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Adaptive Beaming and Imaging in the Turbulent
Atmosphere SPIE Press Monograph Vol PM109
Vladimir P. Lukin Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Vladimir P. Lukin, Boris V. Fortes
ISBN(s): 9780819443373, 0819443379
Edition: illustrated edition
File Details: PDF, 2.11 MB
Year: 2002
Language: english
 Adaptive Beaming
and Imaging in the
Turbulent Atmosphere
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lukin, V. P. (Vladimir Petrovich)

[Adaptivnoe formirovanie puchkov i izobrazhenii v atmosfere. English]
Adaptive beaming and imaging in the turbulent atmosphere / V.P. Lukin and B.V. Fortes ;
translated by A.B. Malikova.
p. cm. – (SPIE Press monograph ; PM109)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8194-4337-9 (softcover)
1. Laser beams—Atmospheric effects. 2. Atmosphere—Laser observations. 3. Atmospheric
turbulence. 4. Optics, Adaptive. I. Fortes, B. V. (Boris V.) II. Title. III. Series.

QC976.L36 L8513 2002

621.36’9—dc21 2002070761

Published by

SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering

P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA
Phone: (1) 360.676.3290
Fax: (1) 360.647.1445
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.spie.org

Copyright © 2002 The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed

in any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

Cover Image: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

 CONTENTS
Preface to the English edition / ix

Introduction / xi

Chapter 1 Mathematical Simulation of Laser Beam Propagation in the

Atmosphere / 1

1.1 Numerical Solution to Problems of Coherent Radiation Propagation / 2

1.1.1 Wave equation / 2
1.1.2 Thermal blooming of high-power laser beams / 5
1.1.3 Turbulent distortions of a wavefront / 11
1.2 Generation of 2D Random Phase Screens by the Fourier Transform
Method / 14
1.3 Dynamic Simulation of the Large-Scale Part of Turbulent Aberrations of
an Optical Phase / 25
1.4 Modification of the Numerical Model for Partially Coherent Beams / 33
1.5 Lens Transformation of Coordinates in an Inhomogeneous Wave
Equation / 37
References / 42

Chapter 2 Modeling an Adaptive Optics System / 47

2.1 Reference Wave in an Adaptive Optics System / 48

2.1.1 Counterpropagating a reference beam in a phase conjugation
system / 49
2.1.2 Guide star in an adaptive telescope / 50
2.2 Wavefront Sensors / 56
2.2.1 Ideal quadrature sensors / 56
2.2.2 Ideal phase difference sensors / 57
2.2.3 Hartmann sensor / 60
2.3 Wavefront Correctors / 65
2.3.1 Modal correctors / 65
2.3.2 Deformable mirrors / 67
2.3.3 Segmented correctors / 68
References / 71

v
vi Contents

Chapter 3 Adaptive Imaging / 77

3.1 Calculation and Minimization of Image Distortions / 78

3.1.1 Imaging in an atmosphere–telescope system / 78
3.1.2 Minimization of the width of a turbulent PSF / 81
3.2 Study of Angular Resolution and Contrast in Large Residual Wavefront
Distortions / 86
3.2.1 Effect of a corrector’s spatial resolution on PSF parameters / 87
3.2.2 Measurement of distortions under limited photon flux / 94
3.2.3 Effect of cone anisoplanatism / 96
3.3 Phase Correction of Turbulent Distortions Under Strong Intensity
Scintillation / 99
References / 104

Chapter 4 Minimization and Phase Correction of Thermal Blooming of

High-Power Beams / 107

4.1 Amplitude Optimization for Thermal Blooming Along a Vertical

Path / 108
4.1.1 Power optimization for beams with different cross-sectional
intensity distributions / 109
4.1.2 Dependence of wind direction on the longitudinal coordinate / 112
4.2 Programmed Modal Phase Correction of Thermal Blooming Along a
Vertical Path / 114
4.3 Method of Phase Conjugation on a Horizontal Path / 118
4.4 Modal Phase Conjugation on a Horizontal Path / 126
4.4.1 Calculation of the efficiency of modal phase conjugation / 126
4.4.2 Modification of modal phase conjugation / 130
References / 133

Chapter 5 A Laser Reference Beacon as a Key Element of an Adaptive

Optics System / 135

5.1 Some Features of Reflected Optical Wave Fluctuations in a Turbulent

Atmosphere / 136
5.1.1 Enhanced backscatter / 136
5.1.2 Phase fluctuations of specularly reflected waves / 137
5.1.3 Random displacements of the image of a sensed volume in a
turbulent atmosphere / 138
5.2 Improvement of the Quality of an Atmospheric Image by Adaptive Optics
Methods / 141
5.3 A Modern Concept of Adaptive Optics Systems with a Laser
Guide Star / 157
5.3.1 Some features of fluctuations of reflected waves / 158
Contents vii

5.4 Monostatic and Bistatic Schemes for Formation of a Laser

Guide Star / 159
5.4.1 Correlation between random displacements of a laser beam and a
natural star image for a bistatic scheme / 159
5.4.2 Optimal algorithm for tip-tilt correction / 170
5.4.3 A laser guide star as an extended source / 174
5.5 Hybrid Scheme of Forming a Laser Guide Star / 176
5.6 Two Bistatic Schemes for LGS Formation / 179
5.6.1 Jitter of an extended source / 182
5.6.2 Basic shortcomings of schemes a and b for LGS formation / 186
5.6.3 A differential scheme / 186
5.7 A New Scheme for LGS Formation / 188
5.7.1 Attempt to reduce the effect of angular anisoplanatism / 189
References / 190

Conclusion / 195

Index / 199
 PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION
This monograph is presented by two authors working at the Institute of
Atmospheric Optics, Siberia, Russian Academy of Sciences (Tomsk, Russia). It
is an overview of our results reported in recent years (up to 1999).
Specialists know that now it is practically impossible to write a book that
thoroughly reviews the state of the art in adaptive optics because of the rapid
advances in this field. Therefore, in this book we omit such a review and only
give the necessary references to original papers (as of 1998, the year this book
was written in Russian). We apologize to those authors whose papers were
undeservedly ignored and not cited.
This book does not pretend to be a generalization of the most recent results.
It is more like a compendium of results and ideas the authors followed when
developing this particular area of modern optics. These days, the world
community has developed approaches and concepts different from those
presented in this book, and they have the right to their own existence and
development as well.

With due respect for our readers,

Vladimir P. Lukin
Boris V. Fortes
June 2002

ix
 INTRODUCTION
The extensive use of optical technologies for solving problems of information
transfer, narrow-directional electromagnetic energy transport, and image
formation in an outdoor atmosphere calls for the development of adaptive
correction methods and devices of that are an effective means of controlling the
decrease in the efficiency of atmospheric optical systems caused by
inhomogeneities in large-scale refractive indexes. These inhomogeneities are due
to the turbulent mixing of atmospheric air masses and molecular and aerosol
absorption in the channel of optical radiation propagation.
Adaptive optical systems (AOS) that operate in real time allow one to
• improve laser radiation focusing on a target, and hence increase the
radiation intensity within the focal spot;
• decrease the image blooming of astronomical and other objects in
telescopes, increase image sharpness, and decrease the probability of
object recognition errors; and
• decrease the noise level and increase the data rate in optical
communication systems.
Annual international conferences on adaptive optics held under the auspices
of SPIE (The International Society for Optical Engineering), OSA (Optical
Society of America), and adaptive optics sessions included in the programs of
other conferences on atmospheric optics testify to the urgency of this problem. In
1994, a special issue of the Journal of the Optical Society of America was
devoted to problems of adaptive correction of atmospheric distortions. Special
annual issues of Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics are published by the Institute
of Atmospheric Optics. Recently, AOS has been introduced in astronomical
telescopes in many countries, including Russia, where the original Russian
project of the AST-10 10-m adaptive telescope is being developed.
Wide practical application of AOS has revealed a number of problems that
call for the development of a theory of optical wave propagation under adaptive
control conditions. A search for answers to these problems necessitates the
development of detailed and adequate mathematical AOS models and the
application of research methods such as numerical experiments that solve a
system of differential equations describing optical wave propagation in the
atmosphere.
This monograph is primarily concerned with the original results of our
investigations carried out using numerical experiments (models). The sole
exceptions are sections devoted to adaptive image formation. Numerical
experiments allow the maximum number of parameters to be considered to

xi
xii Introduction

correctly model AOS and to investigate practically any significant radiative

characteristic—the effective size of the light spot, the peak radiant intensity, the
radiation power incident on the receiving aperture, the statistical characteristics
of the radiant intensity and phase—in the context of a universal approach. A
numerical experiment with applications to AOS allows one to predict the
efficiency of various system configurations. Much time and considerable expense
would be required to perform field experiments.
Work on numerical modeling of atmospheric distortions of beams and
images and also on the possibility of their adaptive correction goes back to the
early 1970s. It was started nearly simultaneously in several large U.S.
laboratories (including Lincoln Laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology and the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory at the University of
California). Here it is pertinent to mention, in particular, the first reports on the
results of numerical modeling of thermal self-action obtained by Gebhardt and
Smith, Bradley and Herrmann, and Ulrich et al. The first work devoted to phase
compensation for thermal blooming was published in 1974, and the first work
devoted to a numerical investigation of the adaptive correction for turbulent
image distortions was published in the same year. In 1976, Fleck, Morris, and
Feit described in detail a procedure for solving the nonstationary problem of
thermal self-action in a turbulent atmosphere. The first special issue of the
Journal of the Optical Society of America, which summarized the results of
theoretical and experimental investigations into adaptive optics in the United
States, was published in 1977.
In the USSR, this field has developed since the late 1970s. The first work
devoted to the theory of adaptive correction was published by V. P. Lukin in
1977. B. S. Agrovskii and V. V. Vorob’ev et al. (Institute of Atmospheric
Physics RAS) and P. A. Konyaev (Institute of Atmospheric Optics SB RAS)
studied AOS numerically. At the same time, M. A. Vorontsov, S. S. Chesnokov,
V. A. Vysloukh, K. D. Egorov, and V. P. Kandidov (Moscow State University)
published papers devoted to phase correction for nonlinear distortions. Special
issues of the journal Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Fizika and
monographs by M. A. Vorontsov and V. I. Shmal’gauzen (Principles of Adaptive
Optics); V. P. Lukin (Atmospheric Adaptive Optics); and M. A. Vorontsov,
A. V. Koryabin, and V. I. Shmal’gauzen (Controllable Optical Systems) review
previous work in this field.
The current state of research on numerical modeling of adaptive optical
systems can be characterized as follows. Basic numerical methods of solving the
problems of optical wave propagation in randomly inhomogeneous media,
including the thermal action of high-power beams, have been developed, and
work on the development of numerical models of individual AOS components
that takes into account their geometrical parameters and spatiotemporal
resolution has been started, along with a search for the most efficient correction
algorithms. This monograph summarizes the main results of our work in this
field from 1985 to 1997.
Introduction xiii

The first chapter considers methodological aspects of numerical modeling of

propagation of monochromatic coherent radiation in a randomly inhomogeneous,
weakly absorbing medium. It describes numerical methods used to solve the
inhomogeneous wave equation together with mathematical models of turbulent
distortions and thermal inhomogeneities arising during optical radiation
propagation through an absorbing medium. Numerical techniques of dynamic
modeling of random phase screens are further developed and methods of
modeling large-scale portions of the turbulence spectrum are described. In the
last section of this chapter, the lens transformation is generalized to the case of an
arbitrary optically inhomogeneous medium.
The second chapter describes numerical modeling of a closed AOS system
and numerical models of a reference wave, sensors, and wavefront (WF)
correctors. Mathematical models and the main points of numerical modeling are
described for the following AOS components: an oncoming reference beam;
natural and artificial reference stars; an ideal-square law and Hartmann wavefront
sensors; and modal, segmented, and flexible adaptive mirrors.
In the third chapter, the problem of minimization and adaptive correction for
turbulent distortions is solved. Here, the effect of the outer scale of turbulence on
the main parameters of image formation in an atmosphere–telescope system,
including the Strehl factor (SF) and the angular resolution (the width of the point
spread function, PSF), is studied. The possibility of wavelength optimization is
estimated quantitatively in a situation in which the size of the outer scale of
turbulence is comparable to the aperture diameter. The angular resolution is
further studied for incomplete (partial) correction for turbulent image distortions.
In the last section of this chapter, the efficiency of phase correction is analyzed
for extended paths and weak intensity fluctuations of the reference and corrected
waves.
In the fourth chapter, the efficiency of adaptive correction for thermal
activity is investigated. At the beginning of the chapter, the thermal effect of a
wide-aperture high-power beam propagating along a vertical path represented by
a composite nonlinear phase screen is analyzed. The parameters of beam power
optimization and lower-mode correction for phase distortions are calculated for
various intensity distributions over the beam cross section with allowance for the
altitude dependence of the wind direction. The salient features of the functioning
of phase-conjugation (PC) AOS used to correct for nonstationary action on a
homogeneous horizontal path are further studied. A correlation between
oscillations arising in these systems and phase dislocations in the reference wave
is demonstrated. The results of numerical experiments for an AOS with the
Hartmann WF sensor are given in the last section together with the modified
phase conjugation algorithm and curves of power optimization that prove the
efficiency of this modification.
The fifth chapter is devoted to an urgent problem of compensation for
turbulent jitter in the image of an astronomical object when a laser guide star
(LGS) is used as a reference source. Different configurations (bistatic and
monostatic) of the system for measuring the random refraction are considered.
xiv Introduction

The efficiency of jitter correction is studied as a function of the ratio of the

receiving and transmitting apertures. An algorithm of optimal correction for
wavefront tilts is suggested and its efficiency is estimated.
The authors are indebted to their colleagues who were both formal and
informal co-authors of the scientific results presented here: they include P.A.
Konyaev, N.N. Maier, and E.V. Nosov; the staff of the Laboratory of Applied
and Adaptive Optics; and many researchers at the Institute of Atmospheric
Optics. Communications with them have helped determine the content of our
monograph.

Vladimir P. Lukin
Boris V. Fortes
 CHAPTER 1
Mathematical Simulation of Laser Beam
Propagation in the Atmosphere
A key aspect of the numerical simulation of turbulent effects is generation of 2D
random phase screens that imitate distortion of the wavefront during propagation
through the atmosphere. One of the first papers devoted to numerical simulation
of turbulent distortions of optical waves was by Buckley, who used a Fourier
transform (method of spectral samples) to model 1D random phase screens [1].
In papers by Fleck, Morris, and Feit [2], Kandidov and Ledenev [3], and
Konyaev [4], the method of spectral samples was used to generate 2D random
phase screens in the problem of propagation of a coherent beam through a
randomly inhomogeneous medium and, in particular, for estimating the
efficiency of phase correction of atmospheric distortions. In a paper by Martin
and Flatte [5], a similar method was used to study the probability density of
intensity fluctuations.
The Fourier transform method was originally used for numerical simulation
in radio engineering [6]. However, a prominent feature of the turbulent
atmosphere as a randomly inhomogeneous medium is the wide range of spatial
scales of refractive index inhomogeneities. To correctly simulate all of the scales
(from inner to outer) of turbulent fluctuations, a computational grid should have
at least a thousand nodes along every coordinate, which leads to huge
computational time and expense.
To overcome the difficulties connected with the wide-band spectrum of
atmospheric turbulence, it makes sense to use some “combined” method, which
was first proposed in papers by Duncan and Collins [7, 8], as well as in a paper
by Tel’pukhovskii and Chesnokov [9]. The main idea consists in the joint use of
spectral (harmonic) and polynomial representations, each of which is used to
simulate its own region of spatial scales: spectral decomposition is used to
simulate small-scale inhomogeneities, and polynomial decomposition is used to
represent scales larger than the size of the computational grid. This approach was
further developed in Fortes and Lukin [10], where it was generalized to include
nonstationary (dynamic) problems. More recent approaches for optical modeling
[11] and physical modeling [12], as well as numerical approaches have also been
developed [13-15].
In the following sections we apply our method for numerical solution to two
tasks: high-power laser beam propagation in homogeneous media with
absorption, and optical wave propagation through a random inhomogeneous

1
2 Chapter 1

turbulent atmosphere. As high-power coherent (laser) beams propagate through a

nonturbid atmosphere, thermal blooming is one of the main factors causing
distortion, along with turbulent fluctuations of the refractive index. This
nonlinear effect has the lowest energy threshold and arises as a result of
absorption of part of the beam energy and the formation of thermal
inhomogeneity in the beam channel. The software developed by Konyaev [16]
(Institute of Atmospheric Optics SB RAS, Tomsk, Russia) served as a basic
model for numerical simulation of thermal blooming of a paraxial wave beam.
We have implemented several numerical schemes for solving differential
equations that describe different hydrodynamic conditions of thermal blooming
[17, 18]. In this chapter, we present examples that demonstrate the reliability of
the results obtained.

1.1 Numerical Solution to Problems of Coherent

Radiation Propagation
For both propagation of coherent beams and imaging in a randomly
inhomogeneous medium, the wave equation for the electromagnetic field of an
optical wave is the basis for a mathematical model. In the problems considered
here, polarization effects are negligible, and the ratio of path length to aperture
diameter is chosen so that the small-angle approximation (approximation of
paraxial beams) is applicable for a scalar field amplitude [19-21].

1.1.1 Wave equation


Let us introduce a slowly varying component E (, z, t ) of the complex amplitude
of an electromagnetic field in the following way:

cn0    
E (, z , t )  eE (, z, t ) exp(ikz  it ), (1.1.1)
8

so the intensity I is related to the component E (, z, t ) as

EE *  I . (1.1.2)

Here, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, n0 is the refractive index of a medium,


e is the vector of polarization, k  2 /  is wave number,  is the frequency of

electromagnetic oscillations,   ( x, y ) is the vector of coordinates in the beam
cross section (the beam is directed along the 0z axis), and t is time.
In the paraxial approximation, propagation of a monochromatic linearly
polarized beam in a dielectrically inhomogeneous nonmagnetic medium is
described by the parabolic equation for the complex amplitude E:
Mathematical Simulation of Laser Beam Propagation in the Atmosphere 3

E   2 2 
2k   2  2  2k 2 ( n 2 / n02  1)  E , (1.1.3)
z  x y 

or as
E   2 2 
2k   2  2  2k 2 n  E , (1.1.4)
z  x y 

on the assumption that deviations of the refractive index from unity are small;
i.e.,

n0  1 , n  (n  1)  1 . (1.1.5)

Initially, algorithms based on various finite-difference methods were used to

solve the parabolic equation [22]. But, currently, the common method for
solution in the domain of spatial frequencies of the complex amplitude E is the
splitting algorithm applied together with a discrete Fourier transform (DFT).
The solution to the parabolic equation (1.1.4) corresponding to propagation
of a wave from the plane zl to the plane zl 1 can be written in operator form [2]:

 i  zl 1

 2k   
E ( x, y, zl 1 )  exp    z 2  2k 2 ndz   E ( x, y, zl ), (1.1.6)
zl 
2 2
 2   .
x 2 y 2

This equation can be approximated [23, 24] by a symmetrized split operator:

1 1
E ( x, y, zl 1 )  Dˆ  z  Rˆ ( zl , zl 1 ) Dˆ  z  E ( zl )  O(z 2 ) ,
2  2 
1  zl 1

Dˆ ( z )  exp  i z 2  , R ( zl , zl 1 )  exp  ik ndz  . (1.1.7)
 2k   
 zl 

Here, the operator Rˆ ( zl , zl 1 ) describes refraction on inhomogeneities of the

refractive index, and the operator Dˆ (z ) corresponds to the solution of the
problem of free diffraction. The second order of accuracy of this approximation
has been proved analytically [2, 23] and confirmed by numerical experiments
[24].
For optical waves, the problem of free diffraction at an arbitrary distance z
can be solved using the representation for the complex amplitude in the form of a
finite Fourier series [25]:
4 Chapter 1

N /2 N /2
2i
E ( x, y , z )    Emn ( z )exp  ( xm  yn)  , (1.1.8)
m  N / 2 1 n  N / 2 1  L 

where

LL
1  2
Emn ( z )   dxdyE ( x, y, z) exp i ( xm  yn)  (1.1.9)
42 L2 0 0
L 

are the expansion coefficients, L is the size of the domain of expansion, and N is
the number of terms in the series. It is also assumed that the spectrum of spatial
frequencies for the function E(x, y, z) is finite and the function itself is periodic or
can be supplemented by a periodic function. In a numerical simulation, a
continuous field E(x, y, z) is replaced by a discrete field defined at the nodes of a
computational grid. The transition from the domain of the original function to the
spectral space and back is performed by DFT.
Substituting the spectral representation into the parabolic equation (1.1.4),
we obtain

Emn 42
2ik   2 ( m 2  n 2 ) Emn (1.1.10)
z L

with the following exact solution

 42 z 2 
Emn ( z )  Emn ( z  0)exp   2
(m  n 2 )  . (1.1.11)
 2ikL 

To solve the problem of refraction in the layer z, we need to obtain the

numerical representation for inhomogeneities n(, z ) of the refractive index.
Refraction is described as beam passage through a phase screen:

zl 1
  
Rˆ ( zl , zl 1 )  exp il ()  , l ()  ik  n(, z) dz .
zl
(1.1.12)

The mathematical model of refractive index inhomogeneities depends on the

process by which they arise. Here we consider two effects: a lowest-threshold
nonlinear effect known as random thermal blooming and fluctuations induced by
atmospheric turbulence.
Mathematical Simulation of Laser Beam Propagation in the Atmosphere 5

1.1.2 Thermal blooming of high-power laser beams

The longitudinal scale of variability for thermal inhomogeneities induced in the

propagation channel of a high-power laser beam is comparable to the diffraction
length of the beam. In the interval z, the equation for the phase screen can be
approximated by the product of a step length z and the refractive index
distribution at the center of the interval [zl; zl+z]:

  1
l ()  k zn  , zl  z   O( z 2 ) . (1.1.13)
 2 

It follows from the above that we have only to determine perturbations of the
refractive index in some planes, the positions of which are determined by the
scheme of the splitting algorithm.
Heating of the medium that is caused by absorption of radiation energy
induces variation of its density, which leads to a decrease in the refractive index
related to the density  by the following law [26]:

n  K  , (1.1.14)

where K is a constant equal to two-thirds of the polarization factor of a molecule

or gas atom.
In the isobaric approximation, the density of the medium is explicitly related
to temperature by the ideal gas law, so variations of the refractive index can be
expressed through temperature variations:

n
n  T  T0   nT T . (1.1.15)
T

The isobaric approximation is valid for the normal atmospheric conditions.

Exceptions are fast scanning of a continuous-wave (cw) high-power beam when
the beam speed with respect to the medium is greater than the sonic speed, and
when the pulse duration p is comparable with the acoustic time s:

 p   S  a / cS , (1.1.16)

where a is the beam size and cs is the sonic speed.

When the isobaric approximation is valid, the distribution of the refractive
index in the beam cross section is determined by the heat balance, which is
described by the heat transfer equation for the temperature field T(x, y, z):

T ( x, y, z )  
 V T   T  I, (1.1.17)
t 0 C p
6 Chapter 1


where V  (Vx , Vy ) is the transverse component of the beam velocity relative to
the medium,  is heat conductivity, 0 is the specific density of the medium,  is
the absorption coefficient, and Cp is the specific heat at constant.
When the isobaric approximation becomes invalid, variations in the density
of the medium are described by the linearized equations of hydrodynamics,
which follow from the law of continuity and the laws of impetus and energy
conservation [21, 26]:

d 1 d  
 01  0 ,   0 , (1.1.18)
dt dt t x

d 1
0  p1 , (1.1.19)
dt

d
( p1  cS2 1 )  (   1)I . (1.1.20)
dt

These equations are valid for small perturbations of density 1, pressure p1, and
local speed of the medium flow v1 with respect to the unperturbed values of
density 0, pressure p0, and local speed of medium flow v0 along the x-axis. By
eliminating the variables describing perturbation of speed and pressure, Eqs.
(1.1.18)–(1.1.20) can be transformed into the following equation, which
describes perturbations of the density:

 d2 2 2  d 1
 2  сS    (   1) 2 I . (1.1.21)
 dt  dt

For a steady-state condition, this equation takes the form

 2 2   d 1
2
(   1)
 2  (1  M ) 2
 2  2 I , (1.1.22)
 y x  dx cS 

where M   / cS is Mach’s number and  = Cp/Cv is the specific heat ratio at a

constant volume.
When the flow rate of the medium is low ( M   / cS <<1), Eq. (1.1.22)
transforms into the equation written in the isobaric approximation:

d 1 (   1)
 2 I . (1.1.23)
dx cS 
Mathematical Simulation of Laser Beam Propagation in the Atmosphere 7

Solution of this equation yields a result equivalent to that of Eq. (1.1.17), with
vy = 0 and   0 .
With no wind, under conditions of gravitational convection, the heat balance
equation should be solved by a set of equations for incompressible liquid
hydrodynamics. The plane (2D) flow of this liquid in the Boussinesq–Oberbeck
approximation is described by the vortex (vorticity) function  and the stream
function  [27] equations:

   T
 v         g ; (1.1.24)
t x

     , (1.1.25)

where  is the volume expansion coefficient,  is the kinematic viscosity

coefficient, and g is the absolute value of the acceleration of gravity directed
along the 0y axis.
The local speed of the flow in the equations for temperature and vorticity is
now a function of transverse coordinates. Its components are related to the partial
derivatives of the stream function as follows:

 
vx  , vy   . (1.1.26)
y x

When describing thermal blooming under conditions of free convection,

Eqs. (1.1.17), (1.1.24), and (1.1.25) are complemented by the corresponding
initial and boundary conditions. In the case of propagation in a closed space, they
are the conditions of adhesion and zero flow speed at the boundary  for the
normal and tangential components of the flow velocity:

vn  x, y   0, vs  x, y   0,  x, y    . (1.1.27)

These conditions in turn determine the boundary conditions for the stream
function and its derivative with respect to the normal to the boundary surface:


  x, y   0,  0,  x, y   . (1.1.28)
n

The boundary and initial conditions for the temperature field are usually set to be
zero.
So the mathematical model of thermal blooming of high-power coherent
laser beams in a low-absorbing medium includes the parabolic wave equation for
the scalar complex amplitude [Eq. (1.1.4)] and the corresponding material
8 Chapter 1

equation (or set of equations) describing density and temperature variations and
determining the distribution of the refractive index in the beam channel:

 E   2 2 
 2ik   2  2  2k 2 n  E
 z  x y  , (1.1.29)

 Mˆ (n)  I

where the operator M̂ describes the relation between the induced optical
inhomogeneities and the absorbed energy I.
Below we present the results of applying our numerical technique for
estimating the thermal blooming distortions of coherent beams propagating along
atmospheric paths that were developed in Refs. [4], [16-18], [24], [30], and [49].
To allow for the regular altitudinal variation of thermodynamic parameters, we
have used statistical seasonal atmospheric models, built from refined data
obtained by the Institute of Atmospheric Optics in Tomsk [56-58]. The altitude
profile of the molecular absorption coefficient for summer and winter mean-
latitude models was obtained by means of a software program that calculates
molecular absorption line by line [59].
As an example of implementation of the mathematical model, let us consider
the results computed for thermal blooming of a focused Gaussian beam crossing
a thin layer L of a nonlinear medium (nonlinear phase screen). In this example,
the approximation of a nonlinear phase screen indicates that the thickness L of
the layer is much shorter than the beam focal length and the diffraction length
Ld  ka02 of the beam and that the Bouguer extinction is low ( L <<1).
In Fig. 1.1.1, the dynamics of thermal blooming under conditions of forced
convection are illustrated for a convective flow speed that is much lower than the
sonic speed [isobaric approximation, Eq. (1.1.17)] and for the heat conductivity
  0 . In this case, the sole parameter of the problem [56-59] is the integral
nonlinearity of the medium layer:

2 a0 I 0
PN  nT L ,
 C pV

where I0 is the initial intensity of the beam, a0 is the initial size of the Gaussian
beam, and  is the Bouguer extinction of media. When transient processes end,
the phase screen can be described as an integral of the normalized beam
intensity:
x x
  x, y   PN  I  , y   exp    y2  d .
2
I 0 d   PN (1.1.30)
 
Mathematical Simulation of Laser Beam Propagation in the Atmosphere 9

At a large distance x, the value of phase  at the 0z axis (y = 0) tends toward

 PN  1.77 PN . In calculations, the value of PN was assumed to be equal to 10;
this value corresponds to the maximal phase difference of 17.7 rad or 2.8. For
such nonlinear distortions, the steady-state maximal value of the focus intensity
decreases more than 10 times. Figure 1.1.1 shows two examples of calculations
for different directions of the wind vector. For every instant of time t (here, time t
is normalized at a value of a0 V , where V is wind velocity) the 2D
distributions of phase distortions in the plane of the emitting aperture are shown,
along with the intensity distribution in the focal plane for the Gaussian beam. In
the first case the wind was directed along the ordinate; and in the second case, the
angle between the wind and the ordinate was 45 deg.
Figure 1.1.2 shows typical images of thermal blooming of laser radiation
under different stream velocities. The numbers in each image box of Figs. 1.1.1

and 1.1.2 show the maximum and minimum values of the functions I   and

 . It can be seen that the estimate of phase distortions in the steady state
(17.7 rad) is in good agreement with the results obtained in the numerical
experiment (16.9 and 16 rad). The difference of 5–10% can be attributed to the
error of the numerical model and the fact that the transient processes did not end
completely.
The calculations have been performed by the monotonic conservative
procedure with the second-order approximation, differences were taken with
respect to the stream [27], and the model viscosity (heat conductivity) was
compensated for according to Samarskii’s algorithm [28]. The advantage of this
method is that it makes it possible to solve the dynamic problem of heat transfer
at an arbitrary orientation of the wind vector. The method is stable for both small
and large intervals of time discretization and it allows the solution of the heat
transfer problem when wind velocity depends on the transverse coordinates
(x,y). Thus, the calculations can be performed for the problem of thermal
blooming under free (gravitational) convection conditions [Eq. (1.1.17) together
with Eqs. (1.1.24) and (1.1.25)], as well as the boundary conditions of adhesion
and zero speed. Some sample calculations are given in Ref. [29]. In this text we
do not consider these convection conditions in greater detail because
gravitational convection is atypical for open atmospheric paths.
Next we consider the situation of a high-power beam with scanning. In this
case, the speed of beam transition with respect to the medium at some distance
from the source can be close to or even higher than sonic speed. In Fig. 1.1.2,
density perturbations are shown for forced convection conditions with the speed
of the flow close to sonic speed [Eq. (1.1.22)]. The value of the parameter PN was
assumed to be two times smaller than in the previous example. In the isobaric
approximation, this corresponds to the maximal phase change on the path (8.8
rad). It is seen that for a Mach number range of M = 0.5–0.7 the results do not
differ widely. With a further increase in M (i.e., M approaches unity), phase
distortions increase sharply. For an M greater than unity, we obtain a solution
Another Random Scribd Document
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spouse, was keenly jealous of the remembrance of his first wife,
daily evoked by him. " Never was I so jealous of any wife of the
Prophet as of Khadijah, " Ayishah is known to have said, " although I
never met her and notwithstanding that her death took place long
before my marriage. But the Prophet was always talking about her,
and when he slaughtered a sheep, he always kept back a liberal
share to be given to Khadijah's female friends. I said to him once : '
It seems as if Khadijah was the only woman in the whole world ! '
Thereupon he began to enumerate her incomparable qualities and
declared that she would have a palace built of pearls in Paradise,
with no noise or household cares to trouble her. Halabint Khuaild,
Khadijah's sister, was taken to see Allah's Messenger. He noticed that
she spoke in the same way as his dead wife, and was so stirred that,
overcome by jealousy, I could not help showing temper and I
exclaimed : ' What meanest thou by continually conjuring up the
remembrance of these old Quraish females, with their toothless, red
gums and faces betraying the ravages of age ? Hath not Allah given
thee better women in their stead ? But despite these scenes, despite
the beauty and intelligence of Ayishah and his other wives, the
Prophet always preferred Khadijah. He included her among the four
most perfect women that ever came on earth. The three others were
Asiyah, Pharoah's wife who saved Moses ; Maryain (Mary), mother of
I sa (Jesus) ; and Fatimah-tuz-Zahra, one of Mohammad's daughters
by Khadijah. Stricken by his double mourning, threatened by the
Unbelievers who no longer concealed THE JOURNEY TO their
intentions, now that his noble protector was no more, the Prophet
resolved to preach outside Makkah. If he succeeded in gaining over
some of the neighbouring Arab peoples, 47 TAIF
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.83%
accurate

THE LIFE OF MOHAMMAD these reinforcements, increasing

the number of citizens of Makkah already converted, and which was
far from inconsiderable, would make up a party sufficiently strong to
hold his detractors in respect. His first attempt was made at Taif, a
small town about seventy-two miles to the east of Makkah,
renowned for its grapes, figs, pomegranates and the roses of its
enchanting gardens. Accompanied by Zayd ibn Haris, the Prophet
arrived in the market-place where he found many noted Saqifs
assembled. He sat b3' their side and stated the reasons of his
journey : his Divine Mission and the hostility of his party. Most of
those present were beginning to fall under the influence of the
wonted charm of his words, when three brothers, ranking among the
most noble and predominant of the Saqifs, interrupted him abruptly.
' This man hath doubtless stolen or torn the veil of the Ka'bah ! '
exclaimed the first of the brothers, ' and now, having taken to his
heels, he tells ye a story about being Allah's Messenger ! ' — ' Hath
Allah not been able to find anyone but thee ? ' jeered the second. —
' By Allah ! I'll never have anything to do with thee ! declared the
third. ' If thou art trul}' the Prophet of Allah, as thou dost assert,
thou art so far above me that I dare not argue with thee ; and if
thou art merely an impostor, it would not be fitting that 1 belittle
myself by replying. These remarks broke the charm, and the crowd,
veering round, showed its hostility by shouting insults. The Prophet
saw that there was no hope for him in that town for the moment,
and rose up to depart. So as to make it impossible for him to renew
his attempt, his contradictors stirred up the lowest dregs of the
populace against him. Slaves and vagabonds, arrayed in a double
row, awaited him on each side of the road he was bound to take.
They found amusement in stoning his bare legs. When exhausted by
his sufferings, he sat down in the middle of the road, trying to shield
his bleeding feet, his tormentors lifted him up by the arms and
continued their barbarous fun. In vain, devoted Zayd tried to protect
him by getting in tront of him ; the faithful henchman was struck
down by a stone that cut his face. Staggering, falling, rising and
dragging themselves along in the midst of sneering jibes,
Mohammad and his companion at last reached a garden wall, behind
which they took refuge, and dropped extenuated in the shade of a
tree covered with vine branches, leaves and grapes. ' O Allah ! '
cried the Prophet, ' To Thee I complain of my puny strength and the
failure of my zeal with regard to these men. O Thou! most
Compassionate and Merciful, Thou art the Lord of the weak and
Thou art my Lord ! I have none but Thee on whom to lean ! But if
Thou be not angry with me because I am powerless to ensure love
and respect for Thy Word, I care nothing for all the ordeals I
undergo ! The villanous mob did not dare to trespass in the garden
in order to follow up their victims. The owners of the property,
charitable folks, indignant at the scene they had just witnessed,
ordered Adas, their gardener, to gather bunches of grapes and carry
a basketful to their momentary guests. When the inflammation of
their limbs, covered with bruises, had subsided by reason of repose
in the beneficial shade ; and their thirst being quenched by the
honeyed juice of the celebrated grapes of Taif, the Prophet and his
companion set out again on the road to Makkah. Foreseeing the
welcome in store for him, Mohammad could not do otherwise than
claim the assistance of some influential citizen. Halting at the cave of
Mount Hira, he sent Zayd to find a protector. After two rebuffs at the
hands of Al Akhnas and Sohail, who excused themselves, Zayd
approached Muta'm bin Adiyy who, consenting to lake the
responsibility on himself, armed his serving-men and posted them in
the precincts of the Ka'bah. 48
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accurate

The. Departure.
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accurate

The Departure. \
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.11%
accurate

CHAPTER THE FOURTH Brought back by Zayd, Mohammad

was then enabled, thanks to the escort of this little army, to make
the seven ritual circuits before returning to his dwelling. Al-Isra, "
the Nocturnal Journey, and " Al-Miraj, " the Prophet's Ascension,
have given THE NOCTURNAL rise to innumerable debates between
the doctors of Islam. Some think that this miraculous 11 i • 11 i- i •
AND ASCENSION journey was really, physically accomplished ; whilst
others, relying on the most accredited traditions — among which is
that of Ayishah, Abu Bakr's daughter and Mohammad's favourite
wife — maintain that Mohammad's soul alone undertook the journey,
and that it should only be looked upon as a veracious vision such as
frequently came to the Prophet in his sleep. One night, the twenty-
seventh of the month of Rabi'-ul-Awwal, the angel Jibra'il, upon
whom devolved the duty of directing the heavenly bodies, was
ordered by the Almighty to increase the moon's brilliancy by adding
a part of the sun's radiance ; and that of the stars by a share of the
moon's brightness, so that the firmament that night should be
resplendent with light. The Angel was then to descend to where
Mohammad was sleeping, and carry him up to Allah through the
seven zones of Heaven. Quoth the Prophet : " I was in a deep sleep
when Jibra'il appeared to me, bringing Al-Buraq, the Prophet's usual
mount. This animal ressembled none to be found on earth. His size
was greater than that of an ass ; less than that of a mule. His coat
was more dazzlingly white than snow ; he had the face of a man,
but was dumb. Great wings like those of a bird allowed him to rise in
the air and career through space. His mane, tail, feathers and
breast-piece were studded with priceless precious stones that
sparkled like myriads of stars. I got on his back and, in a twinkling,
he carried me from the " Masjidu ' 1-Haram " to the " Masjidu ' 1-
Aqsa " (/. e. the Sacred Makkan Temple to the faraway Temple of
Jerusalem). I alighted and fastened his bridle to the ring used by the
Prophets. A man appeared in front of me, offering a cup of milk and
a cup of wine. I drank 'the milk and refused the wine. Jibra'il, who
had accompanied me without outstripping me or allowing me to
outrun him, approved what I had done. " If thou hadst preferred
wine to milk, " he told me, " thy people would have preferred Error
to Truth. After visiting the Temple, the Prophet climbed up the "
Sakhrah, " the Sacred Rock (on which now stands the marvellous
dome of the Mosque of Umar) which bowed down in his honour and
also so as to enable him to remount Al-Buraq. Still led by his celestial
guide, he continued his journey by ascending through the Heavens.
We need not cop3' the descriptions of this Ascension, or " Miraj, " in
every detail. Many writers, particularly the Persians, have given a
free rein to their imagination in this connection, whilst others, more
serious, such as Ibn-i-Hisham, Ibn-i-Sad and Abul Fida, are content
to set forth an extremely simple narrative. We shall only mention
Mohammad's meeting with the Prophets known before him :
Abraham, Moses and Jesus ; then his visit to the Paradise of
Believers, where the gardens honoured him by giving out sweet'
odours and his halt in Hell, destined to receive Unbelievers, where
the flames congealed when he went along. After having passed
through the seven zones of the Heavens, it was not long before he
heard the scratching of pens writing in the " Book of Fate, " and the
thanksgivings of the angels glorifying the Almighty. Finally, he
reached the " Sidratu'l-Muntaha, " the " Lote-tree of the Extremity. "
At this spot, Jibra'il left him, saying : " Here is the boundary of
Knowledge, where I am forced to halt. As for thee, O Prince of
Messengers ! O friend of the Master of the Worlds ! continue thy
glorious Ascension and progress in the Light of thy Lights. " And the
Chosen One continued to pass through the veils covering that which
is hidden, 49
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THE LIFE OF MOHAMMAD until he reached the veil of Unity

and looked upon that which eyes cannot see, nor minds imagine.
The eyes of his body would not have been able to support the
brilliancy of this sight which must have brought on blindness.
Therefore, Allah opened the eyes of Mohammad's heart, thus
permitting him to contemplate the Infinite Splendour. Allah bade him
draw near to His throne, " at the distance of two bo\w, or even
closer " (THE QUR'AN, LIII, 9), and after having confirmed the
choice He had made in charging Mohammad to be the carrier of
Good Tidings to His servants, He fixed the number of prayers — fifty
in all — that each Believer should offer up daily to the Creator, in
gratitude for His bounty. \Vhen the Chosen One \vent down, Moses
met him again and questioned him. ' O Prophet of Allah ! what hath
our Master ordered thee with regard to the number of prayers which
His disciples should offer up?' — ' Fifty prayers during the day and
the night. ' — ' O thou, the best of created beings ! ' Moses rejoined,
' go back to our Master, and beg Him to lighten this burden, too
heavy for the weakness and laziness of mankind. ' So Mohammad
went back several times into the presence of the Master of the
\Vorlds, until he prevailed upon Him to reduce the number of prayers
to five only. This parable, which serves to decide definitively the
number of daily prayers, also demonstrates admirably that an excess
of devotion, in the Islamic creed, is considered to be an error. " Allah
Jejireth lo make your burden lujht to you : for man halh been
created weak.. " (THE QUR'AN, iv, 3a.) Why should the Almighty be
in need of the prayers of mankind? " We ajk. not of Thee to make
provision for thyself — We will provide for Thee. (THE QUR'AN, xx,
i32.) Allah has sent prayer to His servants as one of His most
'salutary favours. Five times daily, devotion brings absolute rest to
Believers ; that is to say, complete interruption of the feelings that
stir them, whether an excess of joy leading to ruin in the aberrations
of debauchery, or an excess of sadness causing them to perish in the
madness of despair. Five times daily, prayer forces them by its
accompanying ablutions, to call to mind 'the cleanliness of the body,
at the same time as the purity of the soul. The day after his vision,
the Prophet, beaming with delight, was met by his mortal enemy,
Abu Jahal, who addressed him ironically : ' O Mohammad ! hast thou
not one of those marvellous tales which we are used to hear from
thee to tell us this morning ? ' — ' Indeed I have ! ' replied the
Prophet. ' Between yesternight and this morning I have been to
Jerusalem and back. ' — ' Gather round quickly, O Quraish ! Hasten
and hearken to the wonderful adventure of the nocturnal journey
undertaken by Mohammad! ' shouted Abu Jahal. The crowd soon
grew, and the Prophet gave out the narrative we have just set forth.
Most of his hearers, belonging to the clan of the idol-worshippers,
followed the example of their chieftain and received it with outbursts
of the coarsest merriment. Some clapped their hands ; others held
their heads in their hands as if to stop their brains from bursting. As
for the Believers, one party was undecided whether to put faith in
the story or not ; and the remainder, unsettled by the attitude of the
public, dared not manifest their confidence openly. Profiting by the
confusion, Abu Jahal hastened to speak to Abu Bakr. ' Maybe thou
dost not know the last extraordinary adventure of thy Prophet ? He
pretends to have accomplished in the night the journey from the "
Holy Temple " of Makkah to the " Faraway Temple " of Jerusalem —
there and back ! ' Abu Jahal was full of glee, in anticipation, at the
thought of the vexation and bewilderment which were sure to be
seen in the face of his fellow-citizen. Contrary to Abu Jahal's
expectations, however, Abu Bakr replied without uneasiness : '
Whatever Mohammad asserts is true and I believe it. If he maintains
that he went up to the seventh Heaven in an hour and came back in
the same space of time, I should still have faith in his declarations. '
So
The text on this page is estimated to be only 27.77%
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CHAPTER THE FOURTH Such dependable testimony caused

the Faithful to take heart ; thus it turned out that Abu Jahal, by
trying to instil incredulity in men's minds, only succeeded in
strengthening their beliefs. Desirous of catching the Prophet
redhanded as a cheat, Abu Jahal interrogated him concerning the
Temple of Jerusalem, calling on him for a description thereof. But he
was utterly routed when Mohammad, whom his foe thought had
never set foot in Jerusalem, except during this nocturnal vision,
described the city in all its peculiarities and \vith great accuracy,
endorsed by all among those assembled who had ever undertaken
that journey. Therefore the Believers, their faith revived, hastened to
put on the five " Garments of Purity, " which means that they offered
up the five prayers brought down to them from Heaven by the
Prophet. Towards the end of the year, Usman ibn Affan and his wife
Ruqaiyah returned from Abyssinia, accompanied by a few emigrants,
among whom, one of them, called Sukran, died on arrival. The
Prophet married his widow, Sauda, daughter of Zoma, thus
rewarding the zeal of one of the first female converts to Islam, who
had so valiantly undergone the ordeals of persecution and exile.
\Vishing, in the same way, to show his appreciation of the
unchanging devotion of Abu Bakr, the Veracious, • and to bind him
still closer by a matrimonial alliance, the Prophet, at the same
epoch, espoused his daughter Ayishah, although she had barely
reached the age of ten. But, inher case, the marriage was not
consummated until many years later, at Al-Madinah, after the Hegira.
Despite Abu Bakr's energetic affirmations; despite the strengthening
of the Believers' zeal by the rule of the five prayers, the story of the
Nocturnal Ascension was far from being advantageous to the cause
of Islam. The narrative, on the contrary, furnished its enemies with
an opportunity of petty triumph, enabling them to pile up fresh
mockery and institute greater persecution. The case would have
seemed hopeless to any other but Mohammad. He knew not what it
meant to be discouraged, feeling certain that the Almighty would
never abandon His Apostle to whom He had revealed the following
verses : " Say : I betake me for refuge to Ihe Lord of Men, if The
King of Men, %£ Allah of Jlfen ^ Against the mischief of the
stealthily withdrawing whisperer (Satan) $ W^ho hide<> himself at
the Name of Allah, $ JF'ho wh'uperelh in man'j breeut agaiiut Jinn
and men. " (THE QUR'AN, cxiv, 16.) Postponing for the time being
the conversion of the Makkans, the Prophet turned his attention
towards Arab strangers in the town, attracted in great crowds by the
ceremonies of the pilgrimage to the Ka'bah and the ritual circuits.
During the fair that was held at that time, he went untiringly from
group to group. But, just as indefatigable, close behind, was his
uncle, Abu Lahab, who, as soon as he saw the Prophet in the centre
of a ring of men, would call out loudly to them : ' Hearken not to
that man! His sole thought is to tear the cult of Lat and Uzza from
out of your hearts ; and trick ye all with the insane doctrines that he
pretends it is his Mission to preach. These words aroused the Arabs'
suspicions, and they turned away from Mohammad with remarks
after this fashion : ' Thy fellow-citizens know thee better than we, so
begin by convincing them! ' Or else : ' If Allah should cause thee to
triumph, thy glory will not profit us, but only thy party. Therefore, it
is not to our advantage to ally ourselves to thee. These rebuffs had
no effect on the Prophet. No sooner did any noteworthy person
arrive in Makkah than Mohammad sought his presence at once.
HOW SIX INHABITANTS OF YASRIB WERE CONVERTED ( A. D. 620 )
5i
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THE LIFE OF MCTHAMMAD One da3r, on the hill of Aqabah,

he went up to a group of six men, fresh arrivals, and with his usual
politeness, he addressed them thus : ' What are you, O my good
Lords? ' — ' We are of the Khazraj tribe. ' — ' Masters over the Jews
settled in Yasrib, methinks? ' — ' We are indeed their masters. ' — '
Will ye not sit down here awhile, so that I may speak \vith you?' - '
\Villingly. They sat by his side, and he tried to gather them into the
fold of Islam by reciting verses of the Qur'an. Charmed by his
eloquence and the novelty of his words, the Khazraj men listened
attentively and paused to reflect. The Jews, inhabiting their land and
bent beneath their yoke, were folks well versed in the knowledge of
Holy Writ. Thus it was that whenever disagreement arose between
them and their masters, these children of Israel were wont to
murmur : ' We await the coming of a Prophet. \Vhen his hour
arrives, we shall all follow him and thanks to his assistance, we shall
triumph over you and become your masters in our turn. ' Whilst
Mohammad spoke unto the tribesmen, they exchanged glances and
came to this conclusion : ' Evidently this is the Prophet whose
advent is threatened by the Jews. We must not let them forestall us
with him. ' So they replied to his appeal, saying : ' Our land is made
desolate by perpetual war waged between us and our Arab brothers,
the Aus tribe. We will go to them, and call their atf ention to thy
cause and thy religion. If through thee, Allah should reconcile and
unite us, there -will not be in all Arabia a man more powerful than
thee ! ' * THE TWO OATHS OF The new converts kept their word
and spread Mohammad's doctrines in their region. The following
year, twelve Mussulmans from Yasrib, ten being of the Khazraj and
two belonging to the Aus, arrived in Makkah for the Mausam
rejoicings. They met the Prophet on the Aqabah and took an oath of
fidelity towards him. With a view to completing their religious
education and making fresh converts, Mohammad delegated Musab
ibn Umr, one of his most learned disciples, •who went away with
them. In Yasrib, the Islamic creed did not meet with the difficulties
that hampered its progress in Makkah, where it was harmful to the
interests of the exploiters of the idols. Musab's task turned out to be
particularly easy, and the " Permanent Miracle " of the Surahs of the
Qur'an, recited by him, produced its effect -with lightning-like
rapidity. Resembling a beneficial rainstorm \vhich might have broke,
in a few minutes, over every part of a country suffering from
drought, restoring life and fertility, Islam had diffused its wholesome
dew over every district of the town, calming dissensions and causing
the virtues necessary for its triumph to take root and flourish in the
citizens' hearts. Soon there was not a single family among the Aus or
the Khazraj which did not count several Believers among its
members. Musab, who had good reasons to be proud of the result of
his mission, returned to Makkah to report progress to Mohammad.
When the date of the pilgrimage came due, seventy-five
Mussulmans, two being women, joined the caravan of their fellow-
citizens who were still idolaters. The converts, full of zeal, arranged
to meet the Prophet on the Aqabah, during the night preceding the
second day of Tashriq, in order to offer a safe place of refuge in their
city, for him and his disciples. Ka'b ibn Malik , one of the pilgrims,
has said : " We made up our minds to keep our movements se"
cretfrom our idolatrous fellow-citizens, among whom we slept until
one third of the night was passed. We then went out, one after
another, stealthily, making our way, slowly and silentlj', towards a
pass on the slopes of the Aqabah, where we all met together to
await the Prophet. He soon arrived, accompanied by his uncle Abbas
ibn Abdul-Muttalib. 62
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CHAPTER THE FOURTH He had not yet abjured the religion

of his ancestors, but he had great affection for his nephew from
whom he wished to ward off all misfortune, following the example of
his brother, Abu Talib. Having been informed of the plans of the
people of Yasrib, Abbas wanted to see for himself what amount of
confidence Mohammad could have 'in their proposals. Abbas -was
the first to address the meeting and spoke as follows : ' O Assembly
of the Khazraj and the Aus ! my brother's son, as ye know, holds
high rank among us, and although we do not share his convictions,
we have hitherto protected him against his fellow-citizens. In our "
qawm " he finds honour and safety. Nevertheless, at the present
hour, he turns towards you, and desires to settle in your midst.
Reflect ! if ye decide to remain faithful to your promises and shield
him from all dangers whatsoever, it will be well. But should 3'e fear
to be forced one day to throw him over, and give him into the hands
of his enemies, it would be better, now at once, to confess that your
purpose is not steadfast by withdrawing your proposals and leaving
him with his own party. Without the slightest hesitation, we
answered Abbas : ' Thou hast heard what we proposed. Thou canst
rely on us absolutely ! ' Then we turned to Mohammad : ' Speak, O
Prophet ! \Vhat dost thou \vant of us, for thy Lord and for thyself?
After having recited a few Surahs and recapitulated the fundamental
principles of Islam, the Prophet added : ' Swear that ye will fight to
defend me and my disciples, as ye would fight to defend your wives
and children. We took the required oath -with unanimous
enthusiasm : ' By Allah ! we are warchildren, and our fathers have
taught us how to manufacture all weapons! ' — ' O Prophet ! ' broke
in Abul Hasham, ' there exists a compact, between the Jews of
Yasrib and us, which we shall have to break, perhaps, in order to
uphold thy cause. \Vhat would be our position, in our land, if, after
being victorious thanks to us, thou didst go back to thy " qawm " ? '
' The Prophet smiled and protested : ' Rest easy on that score ! Your
blood hath become my blood and your honour, my honour. He who
wrongeth you, wrongeth me. I'll fight the enemies you fight, and
support whom ye support ; ye are mine and I am yours ! Choose
then twelve Najibs among you as leaders. " After having consulted
together, we chose nine Khazraj and three Aus. When we brought
the twelve men to him, he said : ' Ye shall be my delegates in your "
qawm, " as were the apostles of Jesus, son of Mary, among their
people. ' The Najibs pledged their -words ; but, just as the solemn
oath was about to be sworn, " Ibn-i-Ubadah rose and said : ' O
Assembly of the Khazraj and Aus ! have ye reflected " seriously
anent the consequences of the compact ye intend to make with this
man? For his " sake ye swear to go to war with white, swarthy and
black men. But if, in days to come, " seeing your property pillaged
and your nobles massacred, ye were to forsake him, shame " would
be brought upon you in this world and the next.' — 'We are resigned
in anticipation " to the loss of our property and to the death of our
best men, if such a sacrifice is useful " for the cause of Islam, ' we
replied unhesitatingly, ' but may we ask the Prophet what we " shall
receive in exchange? ' He replied : ' Paradise ! " U^ho, from desire la
behold Iheface of Iheir Lord, are constant amid trials, an
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THE LIFE OF MOHAMMAD sustenance of eld ! ' But they will

only resemble those of earth, being infinitely more delicious... -fy.
And theirs shall be Ihe Hoitris with large black eyes like close-kept
pearls. . . fy No vain discourse shall they hear therein, nor charge of
An 5^ If^e will remove whatever rancour was in their hearts... and
they shall say ' Praise be to Allah who hath guided us hither. ' ^ "
And other things which ye desire will He bestow : Help from Allah
and greedy conquest!... ^ 0 ye who believe! be ansars of Allah! (I.
e. helpers, soldiers.)" (THE QUR'AN, xm, 22, 23, 24. II, 23. LVI, 22,
24. vn, 41. LXI, i3, 14.) When they heard these promises of
inconceivable bliss in Paradise, announced by such tokens as are
understood by mortals' weak brains, the Faithful felt their souls filled
with hope and said to the Prophet : ' Stretch out thine hand ! '
Mohammad offered his hand, opened out, the palm turned upwards
; and Asad ibn Zarara came and struck it with his right hand,
followed by Abul Hisham and Al Bara ; and, one after the other, all
the Yasrib pilgrims, who from that day forth called themselves, "
Ansars. " \Ve were getting ready to return furtively to our
encampment, our hearts brimming over with joy and hope, when, in
the silence of the night, on the summit of the Aqabah, a voice
resounded, the most shrill I had ever heard. ' O Assembly of the
Quraish ! ' it shouted, ' be on your guard! The sons of the Khazraj
and Aus have sworn to fall upon you with the sword ! \Ve
shuddered, but the Prophet removed our fears by saying : ' That is
the voice of the demon of the Aqabah which means that Iblis
(Satan) is shrieking. He is Allah's enemy, and his cry has not been
heard by any of our adversaries. ' \Ve returned to our tents, where
we found our fellow-citizens sleeping soundly, suspecting naught of
that which had taken place. Nevertheless, upon awaking, next day, a
deputation of Quraish nobles arrived, warned either by the voice of
Iblis, or by reports of spies dogging the Prophet's footsteps. ' O
Assembly of the Khazraj and Aus! ' said these delegates, 'it hath
come to our ears that ye have allured one of our men, Mohammad
ibn Abdullah and taken an oath with him to wage war upon us. The
idolaters of our party, knowing nothing about the events of the
night, swore with most evident sincerity that the Quraish were
mistaken. ' This business is improbable ! exclaimed one of their
chieftains, Abu Salul by name. 'My " qawm" would not have hidden it
from me and I have heard naught about it. ' The Quraish tribesmen
went away, more or less tranquilised, but they met on their road
some Bedouins who had been witnesses of the strange gathering in
the Aqabah ravine and who imparted their suspicions. The Quraish,
convinced of the treachery of the Khazraj and the Aus, turned back
in great haste to the encampment. But the tents were struck ; the
birds had flo%vn and were far off by that time, out of danger. THE
PLOT AGAINST Henceforward the Prophet could reckon on safety
and shelter in the town of Yasrib and he gave orders to all his
disciples to take refuge within its walls. The idolaters could not help
feeling great apprehension, by reason of their victims meeting with
the inhabitants of a rival city. The worshippers of images impeded
the union by means of great violence, and it was only one by one, or
in small, successive groups, that the Believers were able to reach
their place of safety. From that day onwards, they took the name of
" Muhajirun, " or emigrants. As for the Prophet, relieved of all
anxiety concerning them, he stopped in Makkah with Ali and Abu
Bakr only. They knew full well the risk they ran, but despite Abu
Bakr's adjurations, Mohammad wished to make a supreme effort,
and resort to force before leaving his native town. He still hoped to
rescue some of his fellow-countrymen from idolatry, especially
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CHAPTER THE FOURTH as he now had a shelter to offer

them ; and besides, he did not like to leave his post without
authorisation from the Lord. The emigration of the Believers carried
the fury of the Quraish idolaters to the highest pitch as well as
causing them great anxiet}^. They resolved to strike a decisive
blow. They called a meeting in the " Dar-un-Nadwa, " " House of
Counsel, " built by their ancestor, Qusayy ibn Kilab. The most
important resolutions were taken in this " Dar-unNadwa, " -where
only the descendants of Qusayy were admitted, but not until they
had reached the age of forty. Just as representatives of every
division of the Quraish were entering the " House of Counsel, " a tall,
old man of haughty bearing, attired in woollen garments, appeared
on the threshold. In reply to questions as to who he was and -what
he -wanted, he replied : ' I am a Shaikh of the Najd. Attracted by
your noble gait and the sweetness of your favourite scents, I feel
great desire to hear you speak. If ye consent to admit me to your
noble assembly, perchance my advice may not be entirely useless.
The inhabitants of the Najd lived too far away to be suspected of
acting in complicity with Mohammad, therefore the Committee of the
Elders found that nothing prevented them from authorising the
noble stranger to be present during the meeting, and he followed
them into the hall of debate. The Head Committee started the
discussion at once. ' \Ve all know, ' they said to each other, ' about
the intrigues of this man Mohammad and the danger with which he
threatens our country. \Ve will talk over the best means of defence.
Let each of us give his opinion freely. ' The first to speak was Abul
Bukhtari who made this proposal : ' Let us cast our enemy into a
dungeon, load him with chains, ad bolt the door upon him until he
die. ' — ' Such a proceeding would be fraught with fatal
consequences, ' the Shaikh of the Najd objected, ' if you carry it out.
The news of your act of violence would filter through the prison
gates and reach the ears of Mohammad's companions who, ye may
be sure, would quickly attack 3'ou in order to free him. Thanks to
assistance of the Yasrib Mussulmans, they would be victorious. Let
us hear some one else's proposition. Asad ibn Rabiya rose and said :
' \Vhy cannot we expulse him from among us and banish him from
our country ? \Vhen he is gone, little we reck where he taketh
refuge or what becometh of him. AVe shall be well rid of him. ' — '
Truly, a fine piece of advice ! exclaimed the Shaikh of the Najd. '
Know ye nothing about the beauty of your adversary's speech, the
charm of his voice and the strength of his arguments ? Scarcely will
he have set foot among the neighbouring Arab tribes, when he will
dominate them by his eloquence, cause them to follow in his wake,
and come back from exile at their head, to have his own way with
you all ! Try and find a more reasonable plan to crush him. Then it
was the turn of Abu Jahal. ' By our gods ! ' said he, ' I have a project
which, I am certain, will satisfy you entirely. ' ' Speak ! What is thy
plan ? ' exclaimed his audience. — ' This is it. In each subdivision of
our tribe we'll choose a young, vigorous warrior belonging to a
family equally noble and respected, and we'll place in his hand a
well-sharpened sword. These young warriors, banded together, shall
throw themselves on Mohammad at the same instant ; all striking
him at once. By acting in this way, the responsibility of shedding his
blood will be shared among all the subdivisions to which the
murderers belong, and the Abd Manaf, relatives of the dead man,
unable to declare war upon every subdivision of our tribe, -will be
obliged to content themselves with receiving the " Diyah " (blood
ransom) that we may be good enough to offer. ' — ' These are -
words of intelligence ! ' exclaimed the Shaikh of the Najd, -who was
no other than Iblis (Satan) disguised in human shape. ' That man's
motion points to the only way out of your difficulty. 55
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THE LIFE OF MOHAMMAD This perfidious counsel met with

the unanimous approval of the assembly. The Unbelievers flattered
themselves that their enemy was already got rid of, but they had
reckoned without the will of the Almighty. The angel Jibra'il, sent by
Him, warned the Prophet of the conspiracy to take his life, and
brought him orders to emigrate in his turn, at the same time
warning him as follows : ' Sleep not this night upon thy wonted
couch. ' In Mohammad's house were several sums of money
deposited with him by Unbelievers, and he did not care to go away
before having given back what was due to each rightful owner. He
charged his faithful Ali to carry this out, after having told him what
he had just heard and saying : ' Sleep in my stead, on my habitual
couch, and wrap thyself in this — my green mantle of the
Hazramaut. Fear naught; no harm can come to thee from my
enemies. \Vhen the first four hours of the night had gone by, the
conspirators, among whom was Abu Jahal who had come to excite
their zeal, were posted in ambush close to the door of the house, to
prevent Mohammad from escaping. They did not wish to
consummate their crime in darkness, for people might then have
denied the participation of the Quraish. They preferred to await
daybreak, so that it might be plainly visible that each and every one
had an equal share in the murder. But He who never sleeps watched
over His Prophet surrounded by foes. " t^erily on Ihelr neckj, Jf^e
hace placet) chaiiu which reach I be chin, and forced up are Iheir
headd ^. And before them have W^e set a barrier and behind them
a barrier, ant) Jf^e have shrouded them in a veil, so that they shall
not see. " (THE QUR'AN, xxxvi, 7-8.) Confiding in the protection of
his Lord, 'Mohammad crept quietly out of his dwelling, picking up
some loose earth and throwing a handful or two on the head of each
conspirator. He then went away. The eyes of the miscreants,
beneath lids heavy •with tedious waiting and blinded by the bandage
of sleep that Allah had placed thereon, saw nothing. ' For whom are
ye watching here?' quoth a passer-by, coming on the scene. — ' For
Mohammad. ' — ' Allah hath saved him and he hath tricked you all.
He hath just departed right under your noses and after covering
your pates with dust, he strode away gaily. ' Each startled man
swiftly clapped his hand to his head and, withdrawing his fingers
dirty with dust, gave signs of stupefaction. But, peering through a
crack in the door, they saw Ali asleep on the Prophet's couch and
wrapped in his green mantle. This sight set the villains' minds at rest
and they all stood sentinel till dawn. Actuated by the same impulse,
when the sun rose, they battered down the door and with swords
unsheathed, threw themselves on Ali. He sat up facing them. They
recognised him and called out : ' How now ! Can it be thee, O Ali ?
Where is thy companion ? ' — 'I know not. ' In their fury at having
been so finely tricked, they seized up Ali and imprisoned him in the
Temple ; but quickly recognising what a grave mistake they would
make by being revenged on the son of Abu Talib, they set him free.
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CHAPTER THE FIFTH

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