anthrax Aphosphorosis

Name of Cause Symptoms Treatment Control and prevention

disease
Foot rot Bacteria * Lameness and difficulty in walking * In the early stages * Trim the hooves regularly
* Eventually the animal may loose its of the diseases, foot * Avoid grazing goats in wet
hoof rot can be treated areas
* Unpleasant pus between the hooves with antibiotics like * Keep kraals dry
*The area between the animals hooves penicillin or * Practice rotational grazing
become red and moist oxytetracycline. * Use a foot bath containing 25-
*Because walking is difficult, infected * The hooves must 30% copper sulphate solution
animals become thin and lose be kept clean using a * Isolate all infected animals
condition very quickly. disinfectant and treat * Inspect the animal’s hooves
*Infected animal may graze while with gentian violet. regularly and keep them
kneeling. trimmed to prevent cracking.

THE PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS OF GOATS

Products Use of product

Meat  Used as food that provides proteins, minerals and vitamins
 BMC slaughter goats and exports some of this meat to other countries
 Converted into yoghurt and sour milk
 Boiled for drinking
Milk  Processed to make food products such as cheese and butter

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Mohair  Processed to make woolen garments and blankets

By-products of goats
By product Use of by-product
Bones ( bonemeal) Supplementary livestock feed
Blood ( blood meal) Supplementary livestock feed
Skins Processed to make leather shoes, bags, mats and garments
Manure Used as organic fertilizer in crop fields or vegetable garden
Horns Processed to make buttons, knife handles, combs, bag handles
Fat (tallow) Used in making glue, cosmetics, soap, candles
Tail ( hair at tip of tail) Paint brushes

PROCESSING GOAT PRODUCTS

Processing meat
1. Stunning
The goat must first be stunned to make it unconscious. The goat must be stunned in the middle of the top
of its head
2. Bleeding
The throat of the goat is slit with a sharp knife and the animal is kept upside down so that the blood drips
down.
3. Skinning
To skin the carcass, tearing the animal’s skin is called ripping. Skinning is done along the proper ripping
lines. This process is done right after killing when it is easy to peel off the skin. The skin is removed mostly
by fisting; this means that we push our fists between the skin and the carcass to lift the skin.
4. Weight Recording
This is done to determine the price the carcass is worth
5. Inspection
This is done to see whether the carcass is suitable for human consumption. It is inspected for any signs of
diseases and parasites.
6. Grading
After inspection the carcass, grading is done from highest to lowest grade according to its quality.
7. Cutting
The meat is then chilled before it is cut, because it is easier to cut when it is cold. Cutting must be done
such that bones will not puncture the plastic packaging and to present the meat in manageable portions.
The insides may be completely removed or packaged and sold separately as Offals.
8. Packaging
The final step before we send the meat to the retailer as weighed portions

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PROCESSING OF GOAT MILK

The following table shows how to make goat milk cheese
What you will need Method
Stainless steel sauce pan 1. Pour the goat milk into a stainless steel saucepan. You may add buttermilk for extra
creaminess
Goat milk butter milk 2. Heat the milk mixture to a temperature of at least 85ºC, or to a medium heat. Stir the milk
frequently while you are heating it. Allow it to simmer and watch carefully that it does not
2tsp lemon or juice or boil over or burn
vinegar 3. Remove the milk mixture from the heat. Allow the milk mixture to cool to about room
temperature before proceeding.
Ladle 4. Add lemon juice or vinegar to the milk and buttermilk mixture. This is to coagulate the
cheese. Stir only enough for it to mix. Do not over stir.
Cheesecloth or good 5. Stir frequently until the curds separate from the whey. During this period the mixture curdles
muslin cloth into clods.
6. Once the mixture has separated, ladle the mixture into several layers of cheesecloth and hang
Colander or sieve over bowl that will catch the whey for a few hours. Alternatively, line a sieve or colander
with cheesecloth and ladle the mixture into this.
Bowl Throw away the whey that goes through the sieve or use it in cooking or as a drink. Squeeze
out the rest of the whey from the cheesecloth.
seasoning 7. Keep the curd in a refrigerator for about a day before testing
8. Put the curd into bowl and season to taste. You can also add some herbs or other flavourings

The following table shows how to make goat milk cheese

What you will need Method
A sauce pan and a pot 1. Pour milk into a sauce pan and place the saucepan in a larger pot containing water
for double boiling 2. Heat the pot until the milk starts to froth
3. Cool the milk down by placing in a pot containing cold water
8 cups (2litres) goats 4. Allow starter yoghurt to warm up to room temperature
milk 5. Add the powdered milk to the goat milk
6. Add starter yoghurt to this mixture and stir it until everything has been dissolved
½ cup starter yogurt 7. If you would like sweetened yoghurt, add syrup or honey to taste
8. Pour the mixture into some clean container and cover tightly
⅓ cup powdered milk 9. Keep the container in an oven at about 38ºC for about seven hours.
10. After seven hours, take out the yoghurt and keep it in a refrigerator for a few hours before
serving

PROCESSING MOHAIR
Shearing
The first step is shearing the Angora goats. They are usually sheared twice a year, in early spring and early
autumn. Kids and wethers (castrated males) produce the best fleece.
Scouring
The shorn fleece must be washed gently in a hot water. If the wool is going to be used for knitting or
weaving, it is dyed.

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Carding
During carding, the fleece fibres are untangled and aligned to be straight and parallel to one another. This
makes it easy to spin.
Spinning
The fleece is spun according to what the end product is going to be. In other words, the more durable the
end product need to be, and the tighter the mohair must be twisted. Looser twists tend to be more lustrous
but are not as durable and strong. After spinning the yarn, it is washed again and prepares it for commercial
use.
Mohair is highly versatile and durable fibre with many uses. Depending on the grade of mohair, it can be
used for making baby and adult clothes. It can be made into crafts such as knitting, crocheting and weaving.
Other uses are; attractive winter clothing, saddle blankets for horses, bedding blankets, upholstery, carpets
and rugs
MARKETING OF GOAT PRODUCTS AND BY- PRODUCTS
1. Meat
Goat meat can be sold live or they can first be slaughtered and the meat sold.
Live goats can be sold to;
 BMC
 Local butcheries
 Individuals
2. Skins
 It can be used in the leather book binding, sporting goods and luxury items e.g gloves and boots
 Leather tanneries and leather goods factories
3. Milk
 Goat milk can be sold to other households
 It can also be sold to dairies that will process it into products such as cheese or to the cosmetics
industry for making creamy soaps and skin – care products
Products
Goats can provide the following products:
1. Meat
Factors considered before starting a goat production enterprise
1. Method of production to adopt
2. Climate
3. Incidence of diseases and parasites
4. Demand of goat meat and other products
5. Distance to markets, slaughter and processing centres
6. Availability of ;
 Land for browsing
 Permanent water source
 Drugs and supplementary feeds
 Labour
 Credit
 Suitable goat breeds

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Supply and demand situation

Demand is greater than the supply, especially in cities, towns and big villages. There are still not enough
goats and goat meat readily available on the market for individuals to purchase. Not enough goats are
available for slaughter at Botswana Meat Commission (BMC).
STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE GOVERNMENT TO IMPROVE GOAT PRODUCTION
1. Provides financial assistance through grant schemes such as;
CEDA – Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency
NDB – National Development Bank
SLOCA – Services to Livestock Owners in Communal Areas
2. Extension services
The ministry of Agriculture deploys technical staff country wide such as agricultural demonstrators and
veterinary assistants to provide technical advice and support to small stock producers.
3. Farmers are also educated through seminars, workshops, radio programmes and agricultural shows or
fairs.
4. Animal Production Research Unit (APRU)
This unit of the Ministry of Agriculture continually conducts experiments (researching) to find better ways
of raising small stock.
5. Agriculture curriculum taught in schools covers small stock. The aim is to equip pupils with adequate
knowledge on all aspects of stock farming.
PROBLEMS LIMITING GOAT PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA
1. Diseases and parasites
Goats are easily attacked by internal and external parasites. A lot of farmer’s small stock can die from
parasites and diseases.
2. Predators
Predators such as jackals, hyenas, wild.
4. Lack of drugs and vaccines
Drugs and vaccines are not readily available. Livestock Advisory Centres, which are the main distributors
of drugs and vaccines, are located only in towns and big villages and are not accessible to most farmers in
small villages.
5. Harsh climate
Temperatures in Botswana can reach extremes. The winters are very cold, with temperatures sometimes
below 0˚c. Summers can be very hot, with temperatures above 36˚c. Very low temperatures can kill kids
and low rainfall leads to poor pasture which means lower rate of production.
6. Lack of management skills
Most farmers in rural areas do not have knowledge on good breeds and management systems to increase
the productivity of their stock.
7. Distance to abattoirs

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Most abattoirs (BMC) are far from where goats are kept (rural areas). So this makes it difficult to take goats
to the abattoir by tracking.
SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS
1. Diseases and parasites
The animals should be dewormed with anthelmintic drugs to control internal parasites. They should be
treated with chemicals in a dip and greased to control external parasites. Goats should be vaccinated against
contagious abortion and pulpy kidney.
2. Predators
Serious predators must be reported to the wild life department and be eradicated.
3. Poor breed
Farmers should buy good breeds to cross breed them with the Tswana e.g. Boer and Saanen goats.
4. Lack of drugs and vaccine
Drugs and vaccines should be made available through agricultural extension offices in villages throughout
the country.
5. Harsh climate
Shelter should be provided for young stock so that they keep warm. Boreholes should be dug to provide
enough water all year round; supplementary feeds should be given to the stock when pastures are poor.
6. Lack of management skills
Extension officers employed by the government can go out to rural areas and teach farmers better
management systems.
METHODS OF PRODUCTION
 Extensive
 Intensive
 Semi-intensive
1. Extensive system (free range)
Goats are allowed to graze and browse natural pastures without fencing. The goats are housed or kraaled in
the evening and let out of their kraals in the morning.
2. Intensive system (zero grazing)
It involves continuous housing and zero grazing. The goats are permanently restricted to pens; food and
water are brought to them. They are fed on cut forage, supplemented by kitchen waste and other crop
residues.
3. Semi- intensive system (Rotational)
It combines grazing and feeding in pen with adequate housing.
Concentrates may be given as supplements and grazing can be controlled by fencing and tethering.
PREPARATIONS MADE BEFORE ACQUIRING GOATS FOR AN ENTERPRISE
 Prepare a project plan and a budget
 Acquiring knowledge and skills in goat production.
 Acquire the needed labour and train them.
 Fencing and paddocking of rangeland.

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 Construction of goat house, dipping or spraying facilities

 Securing enough funds for buying goats
 Surveying the market and marketing structure
 Purchasing enough drugs and vaccines
 Purchasing of feeds
PREPARING A BUDGET FOR A GOAT ENTERPRISE
The budget is a plan that shows the expenses, income and profit
Expenses items will include purchase of breeding stock, cost of construction of kraal or house, dip tank,
cost of drugs and vaccines, labour, supplementary feeds and miscellaneous expenses.
Income items will include sale of goats, sale of culls and manure.
Goat products
 Cooperative societies
 Individual people

The animals are sent to abattoirs by truck or train or even trekked.

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RABBIT PRODUCTION

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE STARTING RABBIT PRODUCTION

 Demand and availability of market for rabbits and rabbit products
 Climate and type of housing needed
 Amount of land available
 Availability and cost of inputs
 Government policy about agriculture or keeping of Rabbits
 Source of breeding stock
 Skill and knowledge level of the farmer
 Marketing facilities and infrastructure
 Source of funding
 Competition from other rabbit producers
 Availability of government and other support services
 Distance to the market centers
 Profitability of the business

METHODS OF PRODUCING RABBITS

INTENSIVE SYSTEM
 Rabbits are raised in hutches kept in a house
 Food , water and other requirements are met by the farmer
 It is easier to observe and manage rabbits
 The method requires high initial investment
EXTENSIVE SYSTEM – the open grazing method
 Rabbits are kept on fenced pastures
 Rabbits fend for themselves and little food may be provided
 Simple boxes may be provided for shelter
 Also cheap but productivity is very low
SEMI INTENSIVE- morant system
 Rabbits are reared in grazing hutches (morant hutches) kept on outdoor on pastures
 The hutches are moved to a fresh area
 Water and food troughs are also provided
 The system is cheap but exposes rabbits to predators
PREPARATIONS MADE BEFORE ACQUIRING RABBITS FOR AN ENTERPRISE
 Ensure that hutches are clean and full of fresh bedding e.g. dry grass, saw dust, straw. Best
bedding ; wood shavings and Saw dust . Problem with hay is that the rabbits eat it.
 Purchase enough vaccines and drugs
 Place clean trough for water and food in good position
 Ensure that rabbits transport boxes are ready
 Make sure there is enough rabbits pellets and vegetables
 Ensure that there is reliable source of clean water
 Acquire labour and train them
 Prepare import papers in case where breeding stock is to be imported

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 Ensure sufficient protection from predators, thieves and sudden noise

A BUDGET FOR A RABBIT ENTERPRISE

This may include estimates on the following
ESTIMATE RETURNS ESTIMATE COSTS
Item Amount Item Amount
(P) (P)
Sale of 100 rabbits @P50 each 3 does @ P65 each
Sale of 100kg of rabbit manure @P10 /50kg bag 1 buck @ P70 each
4 hutches for adults @ P175 each
4 hutches for weaners @ P175 each
200kg rabbit pellets @P60 per 50kg bag
8 troughs for rabbit pellets@ P50 each
Medicines @ P30
Labour costs @ P300
Emergency costs @ P500
TOTAL ESTIMATED RETURNS TOTAL ESTIMATED COSTS
NB: determine whether the business will be profitable or not. Show your working
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
SIGNIFICANCE OF HOUSING IN RABBIT MANAGEMENT
 Protects rabbits from adverse weather (excessive heat and cold) and rain. Rabbits prefer cool
weather conditions and should be kept in a well ventilated house. Heat causes stress leading to
poor growth and reproduction in rabbits.
 Protects rabbits from thieves and predators
 Facilitates easy management of rabbits i.e. feeding and provision of water
 Housing also makes breeding control easy
 Prevents rabbits from going astray (getting lost)

RABBIT FEEDS – rabbits are herbivorous which means they feed on plant materials
Rabbit pellets Concentrate
Green feeds such as grass, young green maize, cabbage leaves, spinach leaves, lettuce, Roughage
cowpea leaves, Lucerne, beans and groundnuts.
Root vegetables like carrot, cassava, radish and turnips. Roughage
Chopped dry roughages such as hay, dry leaves of good quality and free from mould Roughage
and dust
Rock salt Supplements
Milk feeding for young ones
Others: bread, biscuits, crushed oats, millet, sunflower seeds, shelled ground nuts.
Do not feed rabbits with:
 Spinach seedlings because they may have diarrhea
 Tomato and Irish potato leaves as they are poisonous to rabbits
 Plant material that has been sprayed with pesticides

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 Plants grown from bulbs e.g. onions

Importance of feeding rabbits

 Ensure fast growth rate
 Improves milk production in lactating does
 Reduces mortality among young ones
 Increases resistance to diseases
 Improves fertility thereby ensuring a large litter size.

REASONS FOR PROVIDING RABBITS WITH WATER REGULARLY

 Water is needed for normal body processes
 For proper feeding of dry feeds
 To regulation body temperature / cool their bodies
 For normal growth
 For production for meat and milk
 For excretion of waste material s
 To dissolve and transport food substances
 Water forms large part of the animals body.

HANDLING RABBITS DURING MANAGEMENT

Rabbits may be handled for sexing, claw trimming, inspection or moving them from one cage to another.
It is very important to handle them carefully because:
 Their backbone can easily break when dropped down
 Their ears are easily stretched at the base to drooping position
 They are easily frightened by sudden movements and noise

METHODS OF HANDLING RABBITS

 Lift by the PELVIS – this is suitable for young rabbits about 3-4 months, only when they are
transferred from one hutche to other or else where. For young rabbits up to
 Lifting it by the SCRUFF (loose skin over its shoulders) with one hand while the other hand supports
the rump. The handler must have short finger nails. Hold the rabbit gently but firmly in a sitting
position.

TRANSPORT RABBITS
 Hold the rabbit close to your body with its face tucked into your arm. This makes it very
comfortable.

SEXING RABBITS
It is the process of determining whether a young rabbit is a male (buck) or female (doe).
It is best to determine the sex of a rabbit 3-9 weeks after kindling (giving birth). Rabbits reach puberty at
3 – 4months. They will be ready for mating from 5 - 12months.
How is sexing rabbits?

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 Wash your hand before you start

 Lift the rabbit by the loose skin above its shoulders
 Place the rabbit on a flat surface on its back
 Gently press in front and behind the uro-genital region with the fingers
 Work slowly and gently

 If the opening is circular/round with a protrusion, it is a male

 If the opening is a slit or V shaped, it is a female
RABBIT PARASITES
 External parasites of rabbits include lice, fleas, skin mites and ear mites.
 Internal parasites affecting rabbits are coccidian, roundworms and tapeworm.

Life Cycle of Ear mites Effects on rabbits Control measures

1.Adult mites mate *suck blood from the rabbit * Isolate affected rabbits to prevent
2. Female lays eggs under the skin of the *cause irritation spread of mites
host ear *cause diseased patches on the *Quarantine of newly bought rabbits
3. Adult hatch into larvae (6 legged) ear for 3 weeks.
4. Larvae suck blood and mould into a *loss of body condition * Clean and disinfect the rabbit hutches
nymphs (8 legged) *leads to low resistance to *burn hay and bedding used by
5. Nymphs suck blood and mould several diseases affected rabbits
times to become adult mites * results in low production *treat affected ears with an oil-based
The cycle lasts for 4-5 weeks insecticides
Chemicals Used To Control Mites On Rabbits : Amitraz, Diazinon, pyrethrum
Life Cycle of Round Worms Effects on rabbits Control measures
1. Rabbit eat food that contains *they use up food or nutrients in * keep drinking and feeding containers
roundworms eggs the intestine of rabbits. clean
2. Eggs develop into larvae in the livers *the rabbits loose appetite and * keep the surroundings clean and free
and intestines grow poorly of waste matter.
3. The larvae suck blood from the walls *diarrhea [watery and sometimes * disinfect rabbit cages and houses
of the intestines bloody droppings] *give rabbits fresh feeds not
4. The larvae develop into adults that lay *serious attack can lead to death contaminated with parasites eggs
eggs. of rabbits *give rabbits anthelmentics to get rid
5. The eggs pass out of the rabbit’s body of internal parasites[
through dropping
6. The eggs lie in the bedding and hay
7. rabbit feeds on hay contaminated with
roundworm eggs and the cycle starts
again.

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RABBIT DISEASES
Common diseases of rabbits include: Coccidiosis, ear mange, skin mange, mastitis, ringworm, snuffles,
myxomatosis, bloat(enteritis), sore hocks, weepy eyes (conjunctivitis), epizootic haemorrhages,
abscesses, urine hutch burn and coenurosis.
COCCIDIOSIS
Cause Symptoms Treatment Control
Protozoa *dullness *Add sulphamezathine *buy rabbits pellets treated with
(coccidia) *loss and watery faeces solution to drinking coccidiostats.
*pot belly – enlarged abdomen water.
It lives in the *Continue to eat but loose *avoid contamination of food and
rabbits weight *sulphaquinoxaline can water by faeces.
intestines. *rough fur coat also be used.
*staggering when moving *keep hutches clean and well
*affected rabbit die within a ventilated
month
*isolate sick rabbits to avoid
spread of protozoa

*burn bodies of dead rabbits to

kill protozoa

RINGWORM DISEASE

Cause Symptoms Treatment Control

Fungus *White dandruff on rabbits neck Terramycin paste applied on *isolate sick animals
and back the affected parts
(active ingredient
*dust nest boxes with
tetracycline)
*fur loss fungicidal sulfur

*rabbits will be scratching their

bodies

Disease control chemicals used in Rabbits: sulphamezathine, sulphaquinoxaline, Terramycin and

lanolin.

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RABBIT PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS

Products:
Fur - can be used to make collar cuffs
Wool - jerseys can be made from wool and is obtained from Angora rabbits
Meat - low fat and cholesterol content but high in protein
Rabbit pelt - used for making handbags, gloves and cushions
By Products:
Manure
Blood meal
Bone meal
Other uses: - rabbits can also be used as Pets [kept for companionship]
-can be used in laboratory experiments for research
PROCESSING OF RABBITS
The outline below is the process of killing and dressing [skinning] rabbits
1. Get hold of a sharp knife and thick stick to be used when killing the rabbit
2. Catch and hold down the rabbit to be killed
3. Take the thick stick and hit the rabbit hard behind the forehead or on the forehead to kill it.
4. Then cut off the head quickly and hang the rabbit by its hind legs on a rail so as to drain out
blood.
Draining blood helps keep the meat fresh for longer
5. To start skinning, use the knife to cut through the skin around the hocks or just above the rabbit
feet.
6. Then cut open the skin inside each back leg moving towards the anus. Continue to make the skin
cut from the anus through the sex organs, stomach, chest up to the neck.
7. Pull the skin off the body starting from the hocks downwards to the neck area
8. Cut open the rabbit starting from the anus through the stomach to the chest
9. Remove all the internal organs of the rabbit and put them safely away.
10. Wash the carcass with clean water and leave it hanging on the rail for a while
MARKETING OF RABBIT PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS IN BOTSWANA
1. Rabbits are sold live or as dressed carcasses (rabbits which have been slaughtered and prepared
so that the meat is ready to cook) to the public.
2. Pelts (fur) are sold after being properly cured to local skin dealers or to industries which
manufacture pelt garments.

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BEEF PRODUCTION

Beef production is the practice of rearing cattle to produce meat for eating. There are three types of cattle:
Characteristics of good beef cattle
 It has a blocky shape with a square rump (back part)
 Must have a good growth rate, grow fast and mature early.
 High fertility rate and produces healthy calves
 The animal must have more meat and relatively less bone and fat.
 It must have short, strong, well placed legs so that they can easily carry the animals large muscular
body
 It must be able to adapt easily to harsh climatic conditions
 Must have a high feed conversation ration
 Short and fleshy neck
 Udder should be small
Breeds of beef cattle
The beef breeds in Botswana can be divided into two groups; indigenous and exotic.
Indigenous breeds Exotic
-Tswana - Simmental
- Afrikaner
- Hereford
- Brahman
- Charolais
- Bonsmara
-Tuli.
The Animal Production Research Unit particularly recommends some beef breeds for rearing in Botswana.
The table below shows which breeds are recommended and why.
Characteristics and uses of beef breeds
Name of Characteristics
breed
Tswana  Indigenous breed of Botswana
 Present in all colours
 It is hardy and drought resistant
 Well adapted to the local harsh conditions
 Can walk long distances looking for pasture and water.
 Suitable for crossing with other breeds such as Simmental and Brahman

Tuli  Developed in Zimbabwe from cattle similar to Tswana.

 Adapted well to local conditions
 Performs better than the Tswana in terms of growth and mothering ability
 Tolerate high temperatures and dry conditions
 Can tolerate parasites and diseases fairly well
 Its colors varies from yellow, golden-brown to red
Africander  Originates from South Africa.
 Out performed by the Tswana in terms of growth rate and mothering ability.
 The male animal has a large hump and dewlap
 It has resistance to ticks, heat, drought and diseases

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 It does not require much care or maintenance compared to other exotic breeds found in Botswana
Bonsmara  Originating from South Africa
 Developed from the Shorthorn, Hereford and afrikander.
 It has advantages of both Southern African and European breeds in its composition.
 The whole body is reddish-brown to light brown in colour
 Well adapted to heat and drought conditions
 It has a low mortality rate

Brahman  Exotic breed originating from India, a country with similar climate to Botswana.
 It has a large hump behind the neck.
 Grows very fast.
 Needs special management, particularly feeding in the dry season.
 Its colours varies from grey-reddish
 Its drooping ears are large compared to those of other breeds
 It has a good growth rate, fertility and high weaning rate
Simmental  Exotic breed that originates in Switzerland
 It is large animal that needs special management
 It grows fast
 Has good mothering ability
 Calving problems may be encountered if heifers are used.
 It is dual purpose breed.
 Its colours vary from gold to red with white. It has white markings on the face and on the side of the
belly

BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE RECOMMENDED BY THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

- Tswana
- Simmental
- Afrikaner
- Hereford
- Brahman
- Charolais
- Bonsmara
- Tuli.
Reasons why the above breeds are recommended
 They can easily adapt to the climatic conditions of Botswana
 They are resistant to some diseases and parasites found in Botswana
 They have a good growth rate and high weaning weight
 They can easily be crossed with Tswana
 Have a high carcass quality
 They have high calving percentage
 They have good mothering ability

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MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE

Systems of raising beef cattle
There are two systems of raising beef cattle in Botswana. These are
-communal
-ranching system
1. Communal System (Moraka)
This is a traditional system of raising beef cattle. The area in which the cattle graze belongs to the
community (tribal land) and is held in trust by District Land Boards. The cattle are usually allowed to graze
whenever they want on unenclosed pastures. The herders look after the cattle every day and direct the cattle
to good pastures. The cattle find water in the area from any source like dams, wells and rivers.
Advantages
 The number of animals to keep is not limited
 It is cheap
 Skilled manpower is not important
 Cows are served even when the farmer does not have a bull
 Animals move freely
Disadvantages
 Animals can be lost
 It is not easy to control diseases and parasites
 Animals can be attacked by predators
 Not easy to control breeding
 Low production
 Overgrazing occurs leading to soil erosion
 Weaning is not easy
 Animals can eat other people’s crops as they move around
2. Ranching system
A ranch is an area of grazing land that has been fenced for purposes of raising beef cattle. It is a commercial
system whereby the farms are fenced and divided into smaller areas called paddocks. The paddocks are
used to control the grazing so that the cattle are only grazing one area at a time, and are moved from one
paddock to the other. Boreholes can be dug on the ranch to make sure there is always good supply of water
for the cattle. The farms used as ranches usually belong to the farmer and are called freehold farms. The
farmer has an established home in the farm.
Advantages
 Animals cannot be easily lost
 It is easy to control parasites and diseases
 Animals cannot be easily attacked by predators
 It is easy to control breeding
 Farmer’s profits are usually high because of better management.
 There is no risk of soil erosion
 Some paddocks can be reserved for use in the dry season.
 Weaning can be done easily by putting cows and calves in separate paddocks.
 Overgrazing does not occur because animals are moved regularly between the different paddocks.

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Disadvantages
 The initial costs of setting up a ranch are very high.
 The animals’ number is limited by the size of the ranch
 Skilled people are needed to manage the ranch profitably.
 The fences and equipment need to be repaired and maintained regularly.

COMPARISON OF THE SYSTEMS

COMMUNAL SYSTEM RANCHING SYSTEM
Land belongs to the community Land is owned by the farmer
Animals mixed with animals of neighboring Farm animals can not mix with animals of neighboring
farmers farmers
Stocking rate is not controlled Stocking rate is controlled
Uses less capital Uses a lot of capital
Less skill is required More skill is required

Significance of providing housing to beef cattle

Cattle are housed for the following reasons:
-To protect animals from bad weather conditions such as heat, cold wind and rain.
- To protect animals against thieves and predators such as lions and hyenas.
-For easy management practices or activities such as branding, vaccinating, dehorning etc.
-Prevents animals from going astray
-It helps in controlling mating and separating calves from their mothers if the mothers are to be milked
TYPES OF HOUSING SUITABLE FOR BEEF CATTLE
Kraals
The form of housing provided for beef cattle is usually a kraal. Kraals are usually made of thorns tree
branches and poles. The kraal has a tree which provides shade. Sometimes there is a shelter to provide
shade. The kraal may be divided into sections so that animals can also be divided. The kraal protects
animals from predators and also makes it easy for management activities to be carried out
Cattle crush.
It is used when animals are being vaccinated or inspected for parasites and diseases
Calf pens
Pens house the calves at night so that they do not drink from their mothers
TYPES OF FEEDS SUITABLE FOR BEEF CATTLE
Feeding
In Botswana, beef cattle usually depend on natural pasture. Natural pasture includes grass and other forage
plants. During dry seasons, farmers should buy supplementary feeds like hay and Lucerne for their animals.
Farmers can make silage from grass or sorghum to use as supplementary feed. Cattle should also be given
bonemeal and salt in the form of a mineral lick. Winter lick adds phosphorus to the diet of the cattle, which
makes their bones and teeth strong and helps to prevent the disease Aphosphorosis.

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Watering
Water is provided daily. Water is needed for many activities in the body of the animal e.g.
 Cooling the body/regulate body temperature
 Excretion of waste products
 Helps in digestion
 Water forms part of milk and blood
 Water forms part of the cells and tissues that make up animals body
 For all chemical reactions that takes place in their bodies

SOURCES OF WATER FOR BEEF CATTLE

-Rivers,
-Dams,
-Boreholes
-Wells.

WATER CLEANING PROCESSES FOR ANIMAL CONSUMPTION

Filtration
Water is filtered to remove the debris (dirt)
Sedimentation
Water is allowed to stand for a long time so that solids settle at the bottom
Chlorination
Addition of chlorine to water to kill the germs
Disbudding and dehorning
-Disbudding is the removal of developing horn buds from a calf.
-Calves are disbudded at about 2-4 months of age
-Dehorning is the removal of horns from an older animal.
Most breeds of beef cattle produce both animals with horns and animals without horns. Animals without
horns are known as polled animals.
Importance/significance of dehorning and disbudding
 To avoid damaging each others hides when they fight lowering the quality of meat and hides.
 Dehorned animals occupy small space in feeding and watering troughs
 It is safer for the cattle if they have to be transported anywhere and allows maximum use of space
when loading
 Dehorned animals fetch high price at B.M.C.
 It is much safer to handle cattle without horns than those with horns because horned animals cattle
are usually more aggressive.

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Tools used for;

disbudding Dehorning

-Scoop dehorner -dehorning iron

-Scissors -Guillotine
-Hot iron -Saw
-Caustic soda/potash -Knife
-Dehorning wire

Weaning
It means stopping the calf from suckling or feeding on its mother.
The first milk a cow produces is called colostrum and it contains proteins, vitamins and minerals that the
new-born calf needs.
Colostrums also contain antibodies that protect the calf against diseases.
The calves of beef cattle are weaned when they are between 6 and 9 months old.
REASONS FOR WEANING
-To allow the mother to build up her body in preparation for the next pregnancy
-Saves milk to increase sales
-Allows the calf to handle dry food
METHODS OF WEANING
-Use of a calf weaner plate
This is a specially designed plastic plate that will clip onto calves nostrils. When the calf tries to suckle, the
plate hurts the cow, so she does not allow the calf to suckle
-Separate the calf from its mother
This is done by placing the cow in separate paddock where she cannot see or hear her calf. If she does not
have contact with her calf for atleast one week, she will stop producing milk
-Applying cow dung to cow teats
The calf will not suckle because of the dung on the teats.
METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION OF CATTLE
There are different methods used to identify cattle. They include the following;
-branding (hot or freeze),
-ear-tattooing,
- ear-notching,
- ear-tagging,
-LITS (Livestock Identification and Trace-back System) –“omang”
-paint.

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1. Branding
 branding
It is a method where a red hot iron is used to make a mark on the hide of an animal on the left side of the
animal covering the rump area or the hindquarter for 3 to 5 seconds.

 Freeze branding
This is a method where a branding iron is frozen and used to make a mark the animal. It uses very low
temperature to kill the cells in the animal’s skin that produce colour. If correctly done, the animal will
grow white hair on the branded site. The branding iron is made up of a material which can retain cold and
is frozen in liquid nitrogen or in dry ice and alcohol

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BRANDING

Hot branding Freeze/cold branding

Advantages Advantages
 Takes a short time to brand (3 – 5 seconds)  Take short time for the frozen part to be healed
 Brand is permanent and cannot changed  The brand is much more visible (clear) especially in
 Suitable for all cattle irrespective of colour dark coated animals
 The results of branding are seen immediately  Less damage cost to the hides than using hot iron
Disadvantages  Is almost painless to animals compared to hot branding
 Painful to animals Disadvantages
 Wound is produced, which may be infected and  Takes time to shave hair off the area to be freeze
lead to health problems branded
 Damage animals’ hides, therefore, lowers the  Not clear on white or gray coloured coats
value  Liquid nitrogen is not easy to get and also expensive
 The hot iron can burn the person handling it  It takes 3 months before the brand can be identifiable

2. Ear tattooing
This is a permanent mark made on the ear of an animal by puncturing letters or numbers or a design on
the inside skin of the ear and then rubbing indelible ink on the marks. The colours used are black, green,
red and white.

Advantages Disadvantages
 It improves the permanent mark or record of  Not easy to read a tattoo without holding/handling or
the animal bringing the animal closer for inspection
 It can be used to identify the individual  The person doing the tattooing must be well trained
animal, the year it was born and where it and competent
comes from.  Takes a long time to be done
 Some of the letters may be difficult to read due to
their small size
 Not suitable for dark-eared animal breed

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1. Ear- notching

It is a hollow cut or slit at the edge of the ear surface of an animal. There are different types of shapes
made by different farmers.

Advantages Disadvantages
 The cut or slit made forms a permanent mark  It causes pain and bleeding
 The slit or cut made is visible even at a certain  Some notches take time to make, therefore, more pain
distance  If a mistake is made (incorrect cutting) there is no reverse
 Some cuts are easier and quick to make  Disinfected equipment can pass diseases among the
animals

2. Ear-tagging
This is a method of attaching a numbered or printed plastic or metal tag to an animal’s ear.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Cheap form of identification  Tags can fall out off the animal’s ear
 Easy and quick to attach the tag  Injuries may result if the tag is caught by a fence
 Ear tags provide an easy way of identifying  The letters or numbers tend to fade away after many years
individual animals  Ear tags are small, therefore , one has be closer to read
 Clamping the tag to the animal’s ear does not cause a  A thief can easily replace with his/her own tags and claim
lot of pain ownership of an animal

3. LITS
It is inserting a bolus with unique information and number into the rumen of an animal. A bolus is about a
finger long.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to identify the individual animal and its owner  Needs skilled and trained personnel to insert the bolus
 Easy to trace back the animal to their owners and take readings
 Helped Botswana to have access to the EU market  Expensive equipment is used
 Easy to read the bolus as it stays in the same place  There are frequent breakdown o the equipment and lack
 Remain in the animal until death of expertise to repair it
 Information can be used to help establish an animal’s  Equipment used is not readily available locally
family tree

4. Paint
This is the use of non-toxic paint to mark the animal but it is a temporary method.

PARASITES OF BEEF CATTLE

A parasite is any organism which depends on another organism for food and shelter. A parasite cannot live
on its own but needs to live on or in a host animal. There are two types of parasites; internal and external
parasites.
Internal parasites
Internal parasites are found inside the body of an animal, especially in the intestines. Common examples
are
 tape worm
 round worm
 liver fluke

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The life cycle of a beef tape worm

The adult tapeworm lives in humans. It is made up of a head (scolex) and a chain of segments. Each segment
breaks off as a sac full of eggs. The adult tapeworm lives in the intestines of humans where it is attached
by means of suckers on its head to the walls of the intestines.

Stages of the life cycle

1. The tapeworm attaches itself to the wall of the intestines of the primary host ie humans
2. Segments of the tapeworm, containing thousands of eggs, break away from the tapeworm.
3. The segments pass out of the human body in the faeces.
4. The secondary host ie cattle, eat grass that has tapeworm eggs on it.
5. The tapeworm eggs hatch in the intestines of cow.
6. The larvae of the tapeworm burrow into the walls of the cattle’s intestine and get into the
bloodstream.
7. The larvae move into the muscle tissue, where they form cyst (capsules) around themselves. At this
stage, the organism is called a bladder worm.
8. The cow is slaughtered for meat.
9. Humans buy the meat to eat, but do not cook it properly. This means that the bladder worms are
not killed.
10. The bladder worms develop into tapeworms in the intestine of the human
11. The bladder worms then grow into adult tapeworms
External parasites
External parasites live on the body of the animal, especially on the soft and hidden areas e.g. under the tail,
between the hooves and legs. Common external parasites of beef cattle are:
 Ticks
 Tsetse flies
 mosquitoes
The life cycle of a one-host tick
 A female tick sucks blood from a cow and becomes full of blood.
 The tick drops to the ground and lays thousands on the grass.
 After a few weeks, the eggs develop and hatch into six –legged larvae, which climb up grass leaves and
wait for a cow to walk past.
 The larvae attach themselves to the cow and suck its blood.
 The larvae develop into eight legged nymphs
 The nymphs feed on the cow’s blood and develop into adult ticks, which feed on the cow’s blood and
mate.
Harm or damage caused to beef cattle by ticks and tapeworm
Ticks Tapeworms
 Cause tick poisoning  Absorb food from the cow’s body, so the cow
 Suck blood from the cow, causing diseases such as anaemia may not get enough nutrients.
 Can damage the ear, which then gets infected and may become  Can damage the wall of the intestines
deformed.  Suck blood from the cow, causing diseases such
 Can cause skin irritation or itching and discomfort to cattle. as anaemia.
 Cause wound and pain  Can cause diarrhea.
 Can spread diseases for example Heartwater.  Cattle become thin or grow poorly

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The control of ticks and tapeworms

Ticks Tapeworms
 Remove by hand  Ensure proper sanitation by getting rid of human faeces
 Dipping with acaricides such as deadline carefully and safely by burying them.
 Use special medicated grease on the cow to stop ticks  Deworming of animals and workers
attaching themselves to the cow’s skin.  Inspecting meat thoroughly to if it has any measles or
 Practice rotational grazing cyst
 Controlled burning of vegetation in selected grazing  Fully cook the meat.
areas can help kill many ticks and their eggs
DISEASES OF BEEF CATTLE
A disease is the condition where by the system(s) is not functioning properly. A disease can be caused by
pathogens (organisms), injury and insufficiency of nutrients etc.
Diseases of cattle common in Botswana
Foot and mouth Blackleg
Botulism Brucellosis
CBPP (Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia) Bloat
Heartwater Anthrax
Contagious abortion Milk fever
Aphosphorosis

Name of Cause Common symptoms Treatment Method of control

disease
* Blisters in the mouth, tongue and * Regular annual vaccination.
Foot and Virus between hooves. No treatment * Strict control of animal
Mouth * Blisters on teats and udder. movement and products from
(FMD) *Only affect cloven * A drop in milk production. areas where the disease is
hoofed animals * Difficulty in walking. known to occur(cordon
*Contact with *Saliva streams from the mouth fences)
diseased animals. *Develops high fever(high *Use of quarantine method.
* Contaminated temperature) * It is notifiable disease and
milk, saliva, urine *Loss of appetite leading to loss of its outbreak must be reported
etc. weight to veterinary personnel,
* Wild relatives of police or kgotla.
cattle like buffaloes * Killing and burning
and antelopes are affected animals
carriers.
Heart water Rickettsia . * High fever Use of
* Twitching of legs, head, ears, tongue antibiotics at * Control bont ticks by
and jaws. an early stage dipping, spraying
* The bont tick * Animal moves in circles. such as *Practice rotational grazing
which is the *When the animal falls down it kicks tetracycline, * Vaccinate against
intermediate host its legs in the air and experience sulphurdimidi Heartwater.
difficulty in getting up ne and
* Loss of appetite liquamycin
*Post mortem analysis show excessive
fluid in the body cavity around the
heart, and congested lungs.

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METHODS OF MARKETING BEEF CATTLE

 Selling straight to the BMC in Lobatse, Francistown and Maun where BMC is seen as the chief buyer
of beef cattle. To sell to BMC, farmers apply for the quota. The quota helps the BMC to arrange for the
arrival and slaughter of cattle. Once the BMC has processed and approved the applications, it then tells
the farmer when they must send the animals to the abattoir. Farmers transport their cattle to the abattoirs
in trucks or on foot.
 Selling through the cooperative societies
Farmers sell cattle to BMC through cooperatives. The cooperative will obtain a quota from the BMC
and transport and trekking cattle to the BMC abattoirs and receive payments on behalf of the farmer.
Cooperatives charges about 3-5% of the price obtain from the sale for the service they provide.
 Selling to butcheries or local people:
Cattle farmers can sell their animals to butcheries that are located near their cattle post or ranches
 Selling through the livestock agencies
Cattle agents assist farmers to get quotas for their cattle at BMC, transport the cattle to abattoirs and
collect payments on behalf of the farmer. Agents charge a fee of about 2.5% of price obtained from
sales.
 Sell through cattle auction
 Sell through speculators
NB: A QUOTA is the number of cattle a farmer or agents is allowed to deliver to BMC abattoir at
any time.
Recommended weight and age of selling beef cattle
Fast growing beef breeds reach their market weight of 450 kg at the age of 2-3 years, while slow growers
may take about four years. The growth rate depends on the breed of cattle.
Common grades used by the BMC
Grade Comments on quality Market price Use
Prime Excellent Highest Fresh meat
Super Fresh meat
Grade 1 Fresh meat
Grade 2 Fresh meat
Grade 3 Fresh meat
Grade 4 Fresh meat
Canning/grade M Canned beef
Condemned Unfit to use for meat Lowest Rejected

Prime
This is the highest grade that an animal can get. There are two prime grades;
- Prime Zero tooth refers to cattle aged up to 20 months (1year 8months)
- Prime Two tooth refers to cattle aged between 21 and 25 months (1yr 9months and 2yrs 1mnth)
It has zero to two permanent incisor teeth
Good conformation with very tender and well-muscled carcass
Light fat content.
Super
This is the second highest grade that an animal can get.

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- It has 3-4 permanent incisor teeth with 3 years old or less

- Meat is tender and well muscled with enough fat
Grade 1
- It has 5-6 permanent incisor teeth with 4 years old or less
- Well muscled and tendered meat

Grade 2
- It has 8 permanent incisors with four years and above
- Meat is quite tendered with reasonable fat content
-
Grade 3
- It has aged teeth (they have eight permanent incisors which are now worn out) with more than 5
years
- Beef is of fair quality but it is not very tendered fair amount of fat

Grade 4
- This beef is of poor quality
- Poorly muscled and has less fat than beef of the other grades.
- It is a little tougher than grade 3 beef.

Canning
- Older cattle with thin muscles normally produce manufacturing or canning grade beef
- This meat is quite tough
- M grade beef fetches the lowest price of all grades

Condemned
- Carcass is highly infected with measles or other diseases.
- The carcass cannot be treated for these problems and is not suitable for human consumption
- Farmers only receive small fee for condemned carcass

BEEF CATTLE BY-PRODUCTS

By-product Uses
Skin Bags, shoes, mats, belts, jackets
Horns Buttons for shirts and blouses
Dung Fertilizers for improving the soil
Blood Used for blood meal
Tallow (animal fat) Used for making soap and candles

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DAIRY PRODUCTION

Dairy breeds

Friesian
Jersey
Brown Swiss (dual purpose)
Ayrshire
Guernsey

Friesian / Friesland
It is black and white in colour and on average a mature cow weighs around 550kg. The Friesian produces
more milk than other breeds, and can produce 3000-5000 litres of milk per year. The udder has a large
capacity. The butter fat of the milk is 3.5%. It has very short horns and under good management, will calve
at about at 2.5 years of age. It is docile/mild temperament, it is a poor grazer of pastures & requires high
standard of management.
Jersey
This is a light breed that is brown to light brown in colour/ yellowish brown (fawn). It has a black nose
bordered by a white muzzle, its hooves are black. A mature cow weighs 350-450 kg. Jerseys are hardy but
they produce less milk than the Friesians. However, their milk is yellowish, rich in protein, high butterfat
content of 5% & minerals (eg; calcium). They are very docile animals and easy to work with.

Guernsey
This is a medium-sized breed that varies from light brown to red in colour. It may have white markings on
the face, legs, switch and flank. Mature cows weigh 450-500 kg and they produce up to 3000 litres of milk
per year. The milk has a butter fat content of about 4.5 %. A fairly good grazer, good temperament.

Brown Swiss
Large sized breed that is usually dark brown in colour with a dark nose & a creamy white muzzle. Its horn
tips, switch & nose are black. It is one of the largest dairy cattle breeds. Mature cows can weigh up to 700
kg on average under good management. Compared to other breeds, they are more resistant to parasites and
diseases, and survive better when feeding on natural pastures. Breed well suited to Botswana conditions. It
is easy to manage & handle during milking.
Ayrshire
It is red with white markings or white with red markings. A medium sized breed, mature cow weighs about
500kg under good management, it is a good feed converter into milk. They are renowned for their perfect
udders.

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Characteristics of a good & a bad dairy cow

A Good Dairy Cow A Bad Dairy Cow
A good dairy cow has an udder that is large & well Small & poorly developed udder which is pendulous from the
attached to the body. It does not hang loosely from the abdomen.
abdomen. Its skin flesh to touch, the teats are small & close together or
The udder’s skin is soft & supple, the teats are large, firm unevenly spaced.
& placed well apart (7-8 cm long)
The stomach is large & rounded with a lot of space for Small flat stomach without enough room for a lot of food &
storing food & water, especially for milk production. water.
The legs & hooves must be strong so that the cow can The legs & hooves are weak with narrow hind quarters which
walk well, the hind legs are wide & well set to do not accommodate the development of a large udder.
accommodate the large udder & well spaced teats.
The cow’s body is angular/wedge shaped, it carries little A blocky body that is well fleshed.
flesh.
It is tame, calm & restful. This is important since the cow Has an aggressive nature or becomes nervous easily which
is handled twice in a day during milking without her makes it difficult to handle her at milking times.
getting upset or nervous which can lead to less milk
being released or milk contamination.
Has a large, prominent milk vein on the udder Small invisible milk vein.
Fertile & able to produce a calf each year, this is Infertile with irregular calving & short lactating periods.
important since for milk to be produced, the cow should
have given birth. She should have long lactating periods.
Healthy & grows well. Tolerant to diseases, parasites & Sickly & grows poorly, prone to diseases, parasites & ambient
ambient (high) temperature. temperature.

Shelter for dairy cows

Shelter is very important for protecting dairy cattle from the harsh environment in Botswana.
Cows must not suffer from too much heat or too cold.
Shelter is also needed for milking the cows because milking should not be done outside.
If milking is carried out in the open air, dirt and flies can get in the milk and contaminate it.

The types of buildings and shelters commonly found in dairy enterprises include kraals, milking parlours,
calf pens, crushes, cold rooms and storerooms.

*Kraals : Simply constructed shelters to house cows overnight ( refer to beef production)
* Dairy / Milking shed & Milking parlour
Milking Shed: It is used on small dairy farms. It is a roofed structure & inside the shed there are stalls in
rows & each cow stands in her own stall at milking.
Milking Parlour: Used in intensive commercial dairy farming. Like a shed, it has a roof, good ventilation,
food troughs, concrete floor & a furrow for carrying urine , dung & cleaning water.
A parlour is usually smaller than a shed, can hold from 2-8 cows at a time. However it has automatic milking
machines. When a cow is let into the parlour,she goes into a stall & eats feed on a trough in front. While

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she is eating, the automatic milking machine is used to milk her. I front of the stall is a gate & as soon as
milking is finished,the gate opens & the cow walks out.
Both the shed & parlour should have the following features:
 Must be built on a well drained area
 Be built down wind from homesteads
 In an area with a good water supply
 Floor be made of concrete, bricks & have a furrow to carry urine,dung & cleaning water.
 Roofed, preferably with corrugated asbestos, to keep it cool.
 Be well ventilated

Holding pens
Cows can be kept in holding pens before milking them.
A holding pen is made of treated poles. It may also have a roof, preferably corrugated asbestos.
Calf pens
When dairy cows give birth,the calves are first kept with the mothers for a week, then weaned. Weaned
calves are kept in calf pens where they are managed. The floor of the pens may be covered with litter,
especially concrete floors to act as bedding. Wet litter should be replaced with dry one. It is important to
keep the pens clean, dry & well ventilated keep it free of germs.
Crushes
Crushes can be used to restrain the animals while carrying out management activities such as inspection,
vaccination, spraying, etc…..
They are made of treated poles & must be strong enough to detain the animals.
Feed storage space
Feeds should be stored in a clean dry place. This is to ensure they stay fresh & safe from germs. It also
preserves their taste. Feed exposed to adverse weather conditions loses taste & quality.
Ways of storing feeds include:
 A simple roof for roughages such as hay
 A pit/silo can be used to store silage to keep it moist & away from the air
 Strong bags / metal tanks are ideal for storing concentrates, these should be stored where they will
stay dry & safe from rats, mice & other pests.

Fenced area / Paddock

Fenced grazing areas are provided for cows to move around / exercise. The size of each paddock will
depend on the size of the herd, management style & carrying capacity.
Part of the fenced area can be used to grow fodder. Paddocks facilitate rotational grazing & grouping of
animals according to age.

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Feeds for dairy cows

They include the following:
1. Roughages
These are feeds high in fibre, some of these are:
Pastures
Pure grass pastures can be planted or mixtures of grass and legumes. Examples of grass species that can be
grown include Rhodes grass and legumes such as stylo.
Hay
This is dried grass that is usually kept in storage. It is usually lower in proteins, minerals and vitamins than
fresh feed. Animals fed on hay need a supplementary feed to balance their ration
Silage
Silage is succulent roughage which can be made from cereals, grasses and legumes. As it has a strong smell,
it is best to feed it to dairy cattle after milking and not before.
2. Concentrates
These are feeds high in protein and energy, and are primarily made from grains and by-products of grain,
oilseed and animals. They are normally given concentrates as an extra feed ration to cattle during milking.
Significance of good nutrition in dairy production
Good nutrition means having the right kinds of feeds with nutrients needed by the body.
Dairy cows need good nutrition for the following reasons:
 To be able to grow healthy & produce more milk. Poor nutrition will lead to low milk production.
 Good nutrition strengthens the cow’s immune system. Poor nutrition can lead to nutritional diseases
such as milk fever & ketosis.
 Good nutrition is needed for normal growth & development of the body. It helps to repair body cells &
tissues.
 It is necessary to keep the cows in good health condition for the next mating, pregnancy & parturition.
During pregnancy, it is needed for to support the foetus & its mother.
 It provides the cows with energy & keeps them active.

Weaning
This is the separation of the calf from the mother so that they can completely stop suckling milk from them.
Reasons for weaning
It allows the cow to recover from the stress of lactation
It helps the cow to prepare for the next calving
So that the farmer can get more milk from the cow without having to share it with the calf.
For the calf to start feeding on solids which encourages development of the rumen
For ease of operations carried out on calves

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Why is the calf allowed to suckle colostrum?

Colostrum is the first milk produced by the cow in the first five to seven days after parturition. It is fed to
calves because:
 It contains antibodies that kick-starts the immune system of the calf, protecting it from diseases.
 It has a mild laxative effect, hence helps in the removal of foetal dung
 It is rich in nutrients: protein, vitamins, minerals, etc..
 It is easily digested by calves

Length of time a calf should stay with its mother before weaning
On commercial dairy farms, calves are taken from their mothers 5-7 days (a week) after birth.
Care of calves after weaning
 Housing in calf pens; this provides protection & makes management activities easy to carry out.
 Feeding them with milk replacers, tender natural pastures, silage, hay & concentrates (supplementary
feeds); good nutrition is necessary for health & to avoid stress experienced by the calf due to separation
from its mother which may lead to weight loss or a drop in growth rate after weaning.
 Controlling parasites through deworming, spraying & dipping.
 Regular vaccination to protect them against diseases
 Providing them with plenty clean uncontaminated water
 Selection of those with desirable traits to serve as breeding stock & culling those not suitable for dairy.

Diseases of dairy cattle

Dairy cows may suffer from the following diseases:
Diseases & their causes
Diseases Causes
Foot & mouth disease
Anthrax
Heart water
Quarter evil
Bovine Tuberculosis
Lumpy skin
Mastitis
Milk fever
Brucellosis
Black quarter
Bloat

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Name of disease Cause Symptoms Treatment Prevention and

control
Mastitis * Bacteria- this * Teats are swollen and * Administer * Use strip cup to
is the painful. antibiotics such as detect mastitis before
inflammation * Milk may be blood penicillin, tetracycline. milking.
of the stained. * Milk affected
mammary * Milk has clots. animals last.
glands. * Milk becomes watery. * Clean and disinfect
* Drop in milk production. dairy equipment.
* In serious cases the milk * The udder must be
will be greenish with a dipped in an iodine
very bad smell. solution.

Milk fever * Low in blood * Dullness. * Inject animals * Give mineral

It occurs 12-27 after the calcium * Difficulty in moving intravenously with mixture which
birth of a calf. When the cow (paralysis). calcium gluconate includes Ca, P and
start calving, it will produce * Loss of appetite in early solution. The dose is salt at all times.
a lot of milk. This will mean stages. sometimes given with *Give large dose of
that a lot of calcium is * Constipation. a dose of vitamin D. vitamin D to cows
secreted into the milk and * Animal may get in a The animal will before parturition.
the body is left with low coma. recover within an
calcium level in the blood. * Death may occur. hour.

Milking
Great care has to be taken before, during and after milking to make sure that the milk is not contaminated
in any way.
There are two methods of milking cows;
Hand milking and machine milking
Hand milking
The method is very common in Botswana. Calves are allowed to suckle from their mothers for a few
minutes, so that she starts to lactate. The calf is then moved away from the mother and the farmer starts to
milk. Alternatively a salve cream can be applied to the teats of the cow to stimulate milk production. When
milking, the teat is held between the thumb and the pointing finger, and then it is pressed down.

Advantages of hand milking

 It is cheap
 It is easy to learn how to do it.
Disadvantages of hand milking
It is slow therefore not suitable for large scale producers.
Milk remains exposed for longer periods increasing the chances of contamination.
Incorrect milking techniques may damage the teats or cause the cows to hide the milk.

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Machine milking
The machine has cups that fit onto the teats and it applies a suction force to the teats to start lactation. The
movement of the rubber linings of the teat cups is like the suckling of a calf and stimulates the cow to
release the milk. The milk is sucked out of the teat cups into tubes. After milking, the cow’s teats are dipped
in a disinfectant.

Advantages of machine milking

 It is quick and efficient; many cows can be milked in a short time.
 It ensures minimum handling of milk and less exposure, so this reduces the chances of the milk
getting contaminated.
Disadvantages of machine milking
 It is very expensive and therefore mainly suitable for large scale producers.
 It needs skills to operate properly and to carry out maintenance.
 Cleaning the machine needs skill as it has to be dismantled and reassembled.
 Electricity is needed to run the equipment.
Before milking starts, the farmer needs to make sure that:
 The milking area is clean
 All the equipment is clean
 All equipment is working properly
 Feeding troughs have been filled so the cows can eat during milking
 The cows are checked for obvious signs of disease before they enter the milking shed – they must
not be milked if they show signs of disease and should be separated from the other cows.
 Cows are lactating
How milk should be handled after milking
After milking, the milk must be treated with care to prevent bacteria from contaminating it. Milk can perish
very quickly and easily, it needs to be kept cool by storing it in a cold room. It then has to be treated so that
the bacteria in the milk are killed. This means the milk is safer for human consumption and lasts longer
before going bad.
There are two ways of treating milk; sterilization and pasteurization. These two treatments alter the way
the milk tastes. Some people prefer the taste of sterilized milk and others the taste of pasteurized milk.
Sterilization
This is heating milk at a temperature of 110˚c for 30 minutes. This effectively kills all microorganisms in
the milk, but also destroys some nutrients in the milk such as proteins and vitamins. This reduces the quality
of the milk and alters its taste. Sterilized milk can stay for months before going bad e.g. long life and
ultramel.
Pasteurization
Milk is pasteurized by being heated to 72˚c for about 15 to 20 seconds and then cooled to a much lower
temperature of about 10˚c. The heating of the milk kills microbes but it does not change the quality and
taste of the milk. Pasteurized milk can stay for 3 to 5 days before going bad e.g. fresh milk.
Making of sour milk

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Sour milk or madila is a very popular milk product in Botswana.

To prepare sour milk, keep fresh milk in a container. Curdling of the milk will occur. Curdling is the process
by which liquid milk changes into solid substance curd (madila). Curdling occurs because the bacteria in
the milk react with lactose (milk sugar) and change it to lactic acid. The bacteria in the lactic acid then cause
the milk to curdle (go rema). This results in the formation of milk solids (madila) and watery part (whey).
The watery part is largely water but contains a few nutrients. Finally, the whey is separated from the madila.

Marketing of milk and milk products

Milk can be sold to;
 Households
 Restaurants
 Shops
 Schools
 Hotels
 Hospitals
Milk is usually sold to people immediately after milking when still fresh and untreated.
It is also sold as pasteurized or sterilized milk.
Milk is sometimes fermented and sold as sour milk.
Condensed milk is made by evaporating a lot of moisture out of the milk. It is very sweet, thick, milk that
is used in tea.
Milk powder is produced by removing all of the moisture from the milk by evaporation. Milk powder can
be stored for a long time, and water can be added to it to make liquid milk when needed.
Cheese is a solid by product of milk that is usually produced at dairy processing plants. It made by adding
lactic acid to milk. This makes the milk to be solid clumps, and the whey is drained off and the solid part
(curd) is pressed to make hard cheese.
Yoghurt is made from milk by fermenting it with bacteria.
Butter is produced from milk by separating the fat from the milk and processing the fat so that it forms a
solid a solid.
Cheese, yoghurt and butter are sold in shops.

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Revision Questions
REVISION 1
1. List 5 field crops grown in Botswana.
2. Give two reasons for watering vegetables
3. Give three importance of field crops
4. Give two examples of each of the following. (4)

Indigenous fruits Exotic fruits

5. You have been asked to choose an area in your school yard where you could do vegetable
production. State three factors to consider when choosing a garden site

6. Name the process by which soil is formed

7.

(a) What is soil erosion?

(b) Name two agents of soil erosion)

8. Describe two reasons for removing weeds from the garden.

9. State the name and use of the following farm tools.

A.

Name: ____________________________

Use:_______________________________________________________________(2)
B.

Name: ____________________________

Use:________________________________________________________________(2)

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C.

Name: ____________________________

Use:________________________________________________________________(2)
D.

Name: ____________________________

Use:________________________________________________________________(2)
10. Explain soil fertility.

11. Name three careers that falls in agriculture.

Use the diagrams of farm implements shown below to answer question 12

12. (a) Name the farm implement shown above

(b) State the use of the farm implement
(c) Why should the implement be kept in a storeroom? Give two reasons
(d) A farmer painted the implement. How will the painting of the implement help in increasing
their life span?
Study the chart of soil constituents below and use it to answer question 13.

13. (a) Which letter represent organic matter?

(b) What is the percentage of water?
(c) What is the percentage of air?

On a normal day a farmer was seen spreading fertilizers in his garden using his hand. Study
the diagram below and use it to answer question 14.

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14. (a) Name the method of fertilizer application

(b) Describe two advantages of method mentioned above.

15. What is the difference between insecticides and herbicides?

16. What is a farm tool?
17. Give three nutritional value of field crops
18. Explain three importance of eating field crops to HIV/AIDS infected people
19. Match the following problems faced by field crop growers and their solutions (4)

Problems Solutions

i. unreliable rainfall _______ A Using chemicals as control measures

ii. lack of money/capital_______ B Add fetilisers to the soil

iii. pests and diseases________ C Using government schemes such as CEDA and LEA

iv. poor soils_________ D Digging boreholes for irrigation

Use the information below to answer question 20.

A commercial pastoral farmer bought 100 bales of hay at P995 for her 10
animals. The bales lasted for 5 days.

20. How many bales of hay were eaten by one animal per day? Show working
21. State three ways in which agriculture is important.

The picture below shows an activity carried out to solve a problem in a vegetable garden.
Use it to answer question 22.

22. What problem is being solved?

The picture below shows form 1 students applying fertilizers very close to the plants on a
normal day. Use it to answer question 23.

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23. (a) Which method of fertilizer application is shown in the picture above?
(b) State two disadvantages of the method in 23 (a).
24. Give 1 reasons for thinning in the garden
Use the information below to answer question 25.

A farmer who practices mixed farming is advised to stop ploughing along the slop.

25. (a) What problem will the farmer face if he does not follow the instruction?
(b) What will be the correct way for the farmer to plough his field?
26. Name the branch of agriculture that involves rearing of animals.
A farmer had used a farm tool to cute some branches of the tree as shown in the diagram below.

27. (a) Give two reasons for pruning.

(b) Name the farm tool used for pruning.
(c) Name the farm tool used for transplanting seedlings.
On a normal day a farmer was seen spraying chemicals in his garden. Study the diagram
below and use it to answer question 28.

28. (a) What are herbicides?

(b) State two procedures the farmer should follow when handling chemicals.
29. Explain the following systems of agriculture.
(a) Commercial farming
(b) Subsistence farming

Use the information below to answer question 30.

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A student planted meretlwa tree, a banana tree, morula tree, grape tree, moretologa tree
and apple tree.

30. (a) Differentiate between indigenous and exotic fruit trees

(b) How many exotic fruit trees did the student plant?
(c) Name two management activities that a student will carry out after planting the exotic fruit
trees.
(d) State two advantages of planting indigenous trees.

31. Mr Siele and Mr Mpho are farmers at Dilolwe farms. Mr Siele keeps goats and Mr Mpho grows
crops and rears animals. Which types of farming is practiced by these farmers?

(a) Mr Siele
(b) Mr. Mpho

32. State two importance of soil.

Use the picture below to answer question 33.

33. Which soil constituent is being tested?

34. Define the following terms.

(a) Biotechnology
(b) Agronomy
(c) Agriculture

Study the picture below and use it to answer question 35.

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35. (a) Name the type of weathering shown in the above picture.
(b) State one agent of the above process.

The picture below shows students removing weeds from a garden. Use it to answer question
36.

36. (a) Name the tool used by the students

(b) State the use of the stool above
(c) State two reasons the management activity shown in the diagram

37. What management activity is being demonstrated in the picture below?

38. State three advantages of inorganic fertilizer.

39. Use the following pie chart to answer the questions below.

Name the soil constituents represented by 5% and 25%.

i. 5% _____________________________
ii. 25% ___________________________(2)
40. A farmer in Sese village has tested positive for HIV and AIDS. State two way on how this
condition affect agricultural production.

41. A farmer rears livestock and sells to BMC.

(a) What system of agriculture is practiced by the farmer?
(b) What level of agriculture is practiced by the farmer

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42. Explain the difference between farm tools and farm implements
43. A farmer uses a farm tool in the garden. This farm tool produces squeaky sound when it is
moving.

(a) Name the farm tool shown in the picture above

(b) What is the tool mentioned in (a) used for?
(c) How can you solve the irritating sound produced by the farm tool above?

44. Name two modern products of biotechnology

45. Which branch of agriculture involves the growing and taking care of vegetables, fruits and
ornamental plants?
46. Mrs. Lungwane is a farmer who keeps over 400 cattle and sells meat to government schools. She
also ploughs a very big land every year to meet the demand of maize at BAMB.

(a) State two branches of agriculture practiced by Mrs. Lungwane.

(b) Describe the level of agriculture practiced by Mrs. Lungwane

(c) Give one problem that Mrs. Lungwana might face as a farmer
(d) State one solution to the problem above.
Revision 2

1. What is Agriculture?
2. Discuss the social importance of agriculture in Botswana.
3. Discuss the economic importance of Agriculture in Botswana.
4. Selibe Phikwe is said to be leading with prevalence of HIV / AIDS. Discuss how this could
impact on agricultural productivity in Selibe Phikwe and Botswana at large.
5. Explain how ploughing along the slope, application of inorganic fertilizers and other agricultural
activities impact on the environment.
6. Describe the relationship between Agriculture and other subjects
7. Describe all branches of Agriculture
8. What careers can someone pursue if they studied Agriculture?
9. Discuss the entry requirements to Agricultural institutions
10. Discuss the food production situation in Botswana
11. Distinguish between food security and food self-sufficiency
12. Describe 4 factors limiting food production and security in Botswana
13. Explain ways by which food production and security in Botswana can be improved
14. Describe strategies aimed at improving food production and security in
Botswana
15. Distinguish between arable, pastoral and mixed farming

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16. Distinguish between commercial and subsistence farming

17. Tuli Block, Pandamatenga and Talana farms farmers face several problems. Explain atleast three
of these problems
18. Suggest solutions for the problems in question 17.
19. Differentiate between a tool, implement and a machine
20. Identify different farm tools and implements and explain how they should be used appropriately
21. Describe the proper care of farm tools and machines
22. Explain the appropriate way to store tools and implements

THE PICTURE ABOVE SHOWS A LARGE TRACTOR BEING USED

TO PLOUGH A LARGE SPACE OF LAND WHICH IS AN EXAMPLE
OF MECHANISATION

2. Explain what mechanization is

3. State the advantages and disadvantages of mechanization
Advantages Disadvantages

4. Describe the problems caused by tools, implements and machines on the environment
5. Suggest solutions to the problems caused by farm tools and implements
6. Explain soil fertility
7. Define fertilizer
8. State the importance of fertilizers to the soil
9. Distinguish between organic and inorganic fertilizers
10. State the advantages and disadvantages of organic and inorganic fertilizers
11. If the application rate of a certain fertilizer is 100kg/Ha how much fertilizer of that kind would
be required for a 12m2 seedbed. Show all working.
12. Differentiate between basal and top dressing
13. Explain how to do the basal dressing method of fertilizer application

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14. Distinguish between major and minor elements

15. Classify plant nutrients as major and minor elements
16. Identify the major elements found in fertilizers
17. State the sources of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
18. State the functions of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium in crops
19. Identify the symptoms displayed by plants lacking nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
20. Describe the symptoms displayed by plants having excess supply of nitrogen, and phosphorus.
21. Explain how nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium can be lost from the soil
22. Suggest ways by which soil fertility can be maintained or improved
23. Explain the negative effects of fertilizers on the environment
24. Define soil pH
25. Explain the effects of soil pH on plant growth
26. Identify crops to be grown in different soil pH
27. State the activities that alter the soil pH
28. Describe ways of regulating soil pH
29. Describe each system of crop production and give examples
30. Monoculture
31. Mixed cropping
32. Continuous cropping
33. Inter- cropping
34. Mono cropping
35. Crop rotation

36. State the advantages and disadvantages of each of the systems of crop production above
Advantages Disadvantages

37. Explain the principles of crop rotation

38. Mr Modise wants to grow vegetables for sale. State the factors he should consider when
selecting the site for his garden
39. After he has found the site, Mr Modise would have to clear his area by removing trees, shrubs
and grass. Why is this vital?
40. The process of cultivating soil for the first time in order to prepare it for growing crops is called
41. The process of cultivating soil that was cultivated previously in order to prepare it for growing
crops is called_______________________________________________________
42. Identify primary tillage and secondary tillage implements below. State the name and state
whether is a primary tillage or secondary tillage implement

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43. Explain the reasons for ploughing the soil

44. After ploughing the soil it is normally levelled with a zigzag harrow. State the reasons for this
arrangement
45. A farmer is seen busy applying fertilizers before planting his Lablab. State the reasons for this
arrangement
46. Name implements used for fertilizer application
47. Identify fertilizer application implement below

48. Describe steps followed to prepare a suitable seedbed or plot for growing crops
49. Distinguish between direct and indirect planting
50. Distinguish between row planting and broadcasting
51. State the advantages and disadvantages of the different planting methods and techniques
Advantages Disadvantages

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52. Maize seeds are not planted at the same depth as spinach seeds. Explain why
53. Explain the factors influencing the depth of planting seeds
54. Totanang found some tomato seedlings in the spinach seedbed and removed them.
1. These tomato seedlings are referred to as____________________
2. What effect would these tomato seedlings have on the spinach if they are not
removed__________________________________________
55. The process of covering a seedbed with dry grass after sowing some seeds in order to slow down
rate of water evaporation is called___________________
56. State reasons for watering, mulching and weeding
A) Watering
B) Mulching
C) Weeding
57. What is a proper way to water small seedlings
List materials that can be used for mulching
58. Suggest the appropriate time for removing mulch after planting seeds
59. Name the common weeds in Botswana
60. Define parasitic weed_____________________________________
61. Suggest ways by which weeds can be controlled
62. The process of removing excess seedlings to create space for the remaining ones is called
63. The process of moving seedlings from a nursery to a seedbed is
called____________________________________
64. What is pruning________________________________________
65. Tomatoes need trellising or staking when they start bearing fruits. Explain trellising and staking
66. State the advantages and disadvantages of thinning, transplanting, pruning and supporting plants
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Supporting plants
Thinning
Transplanting
Pruning

67. What is the name of the tool below and what is it used for

Name__________________________
Use____________________________________________
68. When is the appropriate time to transplant seedlings
69. Identify storage pests affecting field crops below
70. Explain the methods used to treat or protect stored seeds from pest damage

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71. Explain animal nutrition

72. Explain why we should feed animals
73. Explain the importance of different feed substances in animal nutrition
74. List different roughages and concentrates
75. Describe a balanced ration
76. Differentiate between a maintenance and production ration
77. Compare and contrast nutritional value of roughage and concentrates feeds
Roughages Concentrates

78. Explain supplementary feeding________________________

79. Identify supplementary feeds of livestock found in Botswana
80. Explain nutritional diseases and list them
81. Identify nutritional diseases affecting livestock production
82. The picture below shows an animal suffering from a certain nutritional disease

A. What disease is it?

B. What causes the disease? ________________________________
C. The symptoms of this disease_____________________________________
D. The preventative measures_______________________________________
Revision 3
1. The picture below show a digestive system of a bee. Use it to describe the digestive system of a
bee.

2. Describe the male and female reproductive system of a bee

3. Explain the functions of each of the different parts of bees
4. Explain how bees adapt to the environment
5. Describe the composition of a bee colony / members that make up a bee colony
6. Identify members of a bee colony below

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7. Explain the duties of each member of a bee colony

8. Explain bee manipulation
9. Describe the precautions taken when manipulating bees
10.Identify equipment used when manipulating bees below and label it accordingly
11.State factors to consider when choosing a site for bee-keeping
12.List materials required when embarking on a bee-keeping project
13.Dzscribe the catching of bees and the precautions to be taken
14.Identify bee products
15.Identify pests that attack bees and the harm they cause
PEST HARM
Ants
Wax moths
Bee pirates
Eats the brood and the comb
Honey badger

16.Describe each disease affecting bees, symptoms and the control

Disease Symptoms Control
European foulbrood Oxytetracycline antibiotic can be used

The head and the thorax becomes darker and the

head frequently shows
black patches

Nosema Chocolate- coloured droppings are left by bees on

the comb

Chalk brood No control other than keeping a strong

population

17.Define bee toxicology

18.Identify chemicals harmful to bees
19.Describe how to market bee products

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BEEF PRODUCTION
1. Describe the general characteristics of beef cattle
2. List 8 breeds of beef cattle found in Botswana
3. Name beef cattle breeds recommended by the Ministry of Agriculture
4. Explain why Afrikaner is not recommended for crossing with Tswana
5. Discuss reasons for the recommended breeds in Botswana.
6. Distinguish between communal and ranching systems of raising beef cattle
7. State the advantages and disadvantages of each system of raising beef cattle
8. Compare and contrast the two systems of raising beef cattle and say which would be most ideal for
Botswana.
9. Explain the significance of providing housing or shelter to beef cattle

10.Describe a suitable housing for beef cattle

11.Describe the types of feeds suitable to beef cattle in Botswana
12.Explain the importance of regular supply of water for beef cattle
13.Name sources of water for beef cattle in Botswana
14.Describe the water cleaning processes for animal consumption
15.Distinguish between disbudding and dehorning
16.Explain the significance of disbudding and dehorning
17.Name tools used for disbudding and dehorning
18.Define weaning
19.State reasons for weaning
20.State method of weaning
21.State the age at which beef calves are weaned
22.The common methods used for identifying beef cattle are branding and ear tagging.
23.Explain both methods and state their advantages and disadvantages
Branding___________________________________________________
Advantages of branding
Disadvantages of branding

ii. Ear tagging

Advantages of ear tagging

Disadvantages of ear tagging
23. Roundworms, liver flukes and tapeworms are all referred to as __________________ of beef cattle.
24. Describe the life cycle of a beef tapeworm
25. Describe the life cycle of a one host tick
26. What harm does tapeworm present to beef cattle
27. How do ticks affect beef cattle?
28. State ways of controlling ticks and tapeworms in beef cattle
29. State 5 diseases affecting beef cattle
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30. What type of animals are affected by Foot and Mouth Disease?
31. Explain how the Foot and Mouth Disease is spread
32. Describe the symptoms of Foot and Mouth Disease
33. Discuss Anthrax, Hearwater and Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia under the following sub
headings
Cause, Transmission and Control
Anthrax

Cause and symptoms

Transmission
Control

ii. Heartwater
Cause and symptoms
Transmission
Control
iii. Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
Cause and symptoms
Transmission
Control

34. Explain methods of marketing beef cattle in Botswana

35. State the recommended age and weight at which beef cattle are marketed
36. Describe the beef grades used at BMC
37. In the table below match each by product with its use
By product Use
Skin
Dung
Bonemeal for feeding livestock
Making glue and shirt buttons

38. Describe how castration of beef cattle can be done

39. What is the importance of castrating beef cattle?
40. What is culling?

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Revision 4

1. Describe the following systems of raising chickens, their advantages and disadvantages
Free range system
Advantages
Disadvantages
2. Fold Unit system
Advantages
Disadvantages

3. Deep litter system ________________________________________________________________

Advantages
Disadvantages
4. Battery cage system
Advantages
Disadvantages

5. Describe 5 important factors to consider before building a chicken house

6. Describe the different breeds of layers and broilers below

White Leghorn
Black Austrolorp

Indian game

Plymouth Rock

7. Describe the characteristics of a good layer

8. Describe the characteristics of a good broiler

9. Label the reproductive system of a hen below and state functions of the labelled parts

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A ___________________________________________________________
B _________________________________________________________________
C ________________________________________________________________
D _______________________________________________________________
10.State the functions of the reproductive parts of a chicken listed below
Magnum
Vagina
Infundibulum
11.Label the parts of an egg below and state their functions
A

A ____________________________________________________________
B____________________________________________________________
C_____________________________________________________________

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12.State the functions of the parts already labelled on the egg on question 11.

13.State the factors to consider when venturing into chicken enterprise

14.Describe the types of farm records below

Stock records

Production records

Financial records

15. State why it is important for a poultry house to have smooth walls like the one shown below

16. Outline steps followed to prepare for arrival of day old chicks

17. What is a brooding unit?

18. State three important points to consider when feeding new chicks

19. What is a parasite?

20. Describe the effects of mites on chickens

21. State ways adopted to control mites on chickens

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22. Fill the table below with characteristics of both healthy and sick chickens affected by mites

HEALTHY CHICKEN SICK CHICKEN

Walks around well, eager and lively and scratches

for food

Comb and wattles dull and droopy

Eyes dull, look glazed

Good appetiate

Breathing smooth and quiet

23. Discuss the Newcastle disease under the following headings
Cause

Symptoms

Effects on the bird

Control

24. Discuss the Coccidiosis disease under the following headings

Cause

Symptoms

Effects on the bird

Control

25. Why is it important to give broilers water regularly?

26. The feed given to broilers for the first three weeks is referred to as

27. Why should the starter mash contain more protein than the finisher mash?

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28. Discuss the diseases of chickens below together with their symptoms and control/ treatment

Disease Typical symptoms Control/ treatment

Fowl typhoid

*Dies suddenly without any *Good sanitation

symptoms
*Vaccinate birds
*Greenish diarrhea
*Prevent contact with wild
*Purple comb birds

*Difficult breathing *There is no treatment

*Sneezing and breathing

*Difficult breathing

Marek’s disease *Good sanitation

*Vaccination
29. Describe four general methods of chicken disease control
30. State and describe two vices of chickens

31. What is debeaking?

32. Define culling

FISH FARMING
1. State the nutritional value of fish

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2. State the economic importance of fish

3. Describe the current state of the fish industry in Botswana
4. State the factors limiting fish production in Botswana
5. Name types of fish found in the world
6. Identify the different types of fish found in Botswana
7. List materials required for the construction of a fish pond
8. Describe the construction of a fish pond
9. Identify the different types of feeds for fish
10.Determine the amount of feed to be given to fish in a fish pond
11.Discuss how to properly handle and transport fish
12.Outline methods used to control fish population.
13.Identify parasites of fish
14.Identify diseases affecting fish

FORESTRY
1. Name three exotic and three indigenous trees found in Botswana

2. What is the difference between exotic and indigenous trees? State three differences

3. State three tree products you know

4. Why are trees and tree products important?

5. Describe veld products

6. List veld products found in Botswana

7. State the uses of veld products found in Botswana

8. Describe the sources of tree seeds and tree seedlings in Botswana

9. Describe the seed collection process

10.State the factors inhibiting germination of tree seeds

11.Describe the different seed treatment methods
12.Define woodlot
13.Explain why it is necessary to correctly manage existing woodlots in Botswana
14.Describe the effective management and utilization of woodlots.
15.Define forestry conservation
16.Explain the importance of forestry conservation
17.Describe ways by which forests can be conserved.

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18.Explain agro-forestry
19.Discuss the different types of agro-forestry

FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA

1. List three indigenous and three exotic fruit trees

2. State the importance of fruits and fruit trees

3. Mr Monei wants to grow banana, mango and paw paw fruit trees. Describe the requirements for his
plan to succeed.

4. Explain factors influencing the choice of fruit trees to grow

5. List materials required for the construction of a nursery

6. Explain the significance of net shading in a nursery

7. Differentiate between sexual and asexual propagation

8. Describe the following forms of propagation
Grafting
Budding
Cutting
Layering
9. State three problems facing fruit production in Botswana and how they can be resolved

10. State three strategies adopted to improve fruit tree production in Botswana
11. Define sexual propagation
12. What is asexual propagation?
13. Outline steps followed in growing a new fruit tree from cuttings
14. Which two fruit trees are propagated using the suckers
15. A method of propagation by which a branch of a tree is bent down so that it touches the ground and
is pegged down to keep it there is called
16. Describe grafting
17. Describe the appropriate time for propagating fruit trees using asexual methods
18. Describe the necessary care given to seedlings in a nursery
19. State factors influencing the size and or depth of a planting hole for a fruit tree seedling
20. Describe the general management practices carried out in an orchard
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21. Describe the methods of harvesting fruits

22. State factors considered when marketing fruits and fruits trees

PIG PRODUCTION
23. State the factors considered before starting a pig production enterprise
24. Define boar, hog, gilt, sow and piglet
25. Describe the nature and type of preparations to be made before acquiring pigs for an enterprise
26. Prepare a budget for a pig production enterprise
27. What is the importance of pigs in Botswana?
28. List materials required for the construction of a pig sty
29. Explain the use of the various units in a pig sty
30. Identify the types of feeds given to pigs at various stages of their life cycle
31. Describe flushing
32. State the signs of heat in a sow
33. Describe the feeding of pregnant sows
34. Demonstrate the preparation of a sow for farrowing
35. Describe the proper way to care for piglets
36. Explain creep-feeding
37. Describe how to care for growers and finishers
38. Explain teeth-clipping
39. Discuss the reasons for teeth-clipping.
40. Name the parasites that affect pigs
41. Describe the life- cycle of two common parasite of pigs
42. Describe the effects of two parasites on pigs
43. Suggest ways by which the parasites can be controlled or prevented
44. Name the diseases affecting pigs
45. Identify the cause, transmission and symptoms of any two diseases of pigs
46. Describe the treatment, control and preventative measures against two diseases
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47. In the table below match each pig by-product with its use

By- product Use

Pork
Processed pork rich in proteins
Lard
To make brushes

RABBIT PRODUCTION
1. State the factors considered when starting a rabbit production enterprise and the methods of
production to employ

2. Describe the nature and type of preparations to be made before acquiring rabbits for an enterprise

3. Prepare a budget estimate for the rabbit production enterprise

4. State the significance of housing or provision of shelter when raising rabbits

5. Name the types of feeds suitable for rabbits

6. Explain the reasons for providing food and water regularly to rabbits

7. Describe the proper way of handling of rabbits

8. What name is given to the practice shown below?

9. Name parasites affecting rabbits

10. Describe the life- cycles of two common parasites on rabbits

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11. Describe the effects of the parasites of rabbits

12. Suggest ways by which the parasites can be controlled or prevented
13. Name diseases affecting rabbits
14. Identify the cause, transmission and symptoms
15. Demonstrate the treatment, control and preventive measures against any two diseases of rabbits.
16. What are the symptoms of coccidiosis and how can it be controlled?
17. Explain how roundworms can be passed from one rabbit to another?
18. What is a female rabbit called?
19. What is the importance of rabbit production to Botswana?
20. Explain factors that limit rabbit production in Botswana
21. Which breed of rabbit is characterized by white body with dark ears , nose and feet and are
mainly bred for fur

22. List three by products of rabbits and state their uses

23. Describe how to process and market rabbits
24. State four breeds of rabbits

REPRODUCTION AND BREEDING IN CATTLE

1. Describe the following reproductive parts of a bull

A. Testicles

B. Epididymis

C. Vas Deferens

A tube that allows urine to pass from the bladder to the outside of the body

E. Seminal vesicles and prostate gland

__________________________________________________________________

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__________________________________________________________________

F. _______________
Part of the male body that is used for mating. It is shaped for entering into a female’s vagina and is made
of spongy tissues that can expand.

2. Describe the reproductive organs of a cow A. Ovaries

B. Fallopian tubes
C. Uterus
Where the uterus opens into the vagina. It is elastic which means it can open and close the opening of the
uterus. It is normally closed to prevent dirt and organisms from entering the uterus.

E. Vulva

3. __________________ is when an animal begins to change from being a young animal to an adult
animal. During this stage the genitals of the young animals grow. A heifer begin to develop her
udder and her vulva increases in size.
4. Describe the process of reproduction in cattle

5. Describe the oestrous cycle of a cow

6. When a cow becomes restless, runs around bellowing and mounting other cows and allowing other
cows to mount her, and thick clear mucus accumulating on her vulva it is a sign that
7. What is a heat period and how long is it in cows?

8. What is ovulation?

9. What is gestation and how long is the gestation period of a cow?

10. Describe the proper care for a pregnant cow

11. Define parturition
12. Describe the signs of parturition in cows
13. Define dystokia.
14. State the causes of dystokia
15. Explain control of dystokia
16. Define breeding __________________________________________________________________
17. Describe selection

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18. Describe cross- breeding

19. Describe inbreeding
20. Describe upgrading
21. State the advantages and disadvantages of each system of breeding
System of breeding Advantages Disadvantages

22. Suggest other ways of animal improvement

23. Describe methods used to control breeding of cattle
24. Define mating
25. Describe natural mating
26. Define artificial insemination
27. Describe artificial insemination
28. State the advantages and disadvantages of artificial insemination and natural service

Advantages Disadvantages
Artificial insemination

Natural service

29. Describe the collection of semen from a bull

30. Describe conditions necessary for the storage of semen
31. Describe the period or season when cows are artificially inseminated in Botswana
32. Name artificial insemination camps in Botswana

33. Label the parts of the reproductive system of a bull shown below

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34. Label the parts of the reproductive system of a cow below

35. In the picture below label the calf that is in breech position and that is in normal position

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36. What practice is shown by the picture below

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
1. Fill the table below with exotic and indigenous vegetables
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Exotic Indigenous

2. State four points on nutritional importance of vegetables

3. State the economic importance of vegetables

4. Describe the supply and demand situation of vegetable production in Botswana.

5. Modise wants to venture into vegetable enterprise here in Botswana. State factors that may limit his
enterprise

6. Discuss government strategies to improve vegetable production in Botswana

7. Describe opportunities for further vegetable development

8. State the requirements for establishment of a vegetable enterprise

9. State factors to consider when choosing which vegetable to grow

10.State factors to consider when choosing a method of production for your vegetable enterprise
11.Complete the table below showing classes of vegetables
Class Crop
Spinach , cabbage, rape, lettuce, chou moelier

Root
Bulb

Brocolli, Cauliflower
Fruit
Peas, Lima bean, Broad bean

12.List the three types of seedbeds suitable for vegetable production together with their
advantages and disadvantages
Type of seedbed Advantages Disadvantages

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13.Taking spinach as a vegetable to study, describe the following

 Climatic requirements
 Soil type
 Fertilizing
 Sowing
 Spacing
 Thinning
 Watering

14.Thero is seen busy removing tomato seedlings from a beetroot seedbed. What management practice is
he carrying out and why is it important?

15.Describe how aphids affect vegetable crops and how they can be controlled
16.A vegetable crop disease which is characterized by pale yellow, irregularly shaped areas on the leaves
and is caused by a fungus is called

17.List three diseases affecting Spinach/ Swiss chard

18.List three diseases affecting tomatoes and how they can be controlled
19.State the fertilizer requirements for growing Onions

20.State two varieties of beetroot

21.The management practice shown below is

ii. State the importance of the management practice shown above

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Revision 5
1. State two ways in which agriculture can improve the economy of Botswana

Study the diagram below and answer question 2

2. (a) Which crop management practice is shown above?

(b) Give two advantages of the above mentioned crop practice

Use the diagram of an animal showing symptoms of a nutritional diseases below to answer
question 3

3. (a) Name the disease that could have affected the animal.
(b) Name two other symptoms of the disease.
(c) How can the disease be treated?

The diagram below illustrates an activity carried out during chicken production. Use it to
answer question 4

4. (a) What is name of the activity?

(b) What is the importance of the activity?

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5. What is meant by marketing mix

6. State three ways of how the use of ICT is important in Agriculture
7. The application rate of LAN in a plot is 20g/m2. How much LAN would be needed in a plot
measuring 10 m by 4 m?

Answer__________________

A farmer growing sorghum plant in a filed noticed that the plants are changing colour
from green to reddish purple. The farmer applied 2:3:2 (22) to the soil but the colour of
the leaves did not improve

8. Explain what could be the possible problem

Use the information provided below to answer question 9

A student planted 10 maize seeds with 85% germination trees. The local agriculture
teacher advised them to remain with a maximum of 6 strong seedlings.

9. (a) Which management activity will the student carryout in order to remain with the required
number of seedlings?
(b) State two advantages of carrying out the activity in (a)

10. Draw the structure of an egg and label airspace, albumen and germinal disc

Use the statement below to answer question 11

A farmer in Mochudi keeps small stock and grows crops like maize and sorghum

11. (a) Name the type of farming practiced by the farmer

(b) Give two benefits for keeping livestock and growing crops
(c) What is meant by agriculture?

12. Describe two impacts of agricultural activities on the environment

13. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe grafting method of asexual propagation

The diagram below shows a pest that attacks crops. Use it to answer question 14

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14. (a) Name the pest shown

(b) Describe two damages caused by the pest

Use the information below to answer question 15

Kelebogile grows onion and tomatoes; she uses implements drawn by a tractor.
Kelebogile supplies Choppies and Spar in Botswana with her products

15. (a) Name the level of production practiced by Kelebogile

(b) State two environmental hazards that Kelebogile is likely to experience

16. A farmer applied 200 kg organic fertilizer in a vegetable plot before planting cabbage and 10 kg
of L.A.N while the cabbage has formed heads.
(a) Suggest two reasons why the farmer applied organic fertilizer for planting
(b) Explain one advantage of knowing fertilizer quantity to be applied

Use the information below to answer question 17.

Fido took a soil sample and tested its pH. The pH is reading
2

17. (a) What should Fido do to correct the pH of the soil?

(b) State two challenges that Fido will face when growing crops
(c) Name device Fido can use to measure the pH of the soil.

18. Tebogo planted 250 seeds of Marula and only 200 seeds germinated
(a) Calculate the percentage of seeds that did not germinate

Answer_____________
(b) Suggest two ways by which Tebogo can improve seed germination

19. Outline two factors a farmer would consider when choosing a site for growing vegetables
The diagram below shows students A, B and C carrying out different management activities
in a garden. Use it to answer question 20

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20. State one reason for each management practice carried out by students A and C.
The diagram below shows a chicken with a trimmed beak. Use it to answer question 21.

21. (a) Suggest a precaution to be taken when carrying out the management activity.
(b) State two benefits of carrying out the activity

The diagram below shows one method of milking cows. Use it to answer question 22

22. (a) Name the method shown

(b) Describe two preparations carried out when using the method shown

The diagram below shows a structure used for chicken production. Use it to answer
question 23

23. Describe how the structure should be prepared before the arrival of chicks

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The diagram below shows a structure used in animal production. Use it to answer question
24

24. Name any two parasites that can be controlled using the structure shown

The diagram below shows a source of water for cattle. Use it to answer question 25

25. Name the source of livestock water supply shown

Use the information below to answer question 26

Naledi runs a chicken farm. She hired Thabo to plan and coordinate activities in the
farm. Thabo also supervises the workers in the farm.

26. (a) Explain two qualities that Thabo must have

(b) Draw the organization structure for Naledi’s farm

27. (a) State two reasons why arable farming is important in Botswana
(b) Describe one strategy used by the government of Botswana to improve food security of
cereals in the country
(c) Mr Nakedi works at a cordon fence gate. Which branch of agriculture does his work fall
under?

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.
Use the diagram below showing a cropping system to answer question 28.

28. (a) Name the cropping system shown above

(b) How can the farmer maintain the fertility of the soil?
(c) A farmer applied excess kraal manure to the soil in year 2
Give two ways in which this will affect crops grown in year 3

The diagram below shows a soil profile

29. (a) Name the layer labelled B

(b) Explain how the layer C could be broken up by;

i. the action plants

ii. the action of chemicals

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The diagrams below shows two plants; P is a grass and Q is a legume

30. (a) Which of these plants is pollinated by insects?

(b) State two features of insect-pollinated flower
(c) State one function of the swollen underground stem in plant P
(d) Name the structure labelled X in plant P
(e) Name the process of water loss from leaves

31. (a) Complete the diagram below showing a mould board plough by drawing and labeling the
missing parts

(b) Name the part of the mould board plough that will need adjustment to solve the following
problems

i. The plough digging too deep

ii. Cut soil remaining unturned
(c) Name a garden tool that performs the same function as a plough

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The diagram below shows a poultry house and run

32. (a) State two advantages of using corrugate iron instead of thatch for the roof of the house
(b) Suggest why the house is not in a good position in this run
(c) State two advantages of dividing the run

33. The following diagram shows the male reproductive system of a farm animal

(a) Name the parts labelled A and B

A_____________________________
B_____________________________
(b) State a function of the fluids produced by the glands X and Y
X_________________________________________________________________________
Y_________________________________________________________________________
(c) At the birth of a farm animal, certain tasks should be carried out. State a task that should be
carried out by the farmer;
I. Before birth

II. After birth

(d) Explain the importance of colostrum to the young animal

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34. Below is a diagram showing a chicken with symptoms of a diseases

(a) Name a disease that could result in the above symptoms

(b) Name any two symptoms of the disease affecting the chicken shown
(c) Name the cause of the disease
(d) Name one vaccine that can be used against the disease

35. (a) Name two hand tools that can be used for turning over the soil
(b) State one safety precaution to be observed when using hand tools in the garden plot
(c) State two reasons for turning the soil
(d) List three things to consider when deciding to make a garden plot
(e) Name a cereal crop

i. Explain how you would recognize when this crop is ready for harvesting
ii. Describe how this crop is harvested

36. The table shows a list of food groups and their use in animals

Food group Use in the animal

Carbohydrate Energy production
Protein
Energy storage
Vitamins Health
Minerals health
(a) Complete the missing details in the table
(b) State one essential part of an animal’s diet not listed in the table
(c) Name the process that animals carry out to release the energy from digested food
(d) i. What do animals use the mineral calcium for?

ii. What do plants use the mineral magnesium for?

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Use it to answer question 37

37. (a) Which agro-forest practice is shown?

(b) State one reason why trees are important in the agro-forest practice shown
38. The diagram below shows a sweet potato plant

(a) State how the plant is pollinated during sexual reproduction

(b) State what substance is stored in the tubers
(c) Describe how the sweet potato reproduces asexually

39. The diagram below shows an area where clearing, stumping and burning are happening.

(a) List three task needed to make seedbed on the cleared land

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(b) Suggest why it would not be appropriate to apply a fertilizer high in potassium (potash) to
this reclaimed land

Use the illustration of a plot below to answer question 40

40. (a) How much LAN fertilizer can be added to the plot above if the application rate is 250 kg/ha?
(hint 1 ha = 10 0000 m2, 1 kg = 1 000g) Show your calculations

Answer _______________

(b) How many seedling of cabbage can be planted in this plot if the spacing is 60 cm between
rows and 45 cm within rows

Answer _______________

The diagram below shows the reproductive organs of a ruminant. Use it to answer question 41
and 42.

41. Label the parts X and Y on the diagram

X______________________________________
Y______________________________________

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42. Suggest a function for the shape of the part labelled Z on the diagram

The following is a diagram showing a farm by a dam

43. (a) How is the level of water in the dam controlled?

(b) Make a sketch in the space below to show how to join two sections of pope

44. With an aid of a well-labelled graph, describe how the market price is determined.
Graph

Description

Pests destroy pasture and crops. The drawing below shows a leave damaged by a pest, use it to
answer question 45

45. (a) Name a pest that could have caused the damage
(b) Suggest two reasons why such damage to the leaves would reduce the growth of the plant

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Use the diagram below to answer question 46

46. (a) State two ways in which the stricture shown can protect the local market of crops
(b) Name any three cereals whose local market can be protected by the structure in (a)
47. The table below shows the recommended amount of calcium and phosphorus needed by growers
and laying hens

Recommended % levels of calcium and phosphorus (minerals) for poultry feed

Mineral Chicks’ feed Growers’ feed Layers’ feed

Calcium 0.8 1.1 4.0

Phosphorus 0.45 0.4 0.32

(a) Suggest a reason for the differences between the amounts of calcium needed by chicks
and growers
(b) Suggest a reason for the increased demand for calcium by layers
48. Explain why the rations required by an adult chicken can be different at different times
The diagram below shows the cross-section of a leaf

(a) On the diagram, name tissue W and structure Y

(b) Describe the role of tissue X in photosynthesis

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The diagram below shows part of a farm

49. (a) Name the method of land use suggested by the diagram
(b) The tenure of its land could be communal and farmed by many families or rented and farmed
by one family. State the disadvantages and advantages of one of these system of tenure

Use the following diagrams to answer question 50

50. (a) Name the parts of the flower labelled A and B

A______________________________
B______________________________

(b) Describe how the plant is pollinated

(c) Seeds form after fertilization. Define fertilization

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The diagram shows the collection of water from a roof

51. (a) State two reasons why the water in the tank might not be suitable for use as drinking water
(b) Mark on the tank in the diagram where a tab should be place to provide water for drip
irrigation

52. The following shows a plastic water pipe used for drip irrigation

(a) State how to join a connecting pipe to the drip pope at P.

You can use a diagram to help explain your answer

(b) Suggest two disadvantages that drip irrigation has over furrow irrigation

The bar graph below shows the different vegetables planted in a particular village
Use it to answer question 53

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53. (a) How many fruits vegetable plants were sown?

(b) Name any two vegetables from the graph and state how they would benefit from each other
(c) i. State a nutrition that is required for the growing of rape

ii. State the importance of the nutrient named in (c) (i)

54. The diagram below shows a storage building for a cereal crop.

(a) What is the purpose of the part labelled X

(b) The roof is thatched. State a possible disadvantage of the thatched roof
(c) Suggest how the process of rotting in the wooden legs can be prevented

55. State one difference between food security and food-sufficiency

56. Many food crops are now sold as ‘organic’

(a) State how food crops qualify to be classified as organic

(b) Fertilizers provide cereal with nutrients. State two disadvantages of using organic fertilizers,
such as kraal manure

(c) The diagram below shows a bag of inorganic fertilizer

i. What does K stand for?

ii. Why is K needed by cereal crops?

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57. (a) What is soil pH?

(b) If a soil has a pH of 5, what could be done to move its pH to 8?

The diagram below shows seedlings being grown in a glass cloche

58. State two possible effects that the high humidity has on the seedlings

59. Pests can be controlled by using chemicals. The diagram below shows the protective clothes worn
when using pesticides

(a) Which two other items shown below, should be worn when mixing very toxic fluids?

(b) State two precautions, other than wearing protective clothing, which should be taken when
spraying pesticides
(c) Explain how pollution could occur during the cleaning of spraying equipment
60. The diagram below shows a broiler chicken and a broiler chick

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Broilers take 52 days to grow ready for market.

This rapid growth will not be achieved if the chicks become ill

(a) Give two signs which indicate that a chick is ill

(b) State what action should be taken by the farmer if a chick become ill

61. Two livestock buildings A and B are shown below. Use the diagrams below to answer question a
and b

(a) Draw a roof truss suitable for building A

(b) Give two reasons why the corner posts in building B should be set in a concrete

62. Identify the tool and implement below and explain their use each

(a) Tool

(b) Implement

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63. The diagram below shows a Zeru cow. Use it to answer question a and b.

(a) The cow provides the famer’s family with milk. The milk can be used to make butter and
cheese
Give three other products the cow provides and state what each can be used for
(b) State two ways to recognize ill health in a cow

64. (a) Calculate the range of depth of planting seeds using the diameter given

Diameter of the seed Range for depth of

planting
1 mm 3-5 mm
4 mm

(b) State any two principles of crops rotation

(c) Complete the table below by stating a solution to each of the soil problems shown

Problem Solution

Weeds

High soil
pH

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65. The diagram bellows shows two farm implements that are used to cultivate the soil

(a) Name two tools that you could use in the garden that would do the same job when preparing a
seed bed
(b) Explain how each tool you mention could be used to prepare a seed bed in the garden

66. The diagram shows a soil profile

(a) Label the parts A and B on the soil profile

(b) In which layer, A, B or C, would you expect to find most organic matter?
Use the information below to answer question 67 and 68

Mr. Rebabonaha practice agronomy on a 10 hectare piece of land. He buys fertilizer that comes
with the following application instructions:

Crop Time of application Application rate

Spinach Basal application 125 g/m
Cabbage Top dressing 75 g/m
Kale
Maize Top dressing 50 kg/ha
Sorghum
Lemon Top dressing 10 kg/ha
Orange

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67. How much fertilizer will Mr.Rebabonaha need for his crops?
Show your working

Answer ____________________
68. Which method of fertiliser application can be used using the irrigation system below?

i. Name of the method

ii. Which problem can a farmer face when using the method to apply fertilisers?
Below is a photo of an animal suffering from one of the nutritional disease. Use it to answer
question 69

69. (a) What could this animal be suffering from?

(b) How can the disease be prevented?

70. The photograph below shows an intensive poultry-rearing system

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(a) State three ways in which disease could spread between these birds
(b) Describe three economic benefits of rearing chicken

71. (a) State what is meant by the term biological control

(b) Describe how cultural methods can be used to control crop pests.
(c) Explain the benefits of chemical pest control.

72. (a) Describe the role of legumes in crop rotations.

(b) Describe how the soil pH of a field should be tested.
(c) Explain how soil can become acidic and how this could affect soil fertility.

73. The photograph shows land that was covered with thick undergrowth and is now grazed.

(a) Describe how this land could have been cleared to provide pasture.
(b) Explain why this change in land use increases the risk of soil erosion.
(c) Suggest two ways in which a pasture suitable for grazing could be established on the cleared
land.
74. The diagrams show the digestive systems of a chicken (non-ruminant) and a cow (ruminant).

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(a) Describe the differences in the way the non-ruminant and ruminant ingest (collect) their food
(b) Describe the differences in the way the non-ruminant and ruminant prepare their food before
digestion.
(c) Describe the differences in the way the non-ruminant and ruminant excrete waste products.

75. The diagram below shows a type of agro-forestry. Use it to answer question 75 (a) and (b)

(a) Name the type if agro-forestry shown in the diagram

(b) State one disadvantage of practicing this type of agro-forestry
(c) State two ways in which woodlots are economically important

76. (a) Draw the reproductive system of a hen and label the parts; magnum, isthmus and
infundibulum.

An outbreak of some very important chicken diseases can cause a great loss to chicken farmers
due to high mortality

(c) Suggest any method of controlling the disease

Why are chicks given feeds that contains coccidiostats

Use the information below to answer question 77.

Mrs Seitshiro plans to start a poultry enterprise to supplement her family income. She does
dome research and determines the following costs of inputs and prices of outputs for both
enterprises.

Item Cost/Price (P)

50 x Layers mash (50 kg bag) 6 250.00
25 x Starter mas (50 kg bag) 2 750.00
5 x Finisher mash (50 kg bag) 600.00
100 Day old chicks 200.00
50 point of lay pullets 1 500.00
200 Dozen eggs 3 000.00
95 Broiler chickens (dressed) 4 275.00
43 Layer chickens (dressed) 1 290.00

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77. Prepare a budget for broiler production

78. Discuss any three agricultural activities and their impact on the environment

79. Explain how providing education and training is a strategy for improving food production and
security
80. Study the diagram below and use it to answer question a and b

(a) What level of farming is shown by the diagram below

(b) State any two characteristics of the level of farming

81. Identify the tools below and state their uses

Tool Name Use

82. Which method of fertilizer application is describe below?

Fertilizer is dissolved in water and applied to the plant leaves by means of irrigation

83. State two ways by which phosphorus can be lost from the soil
84. With the aid of a diagram, describe how staking is done

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85. Complete the table below by stating field crops and their classes

Crop Class
Cassava
Oil
Fruit

86. Differentiate between maintenance and production ration

87. With the aid of a diagram, explain layering as a method of propagating fruit trees
88. State three reasons for pruning fruit trees
Use the diagram below to answer question 89

89. (a) Name the structure illustrated by the diagram above

(b) What type of feeds is given to chickens raised in the above structure?
(c) Explain why the above structure should be round in shape

90. What is a woodlot?

Use the following information to answer question 91

Mr Tyro is a poultry farmer in Sese. The following information was extracted from his record books;
on the 20/01/2018 he bought 10 bags of grower mas @ P50 each. A total sum of P5000 was received
from Sefalana as money owed to the business on the 26/01/2018. He bought vaccines with P50 on the
02/02/2018. On the 16/02/2018, he sold 100 dressed chickens @ P50 each. A 50 kg bag of manure
was sold at P200 on the 21/02/2018. Total electricity and water bills stood at P400 which was done
on the 30/02/2018. On the 13/03/2018 he received P200 from the sale of offals.

91. Prepare profit and loss account

92. Discuss aphosphorosis under the following sub heading

(a) Cause
(b) Symptoms
(c) Control

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93. State two problems experienced by commercial farmers and suggest one solution to each

Problem
Solution

Problem
Solution
94. State the difference between mulching and shading when growing crops
95. Complete the table below by classifying the information given either as broadcasting or row
planting.
 Suitable for seeds such as grass seeds
 Provide a good foliage cover to soil
 Facilitate use of machinery
 Low crop yields are usually obtained

Broadcasting Row planting

96. (a) Explain how the following factors influence the planting depth of seeds

i. Seed size
ii. Type of soil

(b) Calculate the maximum planting depth of a bean seed below

Answer __________________
97. Use the information below to answer the questions a – c.

Three farmers are practicing different agro forestry systems:

Farmer A rear animals, grow trees and pasture at the same time and place.

Farmer B grow crops in between the rows of trees in the same land

Farmer C rear animals and grow crops in between the rows of trees and pasture

(a) State the system of agro forestry practiced by the following farmers
(b) Give one advantage/benefit of the system practiced by Farmer C

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98. The diagram below show chicken kept under management practices labeled P and Q. Use it to
answer questions that follows

(a) Name the management practices labelled P and Q.

(b) At what age can the chickens be kept under the management practice Q?
(c) State two advantages that management practice P has over management practice Q

Use the information below to answer question 99

Farmer A uses a tractor, a combined harvester and planters for his farming activities while
Farmer B uses a digging fork, a spade and a knife for his farming operations

99. (a) Name the level of farming practiced by Farmer B

(b) State two disadvantages of farming level practiced by Farmer A
(c) How much superphosphate fertilizer should be applied to a vegetable garden measuring 40m
by 40m, if the recommended rate is 200kg/ha? Show your working

Answer ______________________

(d) With an aid of a well labeled diagram, describe one method of fertilizer application in a crop
field

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BEE KEEPING

The diagram below shows one member of a bee colony. Use it to answer question 1.

1. (a) Name the parts labelled P and Q.

(b) What are the functions of the parts R and S?
(c) Outline three precautions taken when harvesting honey
(d) State one reason for opening a hive frequently
(e) Name two pest of bees

2. (a) Draw the female reproductive system of a bee and label any four parts

The drawing below shows the digestive system of a bee.

Use it to answer it to answer question 2 (b) and (c).

(b) Name the parts labelled C and D.

(c) State the function of the parts labelled A and B.
(d) Which bee colony member will cause other bees to abscond?

3. (a) Define bee manipulation

(b) Describe the features of a drone bee
(c) State two pests of bees and how they are controlled

4. Draw and label three parts of the male reproductive system of a bee

5. Suggest possible control measures for the pests of Bees below

PEST POSSIBLE CONTROL MEASURES

Honey Badger
Bee Pirate

6. State two bee by products

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7. The diagram below shows an activity in bee keeping. Use it to answer a and b

(a) Name the activity shown

(b) Name the protective clothing labeled W and Z on the diagram

8. (a) Name any three members of bee colony

(b) State on duty for each one of the above mentioned member of bee colony

FISH FARMING

The diagram below shows one member of a fish. Use it to answer question 1.

1. (a) Name the parts labelled P and Q.

(b) What is the function of the parts labelled R and S?
(c) Outline three precautions to be taken when transporting live fish
(d) State two reasons for keeping air off the surface when freezing fish
(c) Name two parasites of fish

2. (a) Draw a diagram showing a fish and label the parts that aid the upward movement in fish

(b) State the function of each of the following parts of a fish;

Scales; _____________________________________________________________________
Nostrils;____________________________________________________________________
Eyes; ______________________________________________________________________
(c) State how cage culture controls fish population
(a) State two factors limiting fish farming in Botswana
(b) Tshepo wanted to reduce the population of fish in her pond. How can she achieve this?

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She also observed that her fish had damaged gills and show healing of wounds.
(c) What could the fish be suffering from?
(d) Name the cause of the disease
(e) Describe the stages involved in the processing of fish

3. (a) Name any two breeds of fish found in Botswana

(b) Mention any two ways of controlling fish population
(c) Identify the following tool used for catching fish

(d) Discuss any two methods of preserving fish

4. The diagram below shows an activity carried out in fish farming.

List two equipment used to carry out the activity

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RABBIT PRODUCTION

The diagram below shows a structure used in rabbit management. Use it to answer question 1.

1. (a) Name the structure shown

(b) Describe the importance of the feature labeled D
2. Describe one method of raising rabbits
3. Describe how a farmer can prepare for a doe before kindling
4. Name three rabbits diseases
5. (a) State any three factors considered before starting rabbit production enterprise
(b) Explain why it is not advisable to give rabbits too much of green feeds at the same time
Below is the method of raising rabbits. Use it to answer question c and

(c) What is the method called?

(d) State any two advantages of using the method
6. (a) State two situations that demand handling of rabbits
(b) Name the method of handling rabbits shown below

(c) State two ways of controlling external parasites of rabbits

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7. The diagram below shows an activity carried out in rabbit production.

(a) Name the activity shown above

(b) State two reasons for carrying out the activity above

PIG PRODUCTION

The diagram below shows a structure used in pig management. Use it to answer question 1.

1. (a) Name the structure

(b) Describe the importance of the features labelled E and F

2. Describe any two methods of pig production

3. Describe how a farmer can prepare for a sow before farrowing
4. Name any three diseases that can affects pigs
5. (a) Name one disease found in pigs
(b) State the following in relation to the disease named in (a)
Cause
Symptoms
Two control measures

6. (a) State two signs of heat period in pigs

(b) What is the importance of the following processes

Teeth-clipping
Creep-feeding

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7. Describe the cycle of a pig lice

8. Describe how a pregnant pig should be fed
9. (a) Describe any two signs of sows
(b) What is meant by creep feeding?

(c) Name the management practice shown below

10. (a) List two materials required when constructing a pig sty
The diagram below shows a method of pig production

(c) Describe the pig production method shown above

GOAT PRODUCTION

1. (a) State two reason for feeding goats

(b) Name three goat products
(c) Describe the slaughtering process of goats

2. Tool X is used to carry out management practice in goat production. Describe how the tool is
used
3. (a) Name and describe three management practices that can be carried out when animals are kept
in the structure below

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(b) Give two reasons why animals kept in structure P are less susceptible to disease than those
kept in structure Q.

(c) State two effects of internal parasites on goats

4. Identify the breeds of goats below and state the use for each

Describe how drenching of goats is done using a dosing gun.

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