MOTION IN A PLANE

Physics CH 3

SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or vectors.

A direction is associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar quantity is a quantity with
magnitude only. It is specified completely by a single number, along with the proper unit.

It follows the rules of algebraic addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

A vector quantity is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction and obeys the triangle law
of addition or equivalently the parallelogram law of addition.

It is specified by giving its magnitude by a number and its direction.

It is represented by ⃗v i.e. Velocity Vector.

Position and Displacement Vectors

To describe the position of an object moving in a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, say O
as origin. Let P be the positions of the object at time t. Then, OP is the position vector of the object
at time t. It is represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r.

The length of the vector r represents the magnitude of the vector and its direction.

If the object moves from P to P′, the vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called the displacement
vector corresponding to motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).

NOTE - Displacement vector is the straight line joining the initial and final positions and does not
depend on the actual path undertaken by the object between the two positions.

Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is either less or equal to the path length of an object
between two points.

Equality of Vectors
Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and only if, they have the same magnitude and the same
direction.

MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL NUMBERS

Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by the
factor λ but the direction is the same as that of A:

|λ A| = λ |A| if λ > 0
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has a
magnitude twice of |A|.

Multiplying a vector A by a negative number −λ gives another vector whose direction is opposite to
the direction of A and whose magnitude is λ times |A|.

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied could be a scalar having its own physical dimension.
Then, the dimension of λ A is the product of the dimensions of λ and A.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD

Let us consider two vectors A and B that lie in a plane. The lengths of the line segments representing
these vectors are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.

To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that its tail is at the head of the vector A. Then, we join
the tail of A to the head of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is, the sum of the vectors A & B.

These vectors are arranged head to tail, this graphical method is called the head-to-tail method.

(a) Vectors A and B.

(b) Vectors A and B added graphically.

(c) Vectors A & B added graphically.

(d) Illustrating the associative law of vector

addition.

The two vectors and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, so this method is also known as
triangle method of vector addition.

Vector addition is commutative: A + B = B + A

The result of adding vectors A and B first and then adding vector C is the same as the result of adding
B and C first and then adding vector A : (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

Consider two vectors A and –A. Their sum is A + (–A).

Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the same, but the directions are opposite, the resultant
vector has zero magnitude and is represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero vector:

A – A = 0 |0|= 0 Its direction cannot be specified.

The null vector also results when we multiply a vector A by the number zero.

Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms of addition of vectors.

We define the difference of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors A and –B: A – B = A + (–B)
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a plane with different directions and let A be another
vector in the same plane. Here A can be expressed as a sum of two vectors — one obtained by
multiplying a by a real number and the other obtained by multiplying b by another real number.

we have A = OP = OQ + QP

But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel to b, we can write:

OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b where λ and µ are real numbers.

Therefore, A = λ a + µ b

We say that A has been resolved into two

component vectors λ a and µ b along a
and b respectively.

It is convenient to resolve a general

vector along the axes of a rectangular
coordinate system using vectors of unit
magnitude. These are called unit
vectors.

A unit vector is a vector of unit

magnitude and points in a particular
direction. It has no dimension and unit. It
is used to specify a direction only. Unit
vectors along the x-, y- and z-axes of a
rectangular coordinate system are
denoted by i⃑ , ⃑j , k⃑ .

Since these are unit vectors, we have |ˆi | = |ˆj | = |kˆ|= 1.

These unit vectors are perpendicular to each other.

In general, a vector A can be written as A = |A|nˆ where nˆ is a unit vector along A.

A1 + A2 = A

A1 = Ax i^ , A2 = Ay ^j where Ax and Ay are real numbers.

Thus, A = Ax i^ + Ay ^j

The quantities Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the vector A.

Using simple trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms of the magnitude of A and the angle θ
it makes with the x-axis: Ax = A cos θ and Ay = A sin θ.

Ax2 + Ay2 = A2 cos2θ + A2 sin2θ

= A2

Or, A = √Ax2 + Ay2 and tan θ = Ay / Ax

When 3D plane ,

Ax = A cosα , Ay = A cos β , Az = A cos y

In general, we have

A = Ax2 i^ + Ay2 ^j + Az2 k^

The magnitude of vector A is

A = √Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2

A position vector r can be expressed as

r = xi^ + y ^j + z k^

where x, y, and z are the components of r along x-, y-, z-axes, respectively.

VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL METHOD

R = A + B = (Ax i^ + Ay ^j ) + (Bx i^ + By ^j )

Thus, each component of the resultant vector R is the

sum of the corresponding components of A and B.

MOTION IN A PLANE
Position Vector and Displacement
r = x i^ + y ^j

Where x and y are components of r along x-, and y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of the
object.

∆r = ∆x i^ + ∆y ^j

Velocity
The average velocity ( v́ ) of an object is the ratio of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval:

( v́ ) = ∆r/∆t  ∆x i^ + ∆y ^j /∆t  ∆x/∆t i^ + ∆y/∆t ^j

Direction of the average velocity is the same as that of ∆r

The velocity (instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting value of the average velocity as the time
interval approaches zero:
❑
v́ = ∆lim ∆ r /∆ t
t →0

v́ = dr / dt
The direction of velocity at any point on the path of an object is tangential to the path at that point
and is in the direction of motion.

We can express v in a component form:

v́ = dr /dt
^
∆ x /∆ t i+∆ y / ∆t ^j ❑
v́ = ∆lim
t →0

v́ = vx i^ + vy ^j
Where vx = dx / dt and vy = dy / dt

The magnitude of v is then v = √ vx2 + vy2,

and the direction of v is given by the angle θ:

tanθ = Vy / Vx

vx , vy and angle θ for a velocity vector v at point p.

Acceleration
The average acceleration a of an object for a time interval ∆t moving in x-y plane is the change in
velocity divided by the time interval:

(á ) = ∆v/∆t

á = ax i^ + ay ^j
The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration) is the limiting value of the average acceleration as the
time interval approaches zero.
❑❑
á = ∆lim ∆v ¿∆t
t →0

á = ax i^ + ay ^j
Where ax = dvx / dt and ay = dvy / dt

NOTE – In one dimension, the velocity and the acceleration of an object are always along the same
straight line (either in the same direction or in the opposite direction). However, for motion in two or
three dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors may have any angle between 0° and 180°
between them.
MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION
Suppose that an object is moving in x-y plane and its acceleration a is constant. Over an interval of
time, the average acceleration will equal this constant value.

Let the velocity of the object be v0 at time t = 0 and v at time t. Then, by definition

a = v - v0 / t – 0

v = v0 + at

CHANGE OF POSITION WITH TIME

Let r0 and r be the position vectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let the velocities at these
instants be v0 and v.

Then, over this time interval t, the average velocity is (v0 + v)/2.

The displacement is the average velocity multiplied by the time interval:

It can be easily verified

that the derivative of
dr/dt

(In component form)

Thus, motion in a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two separate simultaneous one-
dimensional motions with constant acceleration along two perpendicular directions.

PROJECTILE MOTION
An object that is in flight after being thrown or projected is called a projectile.

The motion of a projectile may be thought of as the result of two separate, simultaneously occurring
components of motions.

One component is along a horizontal direction without any acceleration and the other along the
vertical direction with constant acceleration due to the force of gravity.
After the object has been projected, the acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity which is
directed vertically downward:

á = -g ^j OR ax = 0 and ay = -g

Note that at the point of maximum height, vy = 0 and therefore,

Tanθ = vy / vx = 0

Equation of path of a projectile

This is the equation of a parabola, i.e.

the path of the projectile is a
parabola

Time of maximum height

Since at this point, vy = 0, we have

vy = vOsinθ0 – gtm = 0

Or, tm = v0 sinθ0 /g

The total time Tf during which the projectile is in flight can be obtained by putting y = 0

Tf = 2 (vo sin θo)/g

Tf is known as the time of flight of the projectile. We note that Tf = 2 tm , which is expected because
of the symmetry of the parabolic path.

Maximum height of a projectile

The maximum height hm reached by the projectile can be calculated by substituting t = tm

Horizontal range of a projectile

The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position
where it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the horizontal range (R). It is the distance travelled during
the time of flight (Tf)

R = (v0cosθ0) (Tf)

R = (v02 sin2θ0) / g

R is maximum when sin 2θ0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450.

The maximum horizontal range is,

R = v02 / g

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of the object is called uniform
circular motion. The word “uniform” refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant) throughout the
motion.

Suppose an object is moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius R. Since the velocity of the
object is changing continuously in direction, the object undergoes acceleration.

By definition, velocity at a point is along the tangent at that point in the direction of motion.

∆v is perpendicular to ∆r (where ∆r is change in position)

Since average acceleration is along ∆v, the average acceleration a is perpendicular to ∆r.

As ∆t  0 and the average acceleration becomes the instantaneous acceleration. It is directed

towards the centre.

Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion is always directed towards
the centre of the circle.

The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by

 ❑
´ ¿ = lim ¿ ∆ v∨¿ ∆ t
¿ a∨¿ ∆ t →0

|∆v| / V = |∆r| /R

❑
v́ = ∆lim ¿ ∆ r∨¿ ∆ t
t →0

Centripetal Acceleration
Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is:

Ac = v2 / R

Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude v 2 /R
and is always directed towards the centre. This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration.

Since v and R are constant, the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also constant.

However, the direction changes — pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a centripetal
acceleration is not a constant vector.

∆θ is called angular distance. We define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega) as the time rate of
change of angular displacement:

ω = ∆ θ / ∆t

 V=Rω

We can express centripetal acceleration ac in terms of angular speed:

The time taken by an object to make one revolution is known as its time period T and the number of
revolution made in one second is called its frequency ν = (1/T).

However, during this time the distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.

Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν

In terms of frequency ν, we have

ω = 2πν

v = 2πRν

ac = 4π2 ν2R