Lecture Notes: Introduction to Animal Physiology
1. Definition and Scope of Animal Physiology
Definition:
Animal Physiology is a branch of biology that deals with the study of the physical, chemical, and
biological functions and mechanisms of animals at all levels of biological organization. It includes
everything from molecular and cellular processes to organ system functions and whole-body
integration, with the aim of understanding how animals survive, reproduce, and adapt to their
environments.
According to Hill, Wyse, and Anderson, physiology investigates the mechanisms by which organisms
perform their vital functions, explaining how structures function and integrate into the life processes.
Scope:
Animal physiology bridges biology, chemistry, and physics to explain life functions. It encompasses:
• Cellular Physiology: Processes at the cell level including ion transport, signal transduction, and
energy metabolism.
• Organ System Physiology: Functioning of systems such as cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive,
nervous, and reproductive systems.
• Comparative Physiology: Compares physiological traits across species to understand adaptive
evolution.
• Environmental Physiology: Examines how organisms maintain homeostasis and adapt to
environmental changes.
• Evolutionary Physiology: Investigates how physiological traits evolved under natural selection.
• Molecular Physiology: Studies how molecules, especially proteins and genes, control
physiological processes.
As Moyes and Schulte put it, physiology is inherently integrative and relies on a hierarchical approach
that starts from molecules and extends to ecosystems.
2. Historical Development of Animal Physiology
Early Period:
• Aristotle (384–322 BCE) is often considered the father of biology and physiology. He made
systematic studies of animal biology, particularly comparative anatomy.
• Galen (129–200 AD) performed vivisections on animals and developed early ideas of blood
circulation and organ function.
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Scientific Revolution:
• William Harvey (1578–1657) discovered the circulation of blood and demonstrated the heart as
a pump.
• Marcello Malpighi used microscopes to describe capillaries, thus linking arteries and veins.
Enlightenment to Modern Era:
• Claude Bernard (1813–1878) introduced the concept of the milieu interieur, laying the
foundation for homeostasis.
• Walter Cannon (1871–1945) coined the term "homeostasis" and studied physiological responses
to stress.
• The 20th century saw the development of modern molecular biology, which allowed physiology
to explore processes at the genetic and protein levels.
According to Schmidt-Nielsen, historical physiology transitioned from observational to quantitative
science, focusing on the mechanistic basis of life.
3. Levels of Organization in Animal Physiology
Animal physiology is studied across multiple levels of biological organization, which are interconnected
and hierarchical:
a. Molecular Level:
Includes enzymes, DNA, RNA, proteins, and small molecules that regulate cellular processes. For
example, ion channels and ATPases regulate membrane potential and energy use.
b. Cellular Level:
Includes cellular organelles, membrane dynamics, intracellular signaling, and metabolic pathways.
c. Tissue Level:
Tissues are groups of similar cells performing a specific function. Major types: epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous tissue.
d. Organ Level:
Organs are structures made up of different tissues working together (e.g., heart, lungs, brain).
e. System Level:
Organ systems such as the nervous, circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems perform complex
functions.
f. Organismal Level:
The whole animal as a functioning system, integrating all physiological processes for survival and
reproduction.
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g. Ecological and Evolutionary Levels:
Physiological traits are shaped by evolution and contribute to survival in specific ecological contexts.
Hill et al. emphasize that physiology integrates across all levels to understand the organism as a whole.
4. Homeostasis and Its Importance
Definition:
Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal environment of an organism to maintain a stable, constant
condition necessary for survival. It involves dynamic processes that counteract changes from internal
and external stimuli.
Mechanisms of Homeostasis:
• Negative Feedback Loops: Primary method for maintaining homeostasis. A sensor detects a
deviation, the integrator (e.g., brain) processes the information, and effectors (e.g., muscles or
glands) bring the variable back to normal.
• Positive Feedback Loops: Less common; amplify responses (e.g., during childbirth or blood
clotting).
Examples:
• Thermoregulation: Maintains core body temperature.
• Osmoregulation: Controls water and salt balance.
• Glucoregulation: Maintains blood glucose levels.
Importance:
• Ensures optimal conditions for enzymatic reactions.
• Prevents cellular damage.
• Allows animals to function in varying environments.
According to Moyes and Schulte, homeostasis is a core principle that allows animals to sustain life
despite unpredictable changes in external conditions.
5. Tools and Techniques in Animal Physiology Research
Modern animal physiology relies on diverse tools and techniques to study complex systems:
i. Respirometry:
Used to measure metabolic rates by quantifying oxygen consumption or carbon dioxide production.
ii. Electrophysiology:
• Techniques such as patch clamp, ECG, and EMG measure electrical activity in cells, muscles, and
the nervous system.
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iii. Microscopy:
• Light and electron microscopy to study cell structures.
• Fluorescent and confocal microscopy for imaging live tissues and cells.
iv. Molecular Techniques:
• PCR, RT-PCR for gene expression analysis.
• Western blotting and ELISA for protein analysis.
v. Imaging and Telemetry:
• MRI, CT scans, PET scans for non-invasive internal imaging.
• Biologging for tracking physiology in free-living animals using sensors and GPS.
vi. Tracer Studies:
Use of radioactive or stable isotopes to study nutrient and ion transport.
vii. Pharmacological Methods:
Application of drugs or inhibitors to investigate physiological responses.
According to Schmidt-Nielsen, combining field and laboratory techniques allows for a better
understanding of how physiology functions in natural and experimental settings.
Conclusion
Animal physiology is a foundational biological science that provides insight into how organisms
function, survive, and adapt. Through the integration of molecular biology, comparative methods, and
advanced technology, the field continues to deepen our understanding of life's complex systems. The
study of animal physiology is not only crucial for biological research but also for medicine,
environmental science, and evolutionary biology.
As Hill et al. and Schmidt-Nielsen collectively emphasize, physiology is both a unifying biological
discipline and a dynamic field that continues to evolve with technological and theoretical
advancements.
