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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Tanish for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
The program or set of programs is developed based on
1. Algorithm Design & the design.
Each module of the program is written using a suitable
Problem-Solving programming language.
Testing is conducted to ensure that each module
functions correctly.
1.1. Program Development Life Cycle Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting
(PDLC) modular tests, making code amendments if necessary,
and repeating tests until the module meets the required
Analysis functionality.
Design
Coding Testing
Testing
Maintenance The completed program or set of programs is executed
multiple times using various test data sets.
Analysis This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the
program work together as specified in the program
Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and design.
document the problem clearly, known as the Running the program with different test data can identify
"requirements specification" for the program. and address potential issues and errors.
The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality
and decomposition to identify the specific requirements and performance of the program by evaluating its
for the program. behaviour with various inputs.
Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed
for the solution while eliminating unnecessary details 1.2. Structure Diagrams
and information.
Decomposition involves breaking down complex Every computer system is made up of sub-systems,
problems into smaller, more manageable parts that can which are in turn made up of further sub-systems.
be solved individually. Structure Diagrams – The breaking down of a computer
Daily tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for system into sub-systems, then breaking each sub-system
easier understanding and solving. into smaller sub-systems until each one only performs a
single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically
Design represents a top-down design. Example below.
The program specification derived from the analysis
stage is used as a guide for program development.
During the design stage, the programmer should clearly
understand the tasks to be completed, the methods for
performing each task, and how the tasks will work
together.
Documentation methods such as structure charts,
flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to document
the program's design formally. 1.3. Pseudocode & Flowcharts
Coding and iterative testing
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants
process or set of steps) and flowcharts are a Variable – Store of data which changes during
diagrammatic representation. execution of the program (due to user input)
Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the Constant – Store of data that remains the same
steps required to complete a task and the order that during the execution of the program
they are to be performed Basic Data Types
Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are Integer – Whole Number e.g. 2; 8; 100
called an algorithm Real – Decimal Number e.g. 7.00; 5.64
Char – Single Character e.g. ‘a’; ‘Y’
String – Multiple Characters (Text) e.g. “ZNotes”;
“COOL”
Boolean – Only 2 Values e.g. True/False; Yes/No; 0/1
Input & Output (READ & PRINT) – Used to receive and
display data to the user respectively. (It is recommended
to use input and output commands)
INPUT Name
OUTPUT "Hello Mr." , Name
// Alternatively //
READ Name
An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper
PRINT "Hello Mr," , Name
question in which all of the functions of a flowchart are
shown: Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be
declared by the following manner
DECLARE [Variable Name] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE]
Array: Array is similar to variable but it can store
multiple values of same datatype under single name
DECLARE [ARRAYNAME] : ARRAY [Lower Limit : Upper Lim
Assignment - Each variable is assigned using a left
arrow.
[VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned]
ArrayName [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assigned]
This flowchart’s task is to check if a rider’s height is more the Conditional Statements:
requirement (1.2) in this case. It then counts until the IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF
accepted riders are 8. After they are 8, it outputs the
number of rejected riders and tells the rest that they are
ready to go!
2. Pseudocode
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Loop Structures:
FOR…TO…NEXT : Will run for a determined/known
REPEAT… UNTIL – Will run at least once till condition is
satisfied; Verification is done after running code
CASE…OF…OTHERWISE…ENDCASE – Multiple conditions and
corresponding consequences \n
WHILE…DO…ENDWHILE – May not ever run; Verification
is done before running code
Note: When using conditions in these loop structures
and conditional statement, it has to be kept in mind that
it can be done in two ways.
1. use of a Boolean variable that can have the value
TRUE or FALSE
2. comparisons made by using coparison operators,
where comparisons are made from left to right
IF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE]
THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF
IF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDITION
THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
MaxiumumValue <--- Array[1] MinimumValue <--- Array[
2.1. FOR Counter ← 2 TO LoopLimit
IF Array[Counter] > MaximumValue
THEN
MaximumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF
IF Array[Counter] < MinimumValue
THEN
MinimumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF
NEXT Counter
// Average//
2.2. Standard methods used in Total ← 0
FOR Counter ← 1 TO NumberOfValues
algorithm: Total ← Total + StudentMark[Counter]
NEXT Counter
Totalling :Totalling means keeping a total that values are Average ← Total / NumberOfValues
added to
Linear Search: In a linear search, each item in the list is
Total ← 0 inspected sequentially until a match is found or the
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit entire list is traversed.
Total ← Total + ValueToBeTotalled
NEXT Counter
INPUT Value
Counting: Keeping a count of the number of times an Found ← FALSE
action is performed is another standard method. Counter ← 0
REPEAT
PassCount ← 0
IF Value = Array[Counter]
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit
THEN
INPUT Value
Found ← TRUE
IF Value > Range ELSE
THEN Counter ← Counter + 1
PassCount ← PassCount + 1
ENDIF
ENDIF
UNTIL Found OR Counter > NumberOfValues
NEXT Counter IF Found
THEN
Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest
OUTPUT Value , " found at position " , Counter, "
and smallest values in a list are two standard methods
ELSE
that are frequently found in algorithms
OUTPUT Value , " not found."
ENDIF
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Bubble Sort: Iteratively compare and swap adjacent Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not
elements in a list to sort them. Start from the first suitable, if the solution is working properly is called
element and continue until the second-to-last element. abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
After each pass, the last element is in its correct place. e.g. in a program where only whole number values
However, other elements may still be unsorted. Repeat ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, abnormal
the process, excluding the last element, until only one data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520
element remains or no swaps are needed.
First ← 1
3.3. Extreme Data
Last ← 10
Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that
REPEAT
normal data can take
Swap ← FALSE
FOR Index ← First TO Last - 1
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
IF Array[Index] > Array[Index + 1]
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, extreme
THEN
data will be: 0 and 100
Temp ← Array[Index]
Array[Index] ← Array[Index + 1] 3.4. Boundary Data
Array[Index + 1] ← Temp
Swap ← TRUE This is used to establish where the largest and smallest
ENDIF values occur
NEXT Index At each boundary two values are required: one value is
Last ← Last - 1 accepted and the other value is rejected.
UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 1 e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, one
example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101. 100 will
3. Test Data be accepted and 101 will not be accepted
Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and
assess the functionality and performance of a computer 4. Trace Table
program or system.
It helps identify errors and assess how the program A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of
handles different scenarios every step in an algorithm. It is employed to record the
variable's value each time it undergoes a change.
A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically
3.1. Normal Data executing an algorithm by following each step in
Normal data is the test data which accepts values in sequence.
A trace table is set up with a column for each variable
acceptible range of values of the program
and a column for any output e.g.
Normal data should be used to work through the
solution to find the actual result(s) and see if they are the
same as the expected result(s)
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, normal
test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100
3.2. Abnormal Data
Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart
and document the outcomes in a trace table. During the dry
run:
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is
recorded in the respective column of the trace table. 5. How to write an algorithm?
Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the
output column. The ability to write an algorithm is very important for
this syllabus and paper. Some key steps/points to be
An example of trace table is given below using a past paper
known in-order to write the perfect algorithm are as
question:
follows:
Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who
want to ride on a rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres 1. Make sure that the problem is clearly understood
are rejected. The ride starts when eight children have been which includes knowing the purpose of the algorithm
accepted. and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm.
2. Break the problem into smaller problems (e.g. in a
program which outputs average values, divide the
problem into multiple ones i.e. how to count the
number of iterations and how to count the total of all
values)
3. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into
variables/constants/arrays and what datatype it is,
and declare all the variables/constants/arrays
accordingly, with meaningfull names
4. Decide on how you are going to construct your
algorithm, either using a flowchart or pseudocode. If
you are told how to construct your algorithm, then
follow the guidance.
Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3, 5. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be
1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0 easily read and understood by someone else. Take
Riders
0
Reject
0
Height OUTPUT
particular care with syntax e.g. when conditions are
1 1.4 used for loops and selection.
2
1
1.3
1.1
6. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and
3 1.3 Boundary) to dry run your algorithm and check if the
4
2 1.0
1.5
expected results are achieved (a trace table can be
3 1.2 used for this purpose) . If error is found, find the
5
6
1.3
1.4
point of error in the trace table and fix it in the code.
7 1.3
4 0.9 Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so far in these
8 1.5 Ready to go 4 notes were not designed with readability in mind because
you needed to work out what the problem being solved was.
4.1. Identifying errors:
5.1. Validation and Verification
Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program.
For example, if the requirement for the previous To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data
question would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2 inputs, computer systems must thoroughly examine each
too, rather than rejecting them, then the error would data item before accepting it, and this is where Validation
have been caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is and Verification come into play!
entered, it would increment rejected which it shouldn’t in
our example Validation
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Validation in computer systems involves automated checks
to ensure the reasonableness of data before accepting it. If OUTPUT "Enter the value "
the data is invalid, the system should provide an explanatory REPEAT
message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the INPUT Value
data. IF Value <> DIV(Value, 1)
There are multiple types of validation. These include: THEN
Range check OUTPUT "This must be a whole number, please re-en
A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within ENDIF
specified upper and lower limits. UNTIL Value = DIV(Value, 1)
REPEAT Presence check
INPUT Value
IF Value < MinimumValue OR Value > MaximumValue A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been
THEN entered and the value has not been left blank
OUTPUT "The student's mark should be in the range"
OUTPUT "Please enter the value "
ENDIF
REPEAT
UNTIL Value >= MinimumValue AND Value <= MaximumValu
INPUT Value
IF Value = ""
Length check
THEN
This can either ensure that data consists of a precise OUTPUT "*=Required "
number of characters. ENDIF
UNTIL Value <> ""
OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit , " cha
REPEAT Format Check
INPUT Value
IF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit A format check checks that the characters entered conform
THEN to a pre-defined pattern.
OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Limit ," cha
ENDIF Check Digit
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Limit
A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is
It can also check if the data entered is a reasonable number calculated from all the other digits.
of characters or not Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes,
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN), and
OUTPUT "Please enter your value " Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).
REPEAT
INPUT Value Verification
IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLimit OR LENGTH(Value) < Lo
THEN Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied
OUTPUT "Too short or too long, please re-enter " from one source to another
ENDIF There are 2 methods to verify data during entry ( there
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) <= UpperLimit AND LENGTH(Value) are other methods during data transfer, but they are in
paper 1)
Type check
1. Double Entry
A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a
specific data type. Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.
The computer system compares both entries and if they
differ, an error message is displayed, prompting the data
to be reentered.
2. Screen/Visual check
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
A screen/visual check involves the user manually
reviewing the entered data.
After data entry, the system displays the data on the
screen and prompts the user to confirm its accuracy
before proceeding.
The user can compare the displayed data against a paper
document used as an input form or rely on their own
knowledge to verify correctness.
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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science
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