Space for Learner

BLOCK: IV
UNDERSTANDING PERSONALITY

Unit 1 : Personality
Unit 2 : Types and Traits of Personality
Unit 3 : Theories of Personality
Unit 4 : Determinants of Personality

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Space for Learner UNIT- 1
PERSONALITY

Unit Structure:

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning and Definitions of Personality
1.3 Nature and Characteristics of Personality
1.4 Summing Up
1.5 Questions and Exercises
1.6 References and Suggested Readings

1.0 Introduction:

Behaviour is called as the mirror of personality. In educational

psychology, understanding students’ personality is very important aspect.
The way in which an individual reacts or adjusts with the external environment
is personality. Study of students’ personality helps a teacher to design
classroom environment, to provide academic as well as vocational guidance,
etc. So, in this unit, we will learn the meaning and nature of personality.

1.1 Objectives:

After going through this unit you will be able to––

· know the meaning of personality,

· understand the nature or characteristics of personality.

1.2 Meaning and Definition of Personality:

Personality is the totality of an individual’s behaviour. It refers to

the total quality of a person which is manifested in his various activities of

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daily life. This total quality of behaviour refers to a person’s attitudes, Space for Learner
aptitudes, interest, capacities, knowledge and behaviour pattern which are
reflected in his relation with environment.

The word Personality has been derived from Latin root “Persona”
which means masks. Earlier, the Greek actors wore the masks at the time
of acting and accordingly the concept personality emerged. Personality is
not a fixed and inborn endowment but an acquired disposition arising out of
constant interaction with people around. Personality is a dynamic totality
which is continuously changing due to interaction with the environment. A
layman describes personality looking at the outer appearance of a person
including his dressing behaviour. Everybody possesses some kind of
personality. Even a neonate has also specific kind of personality. Therefore,
Personality can be better explained by the conduct, behaviour, activities,
movements and everything else concerning the individual in way of responding
to the environment. Actually, personality is described in terms of an
individual’s behaviour, his actions, postures, words and attitudes, opinions
regarding his external world and also individual’s cover feelings about his
external world, one’s feelings about himself. Simply it refers to a man within
and outside the man himself or herself. Various definitions will definitely
help to get a better understanding of the concept of personality and these
definitions are cited below—

(i) Morton Prince (1924) ”Personality is the sum total of all the
biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and
instincts of the individual and the acquired dispositions and
tendencies.”

(ii) Famous behaviourist J. B. Watson in the year 1930 defined,

“Personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual
observations over a long enough period of time to give reliable
information.”

(iii) According to G. W. Allport, a Professor of Harvard University

(1948), “Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual
of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment
to his environment.” It is a very comprehensive definition since it

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Space for Learner includes all the aspects of a person. Here, in this definition the term
‘Dynamic’ refers that personality is undergoing a constant change
but is still well organized. Again, the term ‘Psycho-physical’ was used
in which psycho means mental and physical refers to body parts of
the systems and both interact with the internal as well as external
environment of the individual.

(iv) Woodworth, Professor of Colombia University (Newwork) and

Marquis, Professor of University of Michigan (USA) jointly authored
a book titled “Psychology” in 1922 and defined Personality as “The
total quality of an individual’s behaviour, as it is revealed in his habits
of thought and expression, his attitudes and interests, his manner of
acting and his personal philosophy of life.”

(v) Cattell defined it as “Personality is that which permits a prediction

of what a person will do in a given situation.”

(vi) According to Eysenck, “Personality is the more or less stable and

enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament, intellect
and physique, which determine his unique adjustment to the
environment.”

(vii) An American Psychologist S. R. Maddin in 1976 defined personality

in a very comprehensive way in his book “Personality Theories- A
Comparative Analysis”. He defined in the following way, “Personality
is the stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those
commonalities and differences in psychological behaviour (thoughts,
feelings and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that
may or may not be easily understood in terms of social and biological
pressures of the immediate situations alone.”

(viii) Munn said, “Personality may be defined as the most characteristic

integration of an individual’s structure, modes of behaviour, interests,
attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes.”

(ix) Psychologists of Gestalt school define personality “as a pattern or

configuration produced by the integrated functioning of all the traits
and characteristic of an individual.”

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 (x) According to Kimble Young, “Personality refers to the more or less Space for Learner
organised body of ideas, attitudes, traits, values and habits which an
individual has built into roles and status for dealing with others and
with him.”

STOP TO CONSIDER

· The term personality has been derived from Latin word ‘Persona’
which was associated with Greek theatre in ancient time.

· Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those

psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment
to his environment.

1.3 Nature and Characteristics of Personality:

From the definitions cited above, the nature of personality can be

depicted in the following points––

i. Personality refers to dynamic organization of Psychological elements

of the system that are independent and these elements always function
in a linking manner.

ii. Personality can change situation to situation, time to time in different

environmental context.

iii. Personality is the combination of some Psycho-physical Systems.

These Psychological elements of the system are traits, emotions,
intellect, temperament, character and all these are based in the
physical systems like neurology and endocrinology of the body.

iv. It is always unique in nature since everyone possesses different

kinds of personality traits.

v. Personality is a consistent pattern of individuality - an individual

behaves in the same way in different situations. But still it is dynamic
in nature.

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Space for Learner vi. Personality also includes thinking means cognitive, feeling means
affective and psycho-motor means behavioural domain of
individuality.

vii. Personality is the outcome of both heredity and environment.

Because of the significant contribution of these two determinants
personality of child grows gradually.

viii. Sometimes, personality is subjected to be found in disorganized

and disintegrated form because of which persons experience some
personality disorders like severe anxiety, traumatic experience,
stress, damage to brain, etc.

ix. Self-consciousness of a person is one of the major characteristics

of Personality. It includes everything about a person.

x. Learning and acquisition of experiences contribute towards growth

and development of personality. Every personality is the final product
of this process of acquisition of learning experiences.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que.1: Enumerate the concept of personality.

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Que.2: Give a comprehensive definition of personality.
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Que.3: Write any five characteristic features of personality.
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1.4 Summing Up: Space for Learner

In this unit we have discussed meaning, definitions and

characteristics of personality. The discussion can be summed up in the
following way––

· Personality is the total quality of behaviour of a person which

comprises of attitudes, aptitudes, interest, capacities, knowledge
and behaviour pattern which are reflected in his relation with
environment.

· G. W. Allport, a Professor of Harvard University gave a

comprehensive definition. In his words, “Personality is a dynamic
organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems
that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”

· From the discussion on definitions, nature and characteristics of

personality, it can be summed up that personality is a complex whole
of a constantly growing and changing pattern of one’s unique
behaviour, emerged as a result of one’s contact with environment
and directed towards some specific ends.

1.5 Questions and Exercises:

1. What do you mean by personality? Describe the characteristic features

of personality.

1.6 References and Suggested Readings:

· Armstrong, Thomas (2018). Multiple Intelligences. American Institute

for Learning and Human Development. (www.institute4learning.com)

· Bhatia, H.R. Elements of Educational Psychology.

· Chauhan, S.S. Advanced Educational Psychology.( Sixth revised

edition.) Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. Noida, 1998.

· Dr. Karl Albrecht (2004). Social Intelligence Theory.

www.karlalbrechtcom..

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Space for Learner · Mangal, S.K. (2014). Advanced Educational Psychology (Second
Edition). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.

· S. Dandapani (2014). General Psychology. (Fourth edition) Neelkamal

Publications Pvt.Ltd., Hyderabad.

===×===

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 UNIT- 2 Space for Learner
TYPES AND TRAITS OF PERSONALITY

Unit Structure:

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Types of Personality
2.3 Traits of Personality
2.4 Types of Personality Traits
2.5 Summing Up
2.6 Questions and Exercises
2.7 References and Suggested Readings

2.0 Introduction:

Personality is a universal valid concept which is well explained by

many psychologists at different times. There are two major approaches in
personality – one is typological approach and the other is trait approach.
Type and Trait of personality are different concepts. Traits are not types.
Man has a trait, but he is not a type. Personality traits refer to some
endowments or qualities of individual. On the other hand personality types
have been invented by observers as models in which individuals are best
fitted without any consideration of their peculiarities. In this unit, we shall
discuss on various types of personality, meaning of personality traits along
with the different types of traits of personality.

2.1 Objectives:

After going through this unit you will be able to–

· discuss the different types of personality,

· understand the concept of personality traits,
· explain the different kinds of personality traits.

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Space for Learner 2.2 Types of Personality:

Personality type simply means what kind of behavioural nature a

person is possessing in his life. Types of personality refer to some kind of
artificial category made by other person in society. From the ancient times
of human civilization, people classify objects’ name and human into different
categories for fulfilling various purposes of orderly life. These categories
are called as “Types”. Types are classified or invented by observers as
models in which individuals are fitted without any consideration of their
peculiarities.

In ancient Indian Knowledge System, Ayurveda classified human

being on the basis of three elements present in the human body. This
classification can be cited with the help of the following table-

Personality Type Personality Characteristics

This type of people feels emotionally insecure,
indecisive, restless with active minds, having poor
Bata (Wind)
memory, god artists and enjoy travelling, solitary and
rebellious.
This type of people feels emotionally secure, calm
Kafa (Mucus) and loyal and experience romantic. They need a lot of
sleep, speak rationally and move slowly.
People of Pitta type are argumentative, precise with
sharp intelligence, good leaders. At their worst time,
Pitta (Bile)
they can be passionately angry. They enjoy sports
and politics and have variety of dreams.


There have been many attempts by modern psychologists also to

classify person on the basis of their personality pattern. Thorndike classified
person into three categories on the basis of their thinking style––

(a) Abstract thinker

(b) Ideal thinker and

(c) Concrete thinker

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 STOP TO CONSIDER Space for Learner

· Bata, Kafa and Pitta are three types of Personality classified by

Ayurveda, one of the main branches of ancient Indian Knowledge
System.

· Thorndike classified person into three categories on the basis of

their thinking style as

(a) Abstract thinker (b) Ideal thinker and (c) Concrete thinker.

According to Carl Jung, Personality is of two types––

(a) Introvert and (b) Extrovert

An introvert person is more inclined to remain with his internal ideas,

experiences and thoughts. This kind of people is not much interested in
taking part in the worldly affairs. Philosophers, scientists are usually of
introvert type people. Self-introspection, self criticism is the basic nature of
introvert. The main points related to Introvert Characteristics are-

1. Better at writing than at speaking.

2. Inclined to worry.

3. Easily embarrassed.

4. Inclined to be radical.

5. Fond of books and magazines.

6. More influenced by subjective feelings.

7. Rather reserved.

8. Likes to work alone.

9. Neglectful of ailments and personal belongings.

10. Lacking in flexibility

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Space for Learner On the other hand, extrovert people are different from introvert.
An extrovert is more active in all social set up. Extroverts want to work as
per social needs. An extrovert does not pay much attention to other’s
criticism. Whatever comes to his mind, he can express without hesitation.
This is the basic nature of extroverts since they do not like to involve in self-
criticism. The main points of Extrovert Characteristics are:––

1. Fluent in speech.

2. Free from worries.

3. Not easily embarrassed.

4. Usually conservative.

5. Interested in athletics.

6. Governed by objective data.

7. Friendly.

8. Likes to work with others.

9. Careful of ailments and personal belongings.

10. Flexible and adaptable.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que.1: Write three characteristics of extrovert type people.

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Que.2: Mention any three points of difference between Introvert and
Extrovert type people.
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 Most of the persons come in between the two types-Introvert and Space for Learner
Extrovert. That is why Jung himself thought of another category –that is
Ambivert which is in the middle of both introvert and extrovert.

Another classification of Personality was done by a German

Psychiatrist Ernest Kretschmer on the basis of physical structure of individual.
Kretschmer’s classification of personality is cited below––

An American Surgeon William Sheldon also classified personality

into types according to their physical structure and temperamental
characteristics. The following table depicts the types of Sheldon––

Spranger’s Classification:

E. Spranger, a German philosopher classified personality on the

basis of interest shown by people in six categories––

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Space for Learner

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que.3: Give a brief description of personality classification done by

Sheldon.
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Criticism of Type Approach:

In spite of lots of contributions, objection arises against this type

approach of personality. The fact is that human personality cannot be
understood on the basis of type principle. Because a person is neither
completely introvert nor extrovert in most of the cases we see.

Another criticism of type principle is that it creates misunderstanding

between the cause and effect. It is misleading to say that an introvert may
very well adjust himself by living in solitude. It may be because of his life
history or life background. So, placing a person in specific category may
not indicate the cause of adjustment. It simply describes his behaviour. In
this way, type approach always.

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2.3 Traits of Personality: Space for Learner

Trait means a mode of behaviour that is shown by the person in a

wide variety of situations consistently. Actually similar behaviour in different
situations is a trait of personality. In the simplest sense by trait we mean a
particular mode of behaviour which is manifested in number of life situations
consistently. It is relatively enduring way in which one individual is found to
be different from other.

According to Walter Michel, “Trait is a continuous dimension on

which individual differences may be arranged quantitatively in terms of the
amount of the characteristics the individual has.”

Allport defined trait “as a generalized and focalized neuro-psychic

system with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent and
to imitate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and expressive behaviour.”

Personality traits not only reflect people’s characteristic features,

but also reflect their patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Personality
traits imply consistency and stability—someone who scores high on a
specific trait like Extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations
and over time. Thus, the study of trait says about the idea that people differ
from one another in terms of where they stand on a set of basic trait
dimensions that persist over time and across situations.

There are some basic criteria or properties which are essential for
personality traits-

1. Consistency: To have a personality trait, individuals must be

somewhat consistent across situations in their behaviours related to
the trait. As for example, if an individual is talkative at home, then
he or she will also be talkative at work.

2. Stability: Individuals with a trait are also somewhat stable over

time in behaviors related to the trait. If they are talkative, for
example, at age 30, they will also tend to be talkative at the age of
40.

3. Individual Differences: People differ from one another on

behaviours related to the trait. Using speech is not a personality

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Space for Learner trait and neither is walking on two feet—virtually all individuals do
these activities, and there are almost no individual differences. But
people differ on how frequently they talk and how active they are,
and thus personality traits such as Talkativeness and Activity Level
do exist.

4. Scalability: Traits are scalable since all traits can be measured and
scaled quantitatively.

5. Universality: All individuals possess one or many traits irrespective

of caste, place and nation. So. Personality traits are universal in
nature.

6. Flexibility: Traits are not static in nature. Traits are naturally flexible
at age of childhood and gradually at the increase of age, they become
stable.

7. Inference from Behaviour: Personality traits are not directly

observable but they are manifested in a number of activities and
verbal expression. Accordingly we infer a trait that is present in the
individual.

8. Higher Order Habits: Traits are manifested in behaviour pattern

of individual frequently. Therefore, some psychologists refer it as a
higher order habit.

9. Traits are Mental Sets: It is readiness to respond to variety of

situations in consistent way.

10. Learned Behaviour: Traits are learned behaviour of individual as

a result of the interaction with environmental stimuli.

STOP TO CONSIDER

· Trait is a continuous dimension on which individual differences

may be arranged quantitatively in terms of the amount of the
characteristics the individual has.

· Consistency is the most important characteristic of Trait. To have

a personality trait, individuals must be somewhat consistent across

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 situations in their behaviours related to the trait. As for example, Space for Learner
if an individual is talkative at home, then he or she will also be
talkative at work.

2.4 Types of Personality Traits:

Traits are the basic units of personality developed by an individual

during its lifespan. Famous trait psychologists Allport and Cattell’s
classification are called as the best theories of trait approach. On the basis
of their theories various types of traits are discussed below––

(i) Cardinal Trait: Cardinal traits are those traits which influence all the
major activities of an individual. An individual is known by cardinal
traits. These traits are limited in number within just one and two in
case of a person. This trait is also known as ruling master of sentiment
possessed by an individual. For example, if a person has musical
talent as cardinal trait, then in all situations he will bring a sense of
musical interest irrespective of its actual demand.

(ii) Central Trait: Central traits are few characteristic tendencies which
can be ordinarily used to describe a person. These traits can be easily
observed in a person and their number is limited to 4 to 10. Honesty,
kindness, submissiveness, empathy, etc. are some example of central
trait.

(iii) Secondary Trait: Secondary traits are comparatively less important

in the description of personality since their influences are limited. They
are not strong enough like cardinal traits and central traits since they
appear only in a small range of situations.

Cardinal trait, central trait and secondary traits are three major types
of traits suggested by Allport in his theory. After Allport, Cattell classified
personality traits into four main types––

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Space for Learner (i) Common Traits: Common traits are found to be widely pervasive
in general population. These traits are found similarly in so many
individuals in a society. Some examples of common traits are members
of same culture exhibit common mode of adjustment, honesty,
aggression, cooperation, etc. However, we should remember that
common traits do not always express the personality of an individual.

(ii) Unique Trait or Individual Trait: In a sense all traits are individual
since they are unique and applicable to one individual. However,
individual traits are unique or peculiar to a person. As for example,
emotional reactions, temperamental traits.

(iii) Source Trait: Source traits are the underlying structures or sources
that determine behaviour of the individual such as dominance,
emotional submission etc.

(iv) Surface Trait: Surface traits are those traits which are manifested in
the overt behaviour of individual. Curiosity, honesty, tactfulness,
dependability, etc. are examples of surface trait.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que. 4: Describe briefly the characteristics of personality Trait.

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2.5 Summing Up:

From the discussion on types and traits of personality, following

points are given as brief summery––

· Types of personality refer to some kind of artificial category made

by other person in society.

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 · Ayurveda classified personality type as –Bata, Kafa and Pitta in Space for Learner
these three categories. Thorndike classified person on the basis of
their thinking style- as (a) Abstract thinker (b) Ideal thinker and (c)
Concrete thinker. Carl Jung categorised as (a) Introvert and (b)
Extrovert type personality.

· By trait we mean a particular mode of behaviour which is manifested

in number of life situations consistently. It is relatively enduring way
in which one individual is found to be different from other.

· Allport suggested three major types of traits which are- Cardinal

trait, central trait and secondary traits in an individual.

· Cattell says about four traits –common trait, unique trait source
trait, surface trait of personality.

2.6 Questions and Exercises:

1. Critically discuss the type approach of personality.

2. Explain the various classification of personality trait.

2.7 References and Suggested Readings:

· Armstrong, Thomas (2018). Multiple Intelligences. American Institute

for Learning and Human Development. (www.institute4learning.com)
· Bhatia, H.R. Elements of Educational Psychology.
· Chauhan, S.S. Advanced Educational Psychology.( Sixth revised
edition.) Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. Noida, 1998.
· Dr. Karl Albrecht (2004). Social Intelligence Theory.
www.karlalbrechtcom..
· Mangal, S.K. (2014). Advanced Educational Psychology (Second
Edition). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.
· S. Dandapani (2014). General Psychology. (Fourth edition)
Neelkamal Publications Pvt.Ltd., Hyderabad.

===×===

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Space for Learner UNIT- 3
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Unit Structure:

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Personality Theory by Freud
3.3 Personality Theory by Allport
3.4 Personality Theory by Carl Rogers
3.5 Personality Theory by Cattell
3.6 Summing Up
3.7 Questions and Exercises
3.8 References and Suggested Readings

3.0 Introduction:

In order to understand the true nature of personality, it is important

to understand the various theories propounded by different psychologists.
All the theories of personality can be classified from different perspectives.
Theories of Kretschmer, Sheldon and Jung belong to Type approach, theories
of Allport and Cattell belong to Trait approach, Eysenck’s theory follows
both of the Type cum Trait approach. Again, the theories by Freud and
Adler adopt the Psycho-analytical approach, Carl Roger’s Self theory and
Maslow’s theory follows Humanistic approach of Personality. In spite of
having all these above mentioned theories, here in this unit we will study
only four theories which are- by Freud, Allport, Carl Rogers and Cattell.

3.1 Objectives:

After going through this unit, you will be able to––

· analyse the psycho-analytic theory of Personality by Freud,

· have the idea of Allport’s theory,

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 · understand the Roger’s Self theory, Space for Learner

· get the idea of trait theory by Cattell.

3.2 Personality Theory by Freud:

Famous psycho-analytic theory of personality was developed by

Freud and he was the first psychologist to give maximum emphasis on instinct
as a determinant of person’s behaviour. According to him, there are two
types of instincts and they drive the most important motivations in our life.
The first type of instinct is called ‘Eros’ which is for love and self presevation
including the sexual drive (libido) and the another type is destructive instinct
(Thanatos).

According to Freud, Personality is a total concept that is constituted

of three factors- Id, Ego and Superego and the interactions and conflicts
among these three components create personality. According to him, Id is the
component of personality that forms the basis of our most primitive
impulses. The id is exclusively unconscious and inborn instinctive behaviour.
According to Freud, the id is driven by the pleasure principle and it creates
a desire for immediate gratification of our sexual and aggressive
urges. Example of id is addiction to smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol or view
pornography. Id can never judge what is good or what is bad since it
operates on animal level. Hence we can say that id is always biological in
nature.

Ego is the second concept which is based on the principle of reality.

Freud explained the relationship between Id and Ego by giving the example
of a Horse (Id) and it’s Rider (Ego). The ego is called as the executive level
of personality structure. It emphasises that we must delay on gratification of
our basic instinctive motivations until the appropriate time with the appropriate
outlet. The ego is the largely conscious controller or decision-maker
between Id and Superego of personality. The ego serves as the intermediary
between the desires of the id and the constraints imposed by social norms,
ideals values contained in the superego. Hence, Ego is psychological and it
allows living in reality.

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Space for Learner The third concept level of personality is the Super ego in Freud’s
theory. Superego internalizes the sense of morality, ideals, values and
thoughts prescribed by society through our parents. It develops gradually
by the process of reward and punishment offered by the parents during
childhood in our life. The superego tell us all the things that we shouldn’t do,
or the duties and obligations of society. The superego strives for perfection,
and when we fail to live in as per its demands we feel guilty. So, Super ego
is social-self and seeks perfection.

Freud explained personality as a combined concept that is built

with these three unified and inter-related concepts –Id, ego and super ego.
Id is raw, savage and immoral basic stuff of a person’s nature that is hidden
in the deep layer of his unconscious mind. It seeks only pleasure and
therefore it cannot be allowed to dominate personality behaviour. As a result,
the second system ego functions like policeman to control the unlawful
activities by following the principle of reality. The third aspect of personality
is super ego which is idealistic in nature. Perfection is its goal rather than
pleasure. Actually ego maintains a balancing life between Id and Super ego.
So, in one sentence it can be concluded that id is biological which seeks
pleasure, ego is psychological which tests reality and super-ego is social
self that always seeks perfection.

STOP TO CONSIDER

· Freud proposed that ‘Eros’ and ‘Thanatos’ are two types of

instincts which determine behaviour of person.

· Id, Ego and Super ego are the three basic components that create
personality.

3.3 Personality Theory by Allport:

Gordon G. Allport in 1937 developed a trait theory of personality

and said that traits are the basic units of personality developed by an individual
during its lifespan. Allport was the first psychologist who rejected the notion
of limited number of personality types and gave description of highly

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individualized personality structure. He described three types of personality Space for Learner
traits in an individual which are- cardinal traits, central traits and secondary
traits.

(i) Cardinal Traits: Cardinal traits are those traits which influence all
the major activities of an individual. An individual is known by cardinal
traits. These traits are limited in number within just one and two in
case of a person. This trait is also known as ruling master of
sentiment possessed by an individual. For example, if a person has
musical talent as cardinal trait, then in all situations he will bring a
sense of musical interest irrespective of its actual demand.

(ii) Central Trait: Central traits are few characteristic tendencies which
can be ordinarily used to describe a person. These traits can be
easily observed in a person and their number is limited to 4 to 10.
Honesty, kindness, submissiveness, empathy, etc. are some example
of central trait.

(iii) Secondary Trait: Secondary traits are comparatively less important

in the description of personality since their influences are limited.
They are not strong enough like cardinal traits and central traits
since they appear only in a small range of situations.

According to Allport, a person’s unique characteristic or individual

uniqueness is shaped by forming the core characteristic features with the
help of cardinal traits along with a few central traits. All other remaining
traits may also be observed in other people which are known as common
traits. So, as per his theory, though an individual differs from others but also
has some common traits with all others at least within the limits of cultural
norms.

Allport’s theory of personality said that traits give consistency in

one’s behaviour though traits are not fixed and stable always in all occasions.
Besides trait, he also emphasised on some important concepts like functional
autonomy, individualized approach in personality study and the discontinuous
nature of development of personality. So, we can say that Trait theorist
Allport brought revolutionary changes and gave a new dimension to the
explanation of personality behaviour.

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Space for Learner CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que. 1: Explain briefly the psychoanalytic theory of personality by

Freud.
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Que. 2: What are the various types of personality traits as suggested
by Allport.
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3.4 Personality Theory by Carl Rogers:

Carl Rogers in 1947 developed a theory of personality which is

known as Self theory. His theory falls under phenomenological approach of
personality which gives maximum stress on self concept for development of
personality and was against the behavioural approach. According to him,
personality behaviour is not based on physiological drives and needs but on
a higher driving force within human being. This higher driving force impels
the person towards complex personality pattern that is like a person seeks
a kind of spiritual reward in a self-fulfilling religious sense.

In Rogers’ theory, there are two basic concepts of personality

structure - (a) Organism and (b) the Self. Rogers said, organism is the
centre of all experiences of every individual in this world. An individual
exists with full of experiences and these experiences shape our personality
reactions to external objects and people. Our experiences influence on
internal thoughts and emotions also. This is known as their phenomenal
field. Phenomenal field means a person’s reality, objects, behaviour, thoughts
and people. The self is a part of experiences, part of this phenomenal field.

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It can be understood as ‘I’, ‘me’ or ‘myself’. Personality is the product of Space for Learner
an interaction of self with interpersonal and social experiences which they
acquire in environment. Development of self is a continuous tendency of
human being. Rogers believed that the concept of self is developed based
on one’s personal needs and sometimes on personal real experiences.
Rogers divided the self into two categories; ideal and real self. The ideal
self is the person you would like to be and the real self is what you really
are. In the real world, a person’s ideal self is not consistent with what happens
in life with a person. Rogers advocated for continuity of growth for
continuous evolution of self.

According to Rogers, there are no specific stages of personality

development since human being possess the inherent tendency to develop
their ‘self’ in the process of interpersonal and social experiences in their
own environment. He emphasized the importance of present experiences
for personality development and said that four conditions are necessary for
self-actualization of an individual which are––

(i) Respect and love from others

(ii) Must have respect and faith within himself and his abilities for
reaching goal.

(iii) Available choices or alternatives must be clear to the individual.

Otherwise it may hinder in self growth.

(iv) The person must have clear understanding of choices and those
choices should be clearly symbolized.

STOP TO CONSIDER

· In 1947 Self theory was developed by Carl Rogers.

· In Rogers’ theory, there are two basic concepts of personality

structure - (a) Organism and (b) the Self.

· Rogers believed that the concept of self is developed based on

one’s personal needs and sometimes on personal real
experiences.

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Space for Learner 3.5 Cattell’s Theory of Personality:

According to R. Cattell (1973) personality is a pattern of traits

which help an individual to understand and predict his behaviour. Traits are
permanent and they build the personality of an individual. Cattell in his theory
classified personality traits into four main types––

(i) Common Traits: Common traits are found to be widely pervasive

in general population. These traits are found similarly in so many
individuals in a society. Some examples of common traits are
members of same culture exhibit common mode of adjustment,
honesty, aggression, cooperation, etc. However, we should
remember that common traits do not always express the personality
of an individual.

(ii) Unique Trait or Individual Trait: In a sense all traits are individual
since they are unique and applicable to one individual. However,
individual traits are unique or peculiar to a person. As for example,
emotional reactions, temperamental traits.

(iii) Source Trait: Source traits are the underlying structures or sources
that determine behaviour of the individual such as dominance,
emotional submission etc. These traits appear time to time which
indicate some deeper, more general underlying factors of personality,
called as source traits. Source traits are the unifying factors of a
person’s personality that inter-correlate the surface traits and
accordingly the basic structure of personality is made up by traits.

(iv) Surface Trait: Surface traits are those traits which are manifested
in the overt behaviour of individual. Curiosity, kindness, honesty,
tactfulness, dependability, helpfulness,, etc. are examples of surface
trait. Surface Traits or Central Traits are the visible qualities of
personality.

According to Cattell, there are 23 source traits in a normal individual

of which 16 basic traits were identified as factors through factor analysis.
These sixteen basic traits or dimensions (factors) are -,

1. Reserved Vs. Outgoing

2. Less intelligence Vs. more intelligent,

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 3. Emotionally less stable Vs Emotionally stable, Space for Learner
4. Humble(Submissive) Vs. assertive(Dominant),
5. Serious (Sober) Vs (Enthusiastic) happy-go-lucky,
6. Expedient Vs conscientious,
7. Shy or Timid Vs venturesome,
8. Tough-minded Vs tender-minded,
9. Trusting Vs suspicious,
10. Practical Vs imaginative,
11. Forthright Vs shrewd,
12. Placid Vs apprehensive,
13. Conservative Vs experimenting,
14. Group-dependent Vs self-sufficiency,
15. Casual Vs controlled, and
16. Relaxed Vs tense.

In this way, Cattell described and predicted the behaviour of

individuals on the basis of their personality traits. Basically, he worked on
identification of basic dimensions of personality and after that developed
instruments to measure these dimensions. However, it is to mention that
Cattell’s theory gave equal importance to the role of both heredity and
environment in the growth and development of personality.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que. 3: State four necessary conditions of self actualization in Rogers’

theory.
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Space for Learner Que. 4: Describe briefly the four traits of personality suggested by
Cattell.
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3.6 Summing Up:

In this unit we have studied the psycho-analytic theory of Personality

by Freud, Allport’s theory, Roger’s Self theory and the trait theory by Cattell.
The main points of the theories can be summed up as––

· Id, Ego and Super ego are the three basic components that create
personality according to Freud. Ego maintains a balancing life
between Id and Super ego since id is biological which seeks
pleasure, ego is psychological which tests reality and super-ego is
social self that always seeks perfection.

· Allport denied the notion of limited number of personality types.

He gave description of a highly individualized personality structure.
In his views, three types of personality traits are found in an individual
which are- cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits.

· In Rogers’ self theory, personality behaviour is not based on

physiological drives and needs but on a higher driving force within
human being. This higher driving force only impels a person towards
complex personality pattern that is like a person seeks a kind of
spiritual reward in a self-fulfilling religious sense. He said that there
are two basic concepts of personality structure known as- (a)
Organism and (b) the Self

· Cattell said that personality is a pattern of traits which help an

individual to understand and predict his behaviour and these traits
are permanent in an individual.

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3.7 Questions and Exercises: Space for Learner

1. Discuss the Cattell’s theory of Personality.

2. Explain the Personality theory by Carl Rogers.

3.8 References and Suggested Readings:

· Armstrong, Thomas (2018). Multiple Intelligences. American Institute

for Learning and Human Development. (www.institute4learning.com)

· Bhatia, H.R. Elements of Educational Psychology.

· Chauhan, S.S. Advanced Educational Psychology.( Sixth revised

edition.) Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. Noida, 1998.

· Dr. Karl Albrecht (2004). Social Intelligence Theory.

www.karlalbrechtcom..

· Mangal, S.K. (2014). Advanced Educational Psychology (Second

Edition). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.

· S. Dandapani (2014). General Psychology, (Fourth edition)

Neelkamal Publications Pvt.Ltd., Hyderabad.

===×===

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Space for Learner UNIT- 4
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

Unit Structure:

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Genetic factor as Determinant of Personality
4.3 Role of Social Factors on Personality Development
4.4 Culture as a Determinant of Personality
4.5 Summing Up
4.6 Questions and Exercises
4.7 References and Suggested Readings

4.0 Introduction:

Various psychologists have unanimously agreed that Personality is

the unique combination of some patterns that influence behaviour, thought,
motivation, and emotion in a human being. It is influenced by both biological
and environmental factors among all the environmental factors, society and
culture this two are the most important that shapes personality very strongly.
So, in this unit we will discuss on various determinants of personality with
special reference to heredity, society and culture.

4.1 Objectives:

After going through this unit, you will be able to––

· know the role of genetic factors on personality development,

· understand how social factors influence on personality

development,

· conceive an idea about culture as a strong determinant of personality.

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4.2 Heredity or Genetic Factor as Determinant of Personality: Space for Learner

Among all the determinants, Genetic factors are the basic that
determine the development of personality behaviour of an individual. Genetic
factors or Heredity provides the primary raw materials for basic aspects of
personality like, physical appearance, intelligence, and temperament.
Researches show that genetic factors have the importance in defining
personality patterns through inherited roots like ductless glands, nervous
system. Researchers have proved that physical characteristics are result of
genetic correlations but it is controversial to say whether the behavioural
traits result from genetics or learned experiences.

An individual’s heredity is proved to be present since the moment

of conception in mother’s womb. Heredity is depended on the genes of his
parents and forefathers, that is, whatever someone gives to his offspring is
only through the genes. The mechanism of heredity can simply be described
as exclusively a biological process. When male and female germ cells join
after mating during fertilisation, it generates a fertilised ovum with roughly
46 chromosomes taking half from each parent. The chromosomes are tiny
threadlike structures that contain hundreds of ultramicroscopic particles
known as ‘genes,’ which are the true carriers of a person’s hereditary
information.

Actually, the maturation of physical and mental qualities is

determined by an individual’s hereditary endowment and such kind of
maturity is closely related with the behavioural pattern of personality. It is
heredity that provides the basic raw materials of personality like physical
appearance, intelligence, and temperament. Psychologists like Galton, Mc
Person, Goddard all of them studied on personality determinants in different
times and found that the physical characteristics such as height, weight,
colour of eye and skin, social and intellectual behaviour all are determined
by heredity. Differences in these characteristics are due to the changes in
the genes transmitted. Galton was the first Psychologist who conducted
study on genetic inheritance of man taking the eminent and genius people of
England as sample. He found that eminent men were from those families
which had already at least one eminent member. Mc Person also studied a
family with feeble minded mother and physically handicapped father
possessing low intelligence. There were seven children in the family out

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Space for Learner whom five were feeble minded and all the seven were delinquent. So, these
studies proved that eminence in family tree, low intelligence, delinquency,
etc. are some personality behaviour inherited by birth from generation to
generation.

STOP TO CONSIDER

· An individual’s heredity is proved to be present since the moment

of its conception of a neonate in mother’s womb.

· Chromosomes are tiny threadlike structures with hundreds of

ultramicroscopic particles known as ‘genes,’ which are the true
carriers of a person’s hereditary information.

· Psychologists like Galton, Mc Person, Goddard all of them

studied on personality determinants in different times and found
that the physical characteristics such as height, weight, colour of
eye and skin, social and intellectual behaviour all are determined
by heredity.

4.3 Role of Social Factors on Personality Development:

Morton Prince in the year 1929 explained personality by justifying

the role of both Heredity and Environment in constituting the concept.
According to him, “Personality is the sum total of all the biological
dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual
and the dispositions and tendencies acquired by experience.” In the definition
of Morton Prince, a person’s various kinds of social as well as cultural
experiences are equally getting importance like heredity. Psychologist Allport
also defined personality from both hereditary and socio-cultural perspectives.
He defined, “Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of
those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment.”

The supporters of the social determinants approach analyse a

personality as per the status of the individual in their social group or
community and consider the individual’s conception of their role in the group

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is like. The key factor that this approach weighs in is what others perceive Space for Learner
us as plays a greater role in the formation of our personality.

All modern communication tools including social media play a great

role in the development of personality. Social media has been playing a
very commanding role to influence the masses around the globe. Hence,
anyone’s personality is majorly persuaded by the social lives they lea. Through
socialization process, one encounters a plethora of other individuals which
some way or the other leaves a mark on our personalities. The process
starts as soon as we step into the real world from the playschool we go to
peers and friends, amongst others. In this way, our social life is one of the
essential determinants of personality and that’s why we are always advised
to choose our social circle wisely

Social environment of home, school environment, peers and teachers

are the strong social determinants of personality. Nobody can deny that
personality of an individual develops with constant interaction between
biological genetic factors and social environmental forces. First after its
birth, a child comes in to contact of its parents, siblings and family members.
So, the type of training and experiences of a child in early childhood shapes
greatly the behaviour in later life also.

The most significant period of life span is the formative period of an

individual and it is spent by all in the school, colleges between the ages of 4
to 21 years. Here the teachers’ behaviour and peer group or classmates
greatly influence in child’s development of personality. School as a social
determinant must give emphasis on teacher’s behaviour. The methods, means
and ways of dealing with students in school environment greatly affect the
emotional climate of the classroom. Accordingly, role of teachers are to be
kept in mind as follows––

(i) Teachers should apply fair and democratic method treating everyone
equally.

(ii) They should be enthusiastic, open minded

(iii) Teachers should encourage students’ participation

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Space for Learner (iv) Attitude towards teaching should be very positive so that their
positive attitude towards teaching can create a warm and friendly
atmosphere in the classroom.

(v) Sympathy towards students and inter-personal relations between

students and teachers influence a lot in determining the personality
behaviour of children.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que.1: Discuss the role of heredity on personality development.

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Que.2: Describe briefly the social determinants of personality.
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Que.3: How does a teacher influence on personality development in
school.
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4.4 Role of Culture on Personality Development:

The term culture refers to a complex whole of all knowledge, beliefs,

customs, ideas, behaviors, and traditions of a particular society that are
passed through generations. Culture is transmitted to people through language

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as well as through the modeling of behavior and it defines which traits and Space for Learner
behaviours are acceptable, important, desirable, or undesirable. In all over
the world, there is a common characteristic that each culture trains and
expects its members to behave and breathe in a way that is acceptable by
society. Culture is referred as one of the most important environmental
factors shaping their personality (Triandis & Suh, 2002). Many psychologists
are interested in understanding the role of culture in the development of
personality. Research investigating the variations of personality traits across
cultures suggests that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects
that account for these variations.

It is a social fact that within one culture there are different norms
and behavioral expectations. These cultural norms can dictate which
personality traits are considered important. The researcher Gordon Allport
considered culture to be an important factor that influences on traits and
defined common traits as a part of culture. These traits may vary from
culture to culture based on differing values, needs, and beliefs. Positive and
negative traits of a person can be determined by cultural expectations like
what is considered a positive trait in one culture may be considered negative
in another, thus resulting in different expressions of personality across cultures.

Each civilization transmits its ideals, values, and approved

behaviours to its offspring, both consciously and unconsciously. Social
institutions such as the home, school, and temple, or their equivalents, are
mostly responsible for this education. As a result, systematic training, together
with the examples set by adults or other “models,” tends to produce some
degree of consistency and establish what might be referred to as the basic
personality type of a given culture. Considering this, cultural influence on
personality is important. As for example, Western ideas and theories are
not necessarily applicable to other cultures of South East Asia’s nations.
(Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). There is a great deal of evidence that the
strength of personality traits varies across cultures, and this is especially
true when comparing individualist cultures (such as European, North
American, and Australian cultures) and collectivist cultures (such as Asian,
African, and South American cultures). People who live in individualist
cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal
achievement are important. In contrast, people who live in collectivist

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Space for Learner cultures tend to value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over
individual needs. These values influence personality in different but substantial
ways; for example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures
displayed more personally-oriented personality traits, whereas people in
collectivist cultures displayed more socially-oriented personality traits.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Que.4: Discuss the role of culture in promotion of personality

behaviour.
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Que.5: Elaborate on the various determinants of personality.
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4.5 Summing Up:

· In this unit, we have discussed on genetic factors on personality

development, social factors that influence on personality
development and also discussed culture as a strong determinant of
personality.

· Heredity provides the basic raw materials of personality

development like physical appearance, intelligence and
temperament.

· Social environment of home, school environment, peers and teachers

are the strong social determinants of personality including the modern
tools of communication- social media.

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 · Personality traits vary culture to culture based on every society’s Space for Learner
differing values, needs, and beliefs. Positive and negative traits of a
person can be determined by cultural expectations like what is
considered a positive trait in one culture may be considered negative
in another.

4.6 Questions and Exercises:

1. Discuss the role of genetic factors on personality development.

2. Explain how social factors influence on personality development.

4.7 References and Suggested Readings:

· Armstrong, Thomas (2018). Multiple Intelligences. American

Institute for Learning and Human Development.
(www.institute4learning.com)

· Bhatia, H.R. Elements of Educational Psychology.

· Chauhan, S.S. Advanced Educational Psychology.( Sixth revised

edition.) Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. Noida, 1998.

· Dr. Karl Albrecht (2004). Social Intelligence Theory.

www.karlalbrechtcom..

· Mangal, S.K. (2014). Advanced Educational Psychology

(Second Edition). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.

· S. Dandapani (2014). General Psychology, (Fourth edition)

Neelkamal Publications Pvt.Ltd., Hyderabad.

===×===

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