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Preschool Assessment Principles and Practices 1st Edition
Marla R. Brassard Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Marla R. Brassard, Ann E. Boehm
ISBN(s): 9781593857387, 1593857381
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 2.69 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
PRESCHOOL ASSESSMENT
 Preschool
ASSESSMENT
Principles and Practices

MARLA R. BRASSARD
ANN E. BOEHM

THE GUILFORD PRESS

New York London
©2007 The Guilford Press
A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.
72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012
www.guilford.com

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording,
or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Brassard, Marla R.
Preschool assessment : principles and practices / Marla R. Brassard, Ann E. Boehm.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59385-333-4 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-59385-333-5 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Child development—Evaluation. 2. Ability—Testing. 3. Education, Preschool.
I. Boehm, Ann E., 1938– II. Title.
LB1131.B623 2007
372.126—dc22
2006039103
 To our beloved husbands,
George Litchford and Neville Kaplan

To our fellow early childhood assessors,

committed to improving the lives of young children

In memory of the late Mary Alice White,

who trained us as scientist-practitioners
 About the Authors

Marla R. Brassard, PhD, Associate Professor in the School Psychology Program at

Teachers College, Columbia University, has been assessing preschool children and their
families in research settings, public schools, and university clinics for over 25 years. Her
research focuses on psychological maltreatment of children—its assessment, the emo-
tional/behavioral injuries that result, and contextual factors that moderate the effect of
maltreatment (particularly the role of schools, teachers, and peer relationships). Dr.
Brassard has published two books on this topic—Psychological Maltreatment of Children
and Youth (coedited with Robert Germain and Stuart N. Hart, 1987) and Psychological
Maltreatment of Children (coauthored with Nelson J. Binggeli and Stuart N. Hart,
2001)—and many articles, chapters, special issues of journals, and pamphlets for parents
and educators. In addition, she cochaired the task force that wrote the Guidelines for the
Psychosocial Evaluation of Suspected Psychological Maltreatment (American Profes-
sional Society on the Abuse of Children, 1995). Instrument development in the area of
psychological aggression/maltreatment has been another area of focus (Psychological
Maltreatment Rating Scales, Teacher Psychological Aggression Scale). Dr. Brassard also
investigates psychological aggression in teacher–student and peer relationships, and its
impact on children’s functioning, in a longitudinal study of secondary school children.
She has worked in prisons, preschools, schools, and clinics with disabled, maltreated, and
other troubled children and youth, and has taught courses and supervised practica in the
university clinic in this area for over 25 years.

Ann E. Boehm, PhD, Professor Emerita in the School Psychology Program at Teachers
College, Columbia University, is well known for her groundbreaking work in identifying
the importance of young children’s knowledge of basic relational concepts (e.g., next to,

vii
viii About the Authors

after, first) to their understanding of teacher and text directions. She has developed two
widely used early childhood tests to assess this knowledge—the Boehm Test of Basic Con-
cepts, Third Edition, for grades K–2 (2000), and the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts, Third
Edition: Preschool (2001)—and is working on editions of both tests for children with
visual impairments. She is the author (with Richard Weinberg) of The Classroom
Observer (third edition) and has written extensively on assessment issues at the early
childhood level. Dr. Boehm also cosponsors an annual conference and teaches a graduate
course entitled “Observing and Assessing the Preschool Child.” Her research interests
include cross-cultural development of relational concepts used in different direction for-
mats, the role of comprehension in direction following, and intergenerational literacy. She
has been a preschool psychologist, a teacher, and a consultant for Head Start. Most of her
teaching has been focused on the psychoeducational assessment of young children,
practica on cognitive functioning, and issues regarding the practice of school psychology.
 Preface

T his book presents an integrated analysis of the issues and practices of preschool
assessment, from our perspective as practicing clinicians-researchers. The book is written
both for graduate students and for practicing assessors, including school and child clini-
cal psychologists, early childhood and special educators, learning disability specialists,
and speech–language specialists. Designed to be a primary text in courses on preschool/
early childhood assessment and a manual for clinical practice, the book focuses on how
to think about assessment issues, select appropriate measures and procedures (extensive
test reviews are presented), and integrate diverse information for use in decision making;
there is less emphasis on how to administer tests. The book offers a synopsis of current
research, federal laws, and practice relevant to preschool assessment, illustrated with
actual case examples. It describes our thinking as we (1) share a comprehensive develop-
mental model of preschool assessment; (2) describe how to establish and evaluate screen-
ing programs for instructional and child-finding purposes; (3) present suggestions for
establishing good working relationships with families of children ages 3–6 from diverse
backgrounds; (4) collect information relevant to understanding developmental problems
and making diagnoses; and (5) link assessment findings to intervention and program
planning.
With the passage of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, promoting chil-
dren’s early language and cognitive development has become federal policy. The require-
ments of the NCLB legislation have further prodded state policymakers into defining the
goals of formal schooling and articulating early learning standards for their preschool
populations. States are increasingly funding universal programs as legislators take note of
the research supporting the efficacy of these programs in preparing young children to

ix
x Preface

learn when they start formal schooling, especially children from low-income and minor-
ity populations.
The need for preschool programs to promote all areas of children’s development is
only gradually being acknowledged. When Scott-Little, Kagan, and Frelow (2006)
reviewed 46 early learning standards documents developed by state-level organizations
and compared them with the five domains of school readiness identified by the National
Education Goals Panel (NEGP, 1997), they found an almost universal emphasis on the
domains of language and communication development and of cognition and general
knowledge. There was a relative lack of attention to the domains of physical well-being,
social and emotional development, and approaches to learning (e.g., task persistence)—
all of which research shows to be important for school success. We hope that states’ early
learning standards will evolve into comprehensive multidomain standards that target the
whole child, as emphasized in this text.
These government initiatives expand the role of early childhood assessors—hitherto
focused primarily on assessment and placement of preschool children with disabilities—
into consultation around what to assess, what measures to use, and what curricula to
select in order to achieve these early learning standards. This book covers assessment of
all of the NEGP domains of school readiness except physical well-being. Moreover, it
goes beyond these domains by covering assessment of the strengths and needs of
preschool/kindergarten children within the contexts of the home, childcare center, school,
and other learning environments, and the integration of this information in planning
interventions that address the whole child. The focus on children 3 through 6 years of age
includes the traditional transition points from early intervention to preschool, from pre-
school to kindergarten, and from kindergarten to the formal learning demands of first
grade.
The two of us have been preschool psychologists and have taught and supervised
practica in this area for over 20 years. We contributed equally to the conceptualization
and writing of this book and flipped a coin to determine the order of authorship. The two
chapters on cognitive assessment and assessment of children with mental retardation
were written by Susan Vig, PhD, and Michelle Sanders, PsyD. We are grateful that our
readers can benefit, as have we, from their extensive experience and scholarship in these
areas.

ORIENTATION TO THE BOOK

Chapter 1 surveys the contexts (legal, demographic, social) in which preschool assessors
do their work, as well as the protective and risk factors that affect children’s functioning.
Chapter 2 presents our theoretical model of preschool assessment, describes the assess-
ment process, and notes the characteristics of preschool children that are relevant to
assessment. In Chapter 3, we review the technical characteristics of assessment measures
administered to preschool children, in order to help assessors select tests and interpret
results. Chapter 4 presents what we consider the key technique for assessment of pre-
schoolers: observation of the child. Chapter 5 describes observation of the childcare/
preschool environment. In Chapter 6, developmental screening practices and assessment
are covered in detail, so that readers can select appropriate measures for their population
and implement a program in their district or agency. Chapter 7 critiques traditional
approaches to readiness assessment and details the importance of instructional screening
 Preface xi

for emergent literacy. Curriculum-based assessment, portfolio assessment, strategy assess-

ment, and testing modifications are also presented. Chapter 8 reviews the major models
of family assessment and intervention; discusses how to develop a productive working
relationship with families; and presents a model of family assessment as a collaborative
approach to identifying critical aspects of family functioning for support and/or change.
Chapter 9, on the assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse children and their
families, examines a great deal of information on becoming culturally sensitive and self-
aware; it also discusses bilingualism, bilingual education, and culturally sensitive assess-
ment practices.
Chapter 10 covers the major areas that early childhood assessors, who are not
speech–language specialists, need to know about language development and assessment,
in order to promote development in this area. In Chapters 11 and 12, Susan Vig and
Michelle Sanders describe critical aspects of cognitive development during the preschool
period, and then review current measures in terms of how validly they capture the cogni-
tive functioning of preschool children—especially those most likely to be referred for a
cognitive evaluation, children with mental retardation. Chapter 13 discusses the screen-
ing, diagnosis, and treatment of children with autism spectrum disorders. Chapter 14 is
based on the research-supported premise that emotional development leads directly to
social development, and socioemotional competence is as important as cognitive skills in
determining school success. It presents emotional milestones and the factors that influ-
ence them; a model for assessing emotional skills, as well as curricula that promote such
skills; diagnostic models for children with emotional and behavioral problems; and an
assessment approach for these children, along with useful measures. Case studies are used
throughout the book to illustrate assessment strategies and measures, as well as possible
interventions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have encouraged us and have contributed to the development of this
book; we are very grateful to them all. Many years ago we were motivated by Sharon
Panulla, who then worked at The Guilford Press, to write the book. After Sharon’s
departure, we were encouraged by Chris Jennison, who had confidence in us through
the years of research and writing the chapters. Craig Thomas has helped us greatly to
pull everything together with high-quality suggestions. Finally, we deeply appreciate the
marvelous editing by our copy editor, Marie Sprayberry, and production editor, Anna
Nelson.
We would also like to thank the many graduate assistants who have been of great
help in finding and reviewing tests and materials, including Pooja Vekaria, Anna Ward,
Kera Miller, Natascha Crandall, Arjan Graybill, Chris Mullen, Melania Puza Pearl,
and Lindsay Reddington; the secretaries who have worked with us throughout this
project, Colleen Wood and Laura Stellato; our students, anonymous reviewers, and
colleagues (Lois Dreyer, Richard Weinberg, Virginia Stolarski, Denise Green, Maria
Hartman) who have critiqued chapters, offering many helpful recommendations; and the
family members who co-read chapters (including our husbands and Lydia and Shaina
Brassard). Most importantly, we would like to thank our husbands, George Litchford
and Neville Kaplan, for their unending patience, encouragement, and pressure to finish
“THE BOOK” that has consumed our lives for these many years.
 Contents

Chapter 1. A Framework for Preschool Assessment 1

Chapter 2. A Multifactor Ecocultural Model of Assessment 22

and the Assessment Process

Chapter 3. Technical Concerns 41

Chapter 4. Observation of the Child 64

Chapter 5. Observation of Environments 101

Chapter 6. Screening Practices and Procedures: 133

A Focus on Developmental Screening

Chapter 7. Assessment of Early Academic Learning 170

Chapter 8. Family Assessment 226

Chapter 9. Assessment of Linguistically and Culturally Diverse 279

Preschoolers: Increasing Culturally Sensitive Practices

Chapter 10. Assessment of Language Development 315

Chapter 11. Cognitive Assessment 383

SUSAN VIG and MICHELLE SANDERS

xiii
xiv Contents

Chapter 12. Assessment of Mental Retardation 420

SUSAN VIG and MICHELLE SANDERS

Chapter 13. Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders 447

Chapter 14. Assessment of Emotional Development 508

and Behavior Problems

References 577

Index 641
 Chapter 1

A Framework
for Preschool Assessment

T he impact of a child’s early years on later development is widely recognized by early

childhood educators and researchers. Economic, social, and legislative forces are all
focusing attention on the importance of these years for the child’s physical, emotional,
language, cognitive, and social development. The topic of this book is assessing the
strengths and needs of children ages 3–6 years within the context of the home, childcare,
school, or other learning environments. The focus on children in this age group includes
the traditional transition points from preschool to kindergarten and from kindergarten to
the formal learning demands of first grade, as well as the less traditional transition from
early intervention to preschool. (Note that although we sometimes use the term pre-
school as we have done just now—that is, to refer to educational experiences prior to
kindergarten—we also use the term preschool assessment throughout this book in a
broader sense, to refer to assessment of all children from age 3 from until the traditional
first-grade entry age of 6. The book does not, however, cover assessment of preschool
children who have sensory or motor impairments. Assessment of the gifted is covered
briefly in Chapter 11.)
The purpose of this chapter is to develop a framework for considering important risk
and protective environmental factors in relationship to a given child. This framework
provides assessors with a foundation for interpreting assessment outcomes and develop-
ing intervention. In the sections that follow, legislation that affects assessment practices is
reviewed, followed by a summary of key interacting influences on child development: (1)
poverty; (2) effects of parental substance abuse; (3) work constraints, childcare, and care-
giving; (4) early intervention; (5) multiple risk factors; (6) violence and maltreatment; (7)
protective factors; (8) resilience in children; (9) environmental forces in childcare and
educational settings; (10) sociocultural considerations; and (11) the nature of child devel-
opment itself. First, however, we define preschool assessment and consider its functions.

1
2 PRESCHOOL ASSESSMENT

DEFINITION AND FUNCTIONS OF PRESCHOOL ASSESSMENT

The term preschool assessment covers a broad range of procedures used to gather infor-
mation relevant to understanding the functioning of young children. It includes standard-
ized testing; observation; parent and teacher interviews and ratings; and evaluation of
work samples, records, and environmental factors. There is widespread agreement on the
part of educators and other early childhood specialists (e.g., school psychologists, early
childhood special educators, social workers, speech pathologists, pediatric nurses, physi-
cians, occupational and physical therapists) that the ultimate goal of preschool assess-
ment needs to be the improvement of learning experiences for all young children. In a
position statement regarding standardized testing, the National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children (NAEYC, 1988) succinctly states the issue: “The purpose of
testing must be to improve services for children and ensure that children benefit from
their educational experiences” (p. 14). This purpose can best be served when assessment
is an ongoing and dynamic process that:

• Is multifaceted (i.e., it uses a variety of measures and approaches).

• Focuses not only on an individual child, but also on his or her learning environ-
ments of home, school, and community.
• Is used to discover children’s learning strengths, emerging areas of development,
problem-solving strategies, and personal styles, as well as their weaknesses and
needs.
• Informs the development of appropriate instructional and behavioral strategies
and interventions.
• Is tied to teaching goals, which in turn need to be evaluated and refined over time.
• Is carried out with the expectation that children will change, and that the earlier
an intervention occurs, the greater its prospects for producing beneficial outcomes.
• Respects the diversity of children’s backgrounds and experiences.

Assessment serves another essential function—that of progress evaluation. In the United

States, this function has become an area of central concern with the passage of the No
Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 (see below). This act mandates accountability for
student performance, even as early as the preschool years.
Therefore, it can be expected that preschool assessment in its varying forms will play
a major role in making decisions and in developing learning experiences/curricula tai-
lored to meet child and family needs. Assessment needs to incorporate research evidence
and needs to focus on both learners and their learning environments, including the contri-
butions of parents, family members, members of the community, teachers, all other rele-
vant school personnel, and specialists. Integrating assessment outcomes into successful
intervention in school settings can take place through initiatives funded under the Early
Reading First Program (an aspect of the NCLB legislation). Such initiatives should use
curriculum-relevant measures and the real-life tasks of play, ongoing consultation, and
intensive workshops with teachers and parents to illustrate the meaning of assessment
results and their implications for learning and intervention activities with children. This
process requires participants to focus not only on scores (if formal testing procedures are
used), but on the pattern of children’s errors, successes, strategies used to arrive at
responses, and environmental supports and teaching strategies that facilitate learning
both at school and at home. To achieve these goals, it is important that assessors and
early childhood specialists work collaboratively with classroom teachers, childcare staff,
 A Framework for Preschool Assessment 3

and parents—not only discussing individual children, but also modeling behaviors, facili-
tating home–school partnerships, obtaining culturally relevant data on effective strate-
gies, and learning themselves from parents and teachers/caregivers. When this model is
followed, the results of assessment can help teachers and parents alike enhance their
understanding of children, achieve their goals and objectives, and realize their own
importance in affecting the quality of instruction.
Translating assessment into successful intervention in clinical settings also involves
ongoing consultation with parents and other important adults in a child’s life (e.g., grand-
mothers, nannies, teachers, childcare personnel). However, clinical intervention may
include a variety of more intensive approaches than are typically used in school settings,
such as a support group for parents of children with autism or other disabilities, behav-
ioral family treatment for a family with a highly disruptive child, or psychotherapy with a
child suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder.
Parents need to be involved in the assessment process in many ways—not only to
provide information about their child’s development and particular needs, but also to
gain an increased awareness of their own importance in their child’s early development
and of the need for their participation in the child’s schooling. Within this context, assess-
ment takes on a new dimension; it becomes an ongoing process integral to teaching, inter-
vention, and adjusting learning experiences to meet child and family needs. Using the
research literatures in developmental and cognitive psychology, education, and early
childhood disabilities, as well as on the effects of different instructional and educational
procedures, assessors can play a major role in improving services for children and in
assisting teachers, parents, and important others in helping them benefit from their edu-
cational experiences.
Attention to the role of preschool assessment and intervention has become an area of
national interest. The importance of the preschool years in providing the basic founda-
tions for children’s later learning was documented by researchers in the early 1960s
(Bloom, 1964; Bruner, 1960; Hunt, 1961) and continues to be an area of research con-
cern in our increasingly diverse society. In the United States, the importance of the pre-
school years was also recognized in the passage of Public Law 99-457 (the Education of
the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986), the downward extension of Public Law 94-
142 (the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975). Both of these laws were
incorporated into Public Law 101-476 (the Individuals with Disabilities Act [IDEA] of
1990), then Public Law 105-17 (the IDEA Amendments of 1997), and finally Public Law
108-446 (the IDEA Improvement Act of 2004, which is generally known as IDEA 2004).
Public Law 99-457 mandated a free and appropriate public education for all disabled
children 3–5 years of age, and early intervention services to disabled children (0–2 years
of age and their families. Passage of Public Law 107-110 (the NCLB Act of 2001), man-
dating accountability, has again highlighted the importance of the preschool years.
Details of this legislation follow.

U.S. FEDERAL AND STATE LEGISLATION

Over the past 30 years, increased federal and state involvement has focused on improving
the development of preschool children. At first, most of the major programs that were
introduced focused on specific target groups of children with special needs, such as chil-
dren from low-income backgrounds and those with particular disabilities (Gallagher,
1989). This changed with passage of the Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments
4 PRESCHOOL ASSESSMENT

of 1986 (Public Law 99-457). The broad purposes of this legislation were to (1) enhance
the development of infants and toddlers with disabilities and to minimize their potential
for developmental delay; (2) reduce the educational costs to society by minimizing the
need for special education and related services after infants and toddlers with disabilities
reach school age; (3) minimize the likelihood of institutionalization of individuals with
disabilities and maximize the potential for their independent living in society; and (4)
enhance the capacity of families to meet the special needs of their infants and toddlers
with disabilities. Part H of the legislation established for the first time a national policy to
serve infants and toddlers through age 2 with disabilities and their families. Part B of this
legislation focused on children ages 3–5 and allowed states to serve children within this
age group without labeling them. Since the legislative provisions of the IDEA Amend-
ments of 1997, subsequently reaffirmed in IDEA 2004, do not require states to classify 3-
to 9-year-old children into disability categories and have added the eligibility designation
of “developmental delay,” how such delay (or the risk for such delay) is determined is a
critical issue. The definition of delay or risk in turn, determines how many children need
to be provided with services. The outcome of this decision will also affect the funds states
will need to contribute, in addition to those funds provided by the federal government
and the amount districts spend on each child. However, there are no uniform criteria
across states regarding developmental delay.
IDEA 2004 for children ages 3–9 designates a “disability,” at the discretion of the
state and local educational agency, as the experience of developmental delays in one or
more of several areas (physical, cognitive, communicative, social or emotional, or adap-
tive development), and the resulting need for special education and related services. Some
states use the 13 disability categories specified by 34 C.F.R. 300; plus general descriptors
“at risk” or “developmentally delayed.” These 13 categories include hearing impairments
(including deafness), deaf-blindness, mental retardation, autism, orthopedic impairments,
emotional disturbance, traumatic brain injury, multiple disabilities, other health impair-
ments, serious emotional disturbances, specific learning disabilities (LD), speech or lan-
guage impairments, and visual impairments. The flexibility in definitions given to states
sometimes results in children’s qualifying for services in one district but being denied ser-
vices in another. Such a varying yardstick in turn may affect a family’s mobility. On the
other hand, local criteria allow greater sensitivity to community and cultural perspectives
regarding how development unfolds and how developmental delay is perceived by fami-
lies. Great caution, however, needs to be exercised in labeling children to be served.
Barnett and Escobar (1987) point to a sobering conclusion that still holds true today: The
vast majority of the children identified as having disabilities at school age are not thus
identified as preschoolers, and many of them are disadvantaged.
Although multiple child and environmental factors are associated with developmen-
tal disorders and are of concern for assessors, they generally are not accounted for in any
systematic way when assessors are determining delay and planning intervention. Further-
more, as noted earlier, projecting the number of children eligible for services varies
according to how risk is determined. Simeonsson (1991) indicates that with children ages
0–3, this number can range from 33% of the population if a single risk factor is used to
25% if multiple risk factors are used, and to 16% if a particular combination of multiple
risk factors is used. Thus, while Public Law 101-476 made a major advance in not requir-
ing states to classify 3- to 5-year-old children into disability categories, many states or dis-
tricts still do categorize children based on their performance on tests and do not focus on
the interplay of child and environmental factors. And although the designations “devel-
opmentally delayed” or “at risk” do not refer to specific disabilities, they are still labels
that are of great concern to parents and many early childhood specialists.
 A Framework for Preschool Assessment 5

IDEA 2004 reaffirms the federal government’s commitment to providing services to

all children with disabilities, and in particular providing a “free and appropriate educa-
tion” (FAPE) to all children with disabilities ages 3–21. In IDEA 2004, the U.S. Congress
took note of the fact that although prior legislation (Public Law 94-142, IDEA, IDEA
Amendments of 1997) had succeeded in providing children with disabilities and their
families access to FAPE, nonetheless a number of factors had impeded full implementa-
tion of these laws—specifically, low expectations and an insufficient focus on applying
research-supported methods for teaching children with disabilities. Among the effective
practices supported in research, the law takes note of the following:

• The importance of having high expectations for children with disabilities and hav-
ing these children participate in the regular curriculum as much as possible, with
the goal of productive, independent living as adults.
• Strengthening the ability of parents to participate meaningfully in the education of
their children at home and at school.
• Coordinating improvement efforts from the local to the federal level, such that
special education becomes a service rather than a place where children are sent.
• Providing appropriate special education services and regular classroom supports
to children with disabilities wherever and whenever appropriate.
• Supporting high-quality preservice and professional development, such that all
personnel are trained to be effective in using scientifically supported practices to
improve the academic performance and functional behavior of children with dis-
abilities.
• Providing incentives to use whole-school approaches, such as research-supported
early reading programs, positive behavior interventions/supports, and early inter-
vention to reduce the number of children labeled as having disabilities.
• Focusing efforts on teaching and learning while reducing nonessential paperwork.
• Supporting the development and use of adaptive technology.

Other provisions of IDEA 2004 of relevance to preschool assessors include the fol-
lowing:

• Parents of a child receiving early intervention services for a toddler may request to
continue to have an individualized family service plan (IFSP) rather than an indi-
vidualized education plan (IEP) when their child turns 3 and would otherwise
move to an IEP, as long as the IFSP includes services that will promote school
readiness, including preliteracy, language, and numeracy.
• States and local educational agencies cannot require a child to take medication (a
controlled substance) as a requirement for attending school.
• School districts must screen for disabilities in populations that have long been
neglected: children attending private schools, living in shelters for homeless per-
sons, or from migrant families.
• Assessment tools and strategies must not only be valid for deciding that a child has
a disability; they must directly assist the IEP team in determining the educational
needs of the child by comprehensively assessing all areas related to the disability as
appropriate (e.g., vision, health, social and emotional functioning, intelligence,
hearing, communication, motor and academic achievement), even if such areas are
not commonly linked to the child’s disability category.
• Children with limited English proficiency (LEP) must be assessed in the language
they use and know best, if at all feasible.
Other documents randomly have
different content
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pleasant sadness which a beautiful sunset rarely fails to awaken in
the breast of the lover of nature. I noted every change that was
going on, and yet my thoughts were far, far away. I thought of the
hundreds of miles that separated me from the friends that I loved. I
was recalling the delight with which I had, when a little girl, viewed
the farewell scenes of day from so many romantic hills, and lakes,
and rivers, rich meadows, mountain gorge and precipice, and the
quiet hamlets of my dear native land so far away. I fancied I could
see my mother move to the door, with a slow step and heavy heart,
and gaze, with yearning affection, toward the broad, the mighty
West, and sigh, wondering what had become of her lost child.
I thought, and grew more sad as I thought, until tears filled my
eyes.
Mother! what a world of affection is comprised in that single word;
how little do we in the giddy round of youthful pleasure and folly
heed her wise counsels; how lightly do we look upon that zealous
care with which she guides our otherwise erring feet, and watches
with feelings which none but a mother can know the gradual
expansion of our youth to the riper years of discretion. We may not
think of it then, but it will be recalled to our minds in after years,
when the gloomy grave, or a fearful living separation, has placed her
far beyond our reach, and her sweet voice of sympathy and
consolation for the various ills attendant upon us sounds in our ears
no more. How deeply then we regret a thousand deeds that we have
done contrary to her gentle admonitions! How we sigh for those
days once more, that we may retrieve what we have done amiss and
make her kind heart glad with happiness! Alas! once gone, they can
never be recalled, and we grow mournfully sad with the bitter
reflection.
“O, my mother!” I cried aloud, “my dearly beloved mother! Would
I ever behold her again? should I ever return to my native land?
Would I find her among the living? If not, if not, heavens! what a
sad, what a painful thought!” and instantly I found my eyes
swimming in tears and my frame trembling with nervous agitation.
But I would hope for the best. Gradually I became calm; then I
thought of my husband, and what might be his fate. It was sad at
best, I well knew. And lastly, though I tried to avoid it, I thought of
Mary; sweet, lost, but dearly beloved Mary; I could see her gentle
features; I could hear her plaintive voice, soft and silvery as running
waters, and sighed a long, deep sigh as I thought of her murdered.
Could I never behold her again? No; she was dead, perished by the
cruel, relentless savage. Silence brooded over the world; not a sound
broke the solemn repose of nature; the summer breeze had rocked
itself to rest in the willow boughs, and the broad-faced, familiar
moon seemed alive and toiling as it climbed slowly up a cloudless
sky, passing starry sentinels, whose nightly challenge was lost in
vast vortices of blue as they paced their ceaseless round in the
mighty camp of constellations. With my eyes fixed upon my gloomy
surroundings of tyranny, occasionally a slip of moonshine silvered
the ground. I watched and reflected. Oh, hallowed days of my
blessed girlhood! They rise before me now like holy burning stars
breaking out in a stormy, howling night, making the blackness
blacker still. The short, happy spring-time of life, so full of noble
aspirations, and glowing hopes of my husband’s philanthropic
schemes of charitable projects in the future.
We had planned so much for the years to come, when, prosperous
and happy, we should be able to distribute some happiness among
those whose fate might be mingled with ours, and in the pursuit of
our daily avocations we would find joy and peace. But, alas! for
human hopes and expectations!
It is thus with our life. We silently glide along, little dreaming of
the waves which will so soon sweep over us, dashing us against the
rocks, or stranding us forever. We do not dream that we shall ever
wreck, until the greater wave comes over us, and we bend beneath
its power.
If some mighty hand could unroll the future to our gaze, or set
aside the veil which enshrouds it, what pictures would be presented
to our trembling hearts? No; let it be as the All-wise hath ordained—
a closed-up tomb, only revealed as the events occur, for could we
bear them with the fortitude we should if they were known
beforehand? Shrinking from it, we would say, “Let the cup pass from
me.”

PRAIRIE ON FIRE.
 CHAPTER XVII.
A PRAIRIE ON FIRE—SCENES OF TERROR.

In October, we were overtaken by a prairie fire. At this season of

the year the plants and grass, parched by a hot sun, are ready to
blaze in a moment if ignited by the least spark, which is often borne
on the wind from some of the many camp fires.
With frightful rapidity we saw it extend in all directions, but we
were allowed time to escape.
The Indians ran like wild animals from the flames, uttering yells
like demons; and great walls of fire from the right hand and from
the left advanced toward us, hissing, crackling, and threatening to
unite and swallow us up in their raging fury.
We were amid calcined trees, which fell with a thundering crash,
blinding us with clouds of smoke, and were burned by the showers
of sparks, which poured upon us from all directions.
The conflagration assumed formidable proportions; the forest
shrunk up in the terrible grasp of the flames, and the prairie
presented one sheet of fire, in the midst of which the wild animals,
driven from their dens and hiding-places by this unexpected
catastrophe, ran about mad with terror.
The sky gleamed with blood-red reflection; and the impetuous
wind swept both flames and smoke before it.
The Indians were terrified in the extreme on seeing around them
the mountain heights lighted up like beacons; to show the entire
destruction. The earth became hot, while immense troops of buffalo
made the ground tremble with their furious tread, and their
bellowings of despair would fill with terror the hearts of the bravest
men.
Every one was frightened, running about the camp as if struck by
insanity.
The fire continued to advance majestically, as it were, swallowing
up every thing in its way, preceded by countless animals of various
kinds, that bounded along with howls of fear, pursued by the
scourge, which threatened to overtake them at every step.
A thick smoke, laden with sparks, was already passing over the
camp. Ten minutes more, and all would be over with us, I thought,
when I saw the squaws pressing the children to their bosoms.
The Indians had been deprived of all self-possession by the
presence of our imminent peril—the flames forming an immense
circle, of which our camp had become the center.
But fortunately, the strong breeze which, up to that moment, had
lent wings to the conflagration, suddenly subsided, and there was
not a breath of air stirring.
The progress of the fire slackened. Providence seemed to grant us
time.
The camp presented a strange aspect. On bended knee, and with
clasped hands, I prayed fervently. The fire continued to approach,
with its vanguard of wild beasts.
The Indians, old and young, male and female, began to pull up
the grass by the roots all about the camp, then lassoed the horses
and hobbled them in the center, and, in a few moments, a large
space was cleared, where the herbs and grass had been pulled up
with the feverish rapidity which all display in the fear of death.
Some of the Indians went to the extremity of the space, where
the grass had been pulled up, and formed a pile of grass and plants
with their feet; then, with their flint, set fire to the mass, and thus
caused “fire to fight fire,” as they called it. This was done in different
directions. A curtain of flames rose rapidly around us, and for some
time the camp was almost concealed beneath a vault of fire.
It was a moment of intense and awful anxiety. By degrees the
flames became less fierce, the air purer; the smoke dispersed, the
roaring diminished, and, at length, we were able to recognize each
other in this horrible chaos.
A sigh of relief burst from every heart. Our camp was saved! After
the first moments of joy were over, the camp was put in order, and
all felt the necessity of repose, after the terrible anxieties of the
preceding hours; and also to give the ground time enough to cool,
so that it might be traveled over by people and horses.
The next day we prepared for departure. Tents were folded, and
packages were placed upon the ponies, and our caravan was soon
pursuing its journey, under the direction of the chief, who rode in
advance of our band.
The appearance of the prairie was much changed since the
previous evening. In many places the black and burnt earth was a
heap of smoking ashes; scarred and charred trees, still standing,
displayed their saddening skeletons. The fire still roared at a
distance, and the horizon was still obscured by smoke.
The horses advanced with caution over the uneven ground,
constantly stumbling over the bones of animals that had fallen
victims to the embrace of the flames.
The course we took in traveling wound along a narrow ravine, the
dried bed of some torrent, deeply inclosed between two hills. The
ground trodden by the horses was composed of round pebbles,
which slipped from under their feet, augmenting the difficulty of the
march, which was rendered still more toilsome to me by the rays of
the sun falling directly upon my uncovered head and face.
The day passed away thus, and, aside from the fatigue which
oppressed me, the day’s journey was unbroken by any incident.
 At evening, we again camped in a plain, absolutely bare; but in
the distance we could see an appearance of verdure, affording great
consolation, for we were about to enter a spot spared by the
conflagration.
At sunrise, next morning, we were on the march toward this oasis
in the desert.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
LAST DAYS WITH THE OGALALLA SIOUX—MASSACRE OF A PARTY
RETURNING FROM IDAHO—A WOMAN’S SCALP—A SCALP DANCE—
SUSPICIOUS CIRCUMSTANCE—ARRIVAL OF BLACKFEET INDIANS—
NEGOTIATIONS FOR MY RANSOM—TREACHERY.

My last days with the Ogalalla Sioux Indians were destined to be

marked by a terrible remembrance.
On the first of October, while the savages lingered in camp about
the banks of the Yellowstone River, apparently fearing, yet almost
inviting attack by their near vicinity to the soldiers, a large
Mackinaw, or flat-boat, was seen coming down the river.
From their hiding-places in the rocks and bushes, they watched its
progress with the stealthy ferocity of the tiger waiting for his prey.
At sundown the unsuspecting travelers pushed their boat toward
the shore, and landed for the purpose of making a fire and camping
for the night.
The party consisted of about twenty persons, men, women, and
children. Suspecting no danger, they left their arms in the boat.
With a simultaneous yell, the savages dashed down upon them,
dealing death and destruction in rapid strokes.
The defenseless emigrants made an attempt to rush to the boat
for arms, but were cut off, and their bleeding bodies dashed into the
river as fast as they were slain. Then followed the torture of the
women and children.
Horrible thought! from which all will turn with sickened soul, and
shuddering, cry to Heaven, “How long, O Lord! how long shall such
inhuman atrocities go unpunished?”
 Not a soul was left alive when that black day’s work was done;
and the unconscious river bore away a warm tide of human blood,
and sinking human forms.
When the warriors returned to camp, they brought their frightful
trophies of blood-stained clothes and ghastly scalps.
My heart-sick eyes beheld the dreadful fruits of carnage; and,
among the rest, I saw a woman’s scalp, with heavy chestnut hair, a
golden brown, and four feet in length, which had been secured for
its beauty. The tempting treasure lost the poor girl her life, which
might have been spared; but her glorious locks were needed to hang
on the chief’s belt.
Nearly all the flat-boats that passed down the Yellowstone River to
the Missouri, from the mining regions, during that season, were
attacked, and in some instances one or more of the occupants killed.
The approach of this boat was known, and the Indians had ample
time to plan their attack so that not a soul should escape.
That night the whole camp of braves assembled to celebrate the
fearful scalp dance; and from the door of my tent I witnessed the
savage spectacle, for I was ill, and, to my great relief, was not forced
to join in the horrid ceremony.
A number of squaws occupied the center of the ring they formed,
and the pitiless wretches held up the fresh scalps that day reaped in
the harvest of death.
Around them circled the frantic braves, flourishing torches, and
brandishing weapons, with the most ferocious barks and yells, and
wild distortions of countenance.
Some uttered boasts of bravery and prowess, and others lost their
own identity in mocking their dying victims in their agony.
Leaping first on one foot, then on the other, accompanying every
movement with wild whoops of excitement, they presented a scene
never to be forgotten.
 The young brave who bore the beautiful locks as his trophy, did
not join in the dance. He sat alone, looking sad.
I approached and questioned him, and he replied that he
regretted his dead victim. He brought a blood-stained dress from his
lodge, and told me it was worn by the girl with the lovely hair, whose
eyes haunted him and made him sorry.
After being cognizant of this frightful massacre, I shrank more
than ever from my savage companions, and pursued my tasks in
hopeless despondence of ever being rescued or restored to civilized
life.
One day I was astonished to notice a strange Indian, whom I had
never seen before, making signs to me of a mysterious nature.
He indicated by signs that he wanted me to run away with him to
the white people. I had become so suspicious, from having been
deceived so many times, that I turned from him and entered the
chief’s tent, where, despite his cruelty and harshness to me, I felt
comparatively safe.
I afterward saw this Indian, or rather white man, or half-breed, as
I believe him to have been, though he could not, or would not speak
a word of English. His long hair hung loosely about his shoulders,
and was of a dark brown color. He had in no respect the appearance
of an Indian, but rather that of a wild, reckless frontier desperado. I
had never seen him before, though he seemed well known in the
camp.
One thing that perhaps made me more suspicious and afraid to
trust any one, was a knowledge of the fact that many of the Indians
who had lost relatives in the recent battles with General Sully, were
thirsting for my blood, and would have been glad to decoy me far
enough away to wreak their vengeance, and be safe from the fury of
the old chief, my task-master.
This stranger came one day into a tent where I was, and showed
me a small pocket bible that had belonged to my husband, and was
presented to him by his now sainted mother many years before. His
object was to assure me that I might trust him; but such an
instinctive horror of the man had taken possession of me that I
refused to believe him; and at last he became enraged and
threatened to kill me if I would not go with him.
I plead with him to give me the bible, but he refused. How dear it
would have been to me from association, and what strength and
comfort I would have received from its precious promises, shut out,
as I was, from my world and all religious privileges and surrounded
by heathen savages.
Soon after the foregoing incident, the old chief and his three
sisters went away on a journey, and I was sent to live with some of
his relatives, accompanied by my little companion, Yellow Bird. We
traveled all day to reach our destination, a small Indian village. The
family I was to live with until the return of the chief and his sisters,
consisted of a very old Indian and his squaw, and a young girl.
I had a dread of going among strangers, but was thankful for the
kindness with which I was received by this old couple. I was very
tired, and so sad and depressed, that I cared not to ask for any
thing, but the old squaw, seeming to understand my feelings,
considerately placed before me meat and water, and kindly
ministered to my wants in every way their means would allow.
I was with this family nearly three weeks, and was treated with
almost affectionate kindness, not only by them, but by every
member of the little community. The children would come to see me,
and manifest in various ways their interest in me. They would say,
“Wasechawea (white woman) looks sad; I want to shake hands with
her.”
I soon began to adapt myself to my new surroundings, and
became more happy and contented than I had ever yet been since
my captivity began. My time was occupied in assisting the motherly
old squaw in her sewing and other domestic work.
There was but once a cloud come between us. The old chief had
given orders that I was not to be permitted to go out among the
other villagers alone, orders of which I knew nothing. Feeling a new
sense of freedom, I had sometimes gone out, and on one occasion,
having been invited into different tipis by the squaws, staid so long
that the old Indian sent for me, and seemed angry when I returned.
He said it was good for me to stay in his tent, but bad to go out
among the others. I pacified him at last by saying I knew his home
was pleasant, and I was happy there, and that I did not know it was
bad to go among the other tents.
The old chief returned, finally, and my brief season of enjoyment
ended. He seemed to delight in torturing me, often pinching my
arms until they were black and blue. Regarding me as the cause of
his wounded arm, he was determined that I should suffer with him.
While in this village “Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses” arrived, and I was
made aware of his high standing as a chief and warrior by the
feasting and dancing which followed. He was splendidly mounted
and equipped, as also was another Indian who accompanied him.
I have since learned from my husband that the treacherous chief
made such statements of his influence with the hostile Indians as to
induce him to purchase for them both an expensive outfit, in the
hope of my release. I saw and conversed with him several times,
and though he told me that he was from the Platte, he said nothing
of the real errand on which he was sent, but returned to the fort and
reported to Mr. Kelly that the band had moved and I could not be
found.
Captain Fisk had made known to General Sully the fact of my
being among the Indians, and the efforts he had made for my
release; and when the Blackfeet presented themselves before the
General, asking for peace, and avowing their weariness of hostility,
anxious to purchase arms, ammunition, and necessaries for the
approaching winter, he replied:
“I want no peace with you. You hold in captivity a white woman;
deliver her up to us, and we will believe in your professions. But
unless you do, we will raise an army of soldiers as numerous as the
trees on the Missouri River and exterminate the Indians.”
The Blackfeet assured General Sully that they held no white
woman in their possession, but that I was among the Ogalallas.
“As you are friendly with them,” said the General, “go to them and
secure her, and we will then reward you for so doing.”
The Blackfeet warriors appeared openly in the village a few days
afterward, and declared their intentions, stating in council the
determination of General Sully.
The Ogalallas were not afraid, they said, and refused to let me go.
They held solemn council for two days, and at last resolved that the
Blackfeet should take me as a ruse, to enable them to enter the fort,
and a wholesale slaughter should exterminate the soldiers.
While thus deliberating as to what they thought best—part of
them willing, the other half refusing to let me go—Hunkiapa, a
warrior, came into the lodge, and ordered me out, immediately
following me.
He then led me into a lodge where there were fifty warriors,
painted and armed—their bows strung and their quivers full of
arrows.
From thence, the whole party, including three squaws, who, noting
my extreme fear, accompanied me, started toward a creek, where
there were five horses and warriors to attend us to the Blackfeet
village.
Placing me on a horse, we were rapidly pursuing our way, when a
party of the Ogalallas, who were unwilling, came up with us, to
reclaim me.
Here they parleyed for a time, and, finally, after a solemn promise
on the part of my new captors that I should be returned safely, and
that I should be cared for and kindly treated, we were allowed to
proceed.
 In their parleying, one of the warriors ordered me to alight from
the horse, pointing a pistol to my breast. Many of them clamored for
my life, but, finally, they settled the matter, and permitted us to
proceed on our journey.
After so many escapes from death, this last seemed miraculous;
but God willed it otherwise, and to him I owe my grateful homage.
It was a bitter trial for me to be obliged to go with this new and
stranger tribe. I was unwilling to exchange my life for an unknown
one, and especially as my companionship with the sisters of the
chief had been such as to protect me from injury or insult. A sort of
security and safety was felt in the lodge of the chief, which now the
fear of my new position made me appreciate still more.
Savages they were, and I had longed to be free from them; but
now I parted with them with regret and misgiving.
Though my new masters, for such I considered them, held out
promise of liberty and restoration to my friends, knowing the
treacherous nature of the Indians, I doubted them. True, the
Ogalallas had treated me at times with great harshness and cruelty,
yet I had never suffered from any of them the slightest personal or
unchaste insult. Let me bear testimony to this redeeming feature in
their treatment of me.
At the time of my capture I became the exclusive property of
Ottawa, the head chief, a man over seventy-five years of age, and
partially blind, yet whose power over the band was absolute.
Receiving a severe wound in a melee I have already given an
account of, I was compelled to become his nurse or medicine
woman; and my services as such were so appreciated, that harsh
and cruel as he might be, it was dangerous for others to offer me
insult or injury; and to this fact, doubtless, I owe my escape from a
fate worse than death.
The Blackfeet are a band of the Sioux nation; consequently, are
allies in battle. The chief dared not refuse on this account; besides,
he was an invalid, and wounded badly.
 The Blackfeet left three of their best horses as a guarantee for my
safe return.
The chief of the Ogalallas had expressed the desire that, if the
Great Spirit should summon him away, that I might be killed, in
order to become his attendant to the spirit land.
It was now the commencement of November, and their way
seemed to lead to the snowy regions, where the cold might prove
unendurable.
When I heard the pledge given by the Blackfeet, my fears abated;
hope sprang buoyant at the thought of again being within the reach
of my own people, and I felt confident that, once in the fort, I could
frustrate their plans by warning the officers of their intentions.
I knew what the courage and discipline of fort soldiers could
accomplish, and so hoped, not only to thwart the savage treachery,
but punish the instigators.
Mode of Indian Burial.
 CHAPTER XIX.
INDIAN CUSTOMS.

During my forced sojourn with the Ogalallas, I had abundant

opportunity to observe the manners and customs peculiar to a race
of people living so near, and yet of whom so little is known by the
general reader. A chapter devoted to this subject will doubtless
interest all who read this narrative.
Nothing can be more simple in its arrangement than an Indian
camp when journeying, and especially when on the war path. The
camping ground, when practicable, is near a stream of water, and
adjacent to timber. After reaching the spot selected, the ponies are
unloaded by the squaws, and turned loose to graze. The tents, or
“tipis,” are put up, and wood and water brought for cooking
purposes. All drudgery of this kind is performed by the squaws, an
Indian brave scorning as degrading all kinds of labor not incident to
the chase or the war path.
An Indian tipi is composed of several dressed skins, usually of the
buffalo, sewed together and stretched over a number of poles, the
larger ones containing as many as twenty of these poles, which are
fifteen to twenty feet long. They are of yellow pine, stripped of bark,
and are used as “travois” in traveling. Three poles are tied together
near the top or small ends, and raised to an upright position, the
bottoms being spread out as far as the fastening at the top will
permit. Other poles are laid into the crotch thus formed at the top,
and spread out in a circular line with the three first put up. This
comprises the frame work, and when in the position described is
ready to receive the covering, which is raised to the top by means of
a rawhide rope, when, a squaw seizing each lower corner, it is
rapidly brought around, and the edges fastened together with
wooden pins, a squaw getting down on all fours, forming a perch
upon which the tallest squaw of the family mounts and inserts the
pins as high as she can reach. A square opening in the tent serves
for a door, and is entered in a stooping posture. A piece of hide
hangs loosely over this opening, and is kept in position by a heavy
piece of wood fastened at the bottom.
When in position, the Indian tipi is of the same shape as the
Sibley tent. In the middle is built a fire, where all the cooking is
done, a hole at the top affording egress for the smoke. The
preparation for a meal is a very simple affair. Meat was almost their
only article of diet, and was generally roasted, or rather warmed
through over the fire, though sometimes it was partially boiled, and
always eaten without salt or bread. They have no set time for
eating; will fast all of one day, and perhaps eat a dozen times the
next.
The outer edge of the tent contains the beds of the family, which
are composed of buffalo robes and blankets. These are snugly rolled
up during the day, and do service as seats.
If there is reason to suppose an enemy near, no fire is allowed in
the camp; and in that case each one satisfies appetite as best he or
she can, but generally with “pa-pa,” or dried buffalo meat.
An Indian camp at close of day presents a most animated picture.
The squaws passing to and fro, loaded with wood and water, or
meat, or guiding the sledges drawn by dogs, carrying their all; dusky
warriors squatted on the ground, in groups, around fires built in the
open air, smoking their pipes, or repairing weapons, and recounting
their exploits; half naked and naked children capering about in
childish glee, furnish a picture of the nomadic life of these Indians of
strange interest. Not more than ten minutes are required to set up
an Indian village.
When it becomes necessary to move a village, which fact is never
known to the people, a crier goes through the camp, shouting,
“Egalakapo! Egalakapo!” when all the squaws drop whatever work
they may be engaged in, and in an instant are busy as bees, taking
down tipis, bringing in the ponies and dogs, and loading them; and
in less than fifteen minutes the cavalcade is on the march.
The squaws accompany the men when they go to hunt buffalo,
and as fast as the animals are killed, they strip off their hides, and
then cut off the meat in strips about three feet long, three to four
inches wide, and two inches thick; and such is their skill that the
bones will be left intact and as free from meat as though they had
been boiled. The meat is then taken to camp and hung up to dry. It
is most filthy, being covered with grass and the excrement of the
buffalo.
The medicine men treat all diseases nearly alike. The principal
efforts are directed to expelling the spirit, whatever it may be, which
it is expected the medicine man will soon discover, and having
informed the friends what it is, he usually requires them to be in
readiness to shoot it, as soon as he shall succeed in expelling it.
Incantations and ceremonies are used, intended to secure the aid
of the spirit, or spirits, the Indian worships. When he thinks he has
succeeded, the medicine man gives the command, and from two to
six or more guns are fired at the door of the tent to destroy the
spirit as it passes out.
Many of these medicine men depend wholly on conjuring, sitting
by the bedside of the patient, making gestures and frightful noises,
shaking rattles, and endeavoring, by all means in their power, to
frighten the evil spirit. They use fumigation, and are very fond of
aromatic substances, using and burning cedar and many different
plants to cleanse the tent in which the sick person lies.
The native plants, roots, herbs, and so forth, are used freely, and
are efficacious.
They are very careful to conceal from each other, except a few
initiated, as well as from white men, a knowledge of the plants used
as medicine, probably believing that their efficacy, in some measure,
depends on this concealment.
 There is a tall, branching plant, growing abundantly in the open
woods and prairies near the Missouri River, which is used chiefly by
the Indians as a purgative, and is euphorbia corrallata, well known
to the botanist.
Medicines are generally kept in bags made of the skin of some
animal.
All the drinks which are given the sick to quench thirst are
astringent, sometimes bitter and sometimes slightly mucilaginous.
The most common is called red-root (ceanothus canadensis), a
plant abounding in the western prairies, although they seem to have
more faith in some ceremony.
A dance peculiar to the tribe where I was, called the pipe dance, is
worth mentioning, and is called by the Indians a good medicine. A
small fire is kindled in the village, and around this the dancers,
which usually consist of young men, collect, each one seated upon a
robe.
The presiding genius is a chief, or a medicine man, who seats
himself by a fire, with a long pipe which he prepares for smoking.
Offering it first to the Great Spirit, he then extends it toward the
north, south, east, and west, muttering unintelligibly. Meanwhile an
equally august personage beats a drum, singing and leaping and
smoking. The master of ceremonies sits calmly looking on, puffing
away with all the vigor imaginable.
The dance closes with piercing yells, and barking like frightened
dogs, and it lasts an hour or more.
When the mother gives birth to her child, it is not uncommon for
no other person to be present. She then lives in a hut or lodge by
herself until the child is twenty-five or thirty days old, when she
takes it to its father, who then sees his child for the first time.
Females, after parturition, and also in other conditions, bathe
themselves—swim, as they express it—in the nearest river or lake.
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