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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Arizona coral snake
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)

The Arizona coral is shy and secretive in its habits, timid rather than
pugnacious, and it is so rarely seen that little is known of its habits.

The poison mechanism of the coral snake is somewhat different from

that of the pit viper group, to which the copperheads, cottonmouths,
and rattlesnakes belong. The teeth of the coral are short, and to be
effective the coral snake must chew rather than strike its victim.

The Arizona coral snake is so small—rarely reaching 2 feet in length—

and its mouth is so tiny, that it would be very difficult for it to bite an
adult human. It is conceivable that a small child playing with one
might be bitten.

Because of its close resemblance to several ringed or banded snakes

of the desert and also to the Arizona mountain kingsnake, or “coral”
kingsnake, of the ponderosa pine highlands of the Southwest, a 25
brief description of the Arizona coral snake is indicated. One of
the beautifully spectacular snakes of the desert, it is marked by
bands of dark red, cream, and black, which encircle the body.
Superficially the markings of the Arizona mountain kingsnake and
other tricolored ringed snakes appear similar. However, the red of the
kingsnake and of others is usually brighter, and the black bands
narrower than those of the coral.

Definite identification is provided by the relationship of the colors to

each other, the arrangement on the Arizona coral snake being red,
cream, black, cream, red, cream, black, cream. The bands of the
Arizona coral snake entirely circle the body and its snout is black.
 Rattlesnakes
(Genus Crotalus, spp.)

Thirty species and subspecies of rattlesnakes occur in the United

States, more than half of this number being found in the Southwest.
Because they have been killed on sight for years, their numbers have
been considerably reduced in densely populated areas. For this
reason, together with emphasis placed upon their poisonous
characteristics by some writers of western thriller fiction, rattlesnakes
are considered by many people to be a serious menace in the thinly
[8]
populated portions of the arid West .

Western diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox.)

 (Photo by Earl Jackson)

Where rattlesnakes are found

In the hot desert regions of the Southwest rattlesnakes are usually
abroad at night during the summer months, as they have no
controlling system for body temperature and cannot endure the 26
heat at ground surface during the hours of sunlight. In spring
and autumn they may be encountered in the daytime but during
December, January, and February they are in hibernation and are
rarely or never seen.

Their food consists principally of lizards and small rodents such as

ground squirrels, rats, mice, pocket gophers and young rabbits. They
are sometimes found along irrigation canal banks where they go for
water, and because they find rodents congregating there for the
same reason. Unless surprised, cornered, teased, handled, or injured,
a rattlesnake usually will try to remain hidden or will endeavor to
crawl away rather than strike. Because they are attracted to places
where small rodents abound, they are sometimes encountered
around barns and outbuildings. They occasionally enter abandoned
structures in search of food or to escape from the heat of the sun.

Protective clothing
Because a rattlesnake may be met at almost any time, except during
the winter months, by a person who lives, works, or visits in the
desert, he should be ever alert. If hiking or climbing through country
where rattlesnakes are known to be abundant, he should wear
clothing that will protect him from a possible bite.
 [9]
Pope states that records kept during 1928 and 1929 show that 98
per cent of snake bites occurred below the knee or on the hand or
forearm. When in snake country, the hiker should wear knee-high
boots or leggings, and should never place his hand on a rock or ledge
above the level of his eyes. In other words, watch your step, and look
before you reach! Apparently rattlesnakes may strike at a quick
movement and are very sensitive to the body warmth of a nearby
warm-blooded creature.

Rattlesnake relatives
Rattlesnakes belong to the group known as the pit vipers, which
includes the cottonmouths and the copperheads. The latter do not
occur in the desert, so they do not come within the province of this
publication. Snakes of the pit viper group are characterized by a
noticeable depression, or pit, found almost halfway between the eye
and the nostril, but slightly lower, on each side of the head.

Of the several species found in the desert, some, such as the western
diamondback rattlesnake have a wide range, while others are
restricted to limited areas. Some species attain large size, while
others are quite small; some are inclined to be pugnacious, while
others are more or less docile. All are dangerous!

It is not within the scope of this publication to enter into a discussion

of the many species, so the reader who wishes to pursue that subject
[10]
further is referred to Klauber’s publication on the rattlesnakes .

The Sidewinder
There is one rattlesnake of the desert that should be especially
mentioned: the sidewinder, or the little horned rattlesnake. It is called
sidewinder because of the peculiar method of locomotion that 27
enables it to progress in the sandy habitat which it frequents.
Unable to get sufficient traction in loose sand by moving as other
snakes do, it throws a portion of its body ahead as a loop, thus
serving to anchor or pull the rest of the body ahead. Thus it
progresses sideways in a looping, or winding, motion most interesting
to observe.

Sidewinder or “horned” rattlesnake

Although the term sidewinder is often used loosely in referring to

other species of rattlesnakes, it actually applies only to this particular
species—Crotalus cerastes.
Helpful precautions
In snake country, it is important to take a flashlight along whenever
there is occasion to go outside at night in summer to be sure that
there are no rattlesnakes lying across your path. If you sleep out of
doors. keep your bed off the ground if possible. The widely believed
statement that, “a rattlesnake will not crawl across a hair rope” is not
true, although such a statement will often precipitate an argument.

Persons much in the field should provide themselves with a suction-

type snakebite kit, and should know how to use it. Although you
stand 200 chances of being killed by an automobile to one of dying
from snakebite, the price of a suction-type kit is cheap insurance
against that possibility.

First aid for rattlesnake bite

If, in spite of all precautions, you or some companion should be
bitten by a rattlesnake, first-aid should be rendered at once. This is
not difficult if you have a snakebite kit, and it is possible even if 28
you do not.

The following steps are quite universally accepted:

1. Apply a tourniquet a short distance above the bite (that is between

it and the heart) but do not make it too tight. This prevents the blood
and lymph carrying the poison from being spread rapidly through the
body. The tourniquet should be loosened for a few seconds every 20
minutes.

2. Make a short cut about one-fourth inch deep and one-fourth inch
long near each fang puncture with a sharp, sterile instrument. A knife
or razor blade sterilized in the flame of a match will do.
3. Apply suction to the cuts. If no suction cup is available, the mouth
will do if it contains no open sores.

4. If antivenin is available, administer it according to instructions, but,

if possible, this should be left to a physician. (Recent experiments
with antivenin indicate that, in some cases, its reaction may be
harmful and that it should be administered only under the care of a
physician.)

5. Get the patient to medical help as soon as possible, continuing the

first-aid treatment enroute. Keep the patient quiet and do not let him
get frightened or excited. Rather than require the patient to walk or
otherwise exercise, medical aid should be brought to him.

6. If medical help is not available, and if Epsom salts can be

obtained, apply cloths soaked in a strong, hot solution of Epsom salts
over the cuts. The sucking, however, should be continued for at least
half an hour, preferably for an hour or more. Never give alcoholic
stimulants or use permanganate of potash. Snakebite kits give
complete instructions; follow them carefully.
 Poison mechanism of the rattlesnake
Redrawn from Dr. Fox

1. Poison gland.
2. Hollow fang.
3. Poison duct.
4. Constrictor muscle.
5. Eye.
6. Nasal opening.
7. Pouch enclosing fangs (not shown in drawing).
8. Tongue.

Rattlesnake venom contains digestive enzymes which attack 29

and destroy tissue, and because of this and the possibility of
bacterial infection introduced by cutting the skin, another method of
treatment—cryotherapy (treatment with cold)—advocated by Dr.
Herbert L. Stahnke, Poisonous Animals Laboratory, Arizona State
University, seems to be gaining more and more support. This
technique is designed to prevent and control the chemical action of
the venom and of bacteria, as well as minimizing stress. This latter
action is extremely important, since recent research work has
indicated that the physiological products produced by the body under
stress may more than double the toxic effects of the venom. Cut-and-
suction, or any similar treatment, tends to greatly increase stress.

The following description of treatment is excerpted from “American

Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,” Volume 6, Number 2,
March, 1957, The Treatment of Snake Bite, by Herbert L. Stahnke,
Fredrick M. Allen, Robert V. Horan, and John H. Tenery:

1. Place a ligature (tight tourniquet) at once between the site of the

bite and the body, but as near the point of entrance of the venom as
possible.

2. Place a piece of ice on the site while preparing a suitable vessel of

crushed ice and water.

3. Place the bitten hand or other member in the iced water well
above the point of ligation.

4. After the envenomed member has been in the iced water for not
less than 5 minutes (N.B. research has shown that the danger
generally attributed to a ligature is not present when the member is
refrigerated), remove the ligature, but keep the member in the iced
water for at least 2 hours.

5. Pack the envenomed member in finely crushed ice. This

hypothermia must continue for approximately 24 hours, and the
patient must not be permitted to chill, since this increases body
stress.

6. Change from hypothermia to cryotherapy. This is accomplished as

follows: after the first 24 hours following the bite, the patient should
be kept somewhat uncomfortably warm—that is, to the point of
perspiration—and encouraged to drink much water. This step is
exceedingly important. Unless the patient is kept uncomfortably
warm the proteolytic portion of the venom will not leave the site of
the bite. Consequently, when hypothermia is stopped, the
concentration of this part of the venom is greater and the tissue
destruction will be proportionately increased. Hypothermia should be
avoided entirely if this step is not meticulously observed.

Western black-headed snake (Tantilla eiseni).

(Courtesy San Diego Natural History Museum)

30
 Sonora lyre snake (Trimorphodon lambda).
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)

7. The warm-up period after Cryotherapy is important. This must be

done gradually. Remove the member from the crushed ice and place
it in ice water (without ice). Allow the water to warm to room
temperature.

Dr. Walter C. Alvarez in the Santa Fe New Mexican, 8-18-57:

“Recently, Dr. Wm. Deichmann, John E. Dees, M. L. Keplinger, John J.
Farrell, and W. E. MacDonald Jr. reported that hydrocortizone is a life-
saving drug when given to animals that have suffered poisoning from
rattlesnake venom. Instead of only the 17% of the untreated animals
that survived, 75% of treated animals were saved.”
 Back-fanged snakes
The southwestern desert regions are credited with harboring several
genera of snakes whose grooved back teeth indicate that they may
[11]
have poisonous properties. Of these, the Sonora lyre snake
(Trimorphodon lambda) and the Mexican vine snake (Oxybelis aeneus
auratus) are the only species of sufficient size to be considered as
even remotely dangerous to mankind. Species of the genera Tantilla
(black-headed snake), Hypsiglena, and Sonora are too small and too
difficult for the amateur to identify to be considered in this
publication.

31
 Gila monster
(Heloderma suspectum)

More conflicting statements are made about the Gila (HEE-lah)

monster than about any other desert reptile. Some persons insist that
it is not poisonous, others are sure that even its breath is poisonous:
that it spits or blows its poison: that the animal has no anal opening,
hence undigested fecal matter remains in the body, decays, and is
the basis of its poison; and so on.

Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum).

Here are the facts. The lizard is poisonous and its bite may be
[13]
serious, possibly fatal . Its breath is not poisonous, and although
the animal seems to have a chronic case of halitosis, this has nothing
to do with its dangerous properties. It does not spit poison, but when
angered it frequently hisses, the outcoming blast of air sometimes
carrying droplets of saliva. It has a normal anal opening and voids
fecal matter in a perfectly normal manner. It is not a walking septic
tank as many persons believe.

Largest of the lizards native to the United States, and the only
species found in this country which is poisonous, the Gila monster
rarely attains a length of 2 feet. Average specimens are smaller. Its
beady skin, heavy body, short legs, and waddling gait set it apart
from all other lizards except its close relative, the also poisonous
Heloderma horridum of Mexico. The Gila Monster is a spectacular
black and corral color, while the other is black and yellow.

Gila monsters are found in southern Arizona, their range extending

northwestward into the southern tip of Nevada and southwestern
Utah.

32
 Underside of Gila monster showing anal opening.
This photograph is advanced as proof that the Gila
monster is a perfectly normal creature in this
respect.
(Photo courtesy of Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory,
Tempe, Arizona)

Food and habits

Food consists chiefly of bird and reptile eggs, young rodents, and
such small or juvenile creatures as it is able to capture. It is
especially fond of hen eggs and may be kept in captivity for a long
time without other food. It is also fond of clear water, which seems
strange because of the scarcity of this liquid in the natural habitat of
the lizard. If provided with a basin of water it may lie partly
submerged for hours.

Occasionally encountered ambling across stretches of open desert,

especially in the spring, the Gila monster is normally docile and bends
every effort toward escape among the stiff stems of some bush or
beneath the protecting spine-clad stems of a cactus plant. Sometimes
an individual with a “chip on its shoulder” may be met, or one in a
normal state of mind may be teased or prodded into anger, when it
advances with open mouth, sputtering and hissing.

When aroused, the Gila monster is remarkably agile, making quick

turns of its head to snap at nearby objects. If it secures a grip, it
hangs on with bulldog-like tenacity, grinding the object between its
teeth.

Gila monsters reproduce by means of eggs which are about 2½

inches long with a tough, parchment-like skin. From 5 to 13 eggs are
deposited by the female in a hole which she scoops in moist sand in a
sunny location. After laying the eggs, she covers them with 33
sand, and leaves them for the heat of the sun to hatch.
 Poison mechanism of the Gila monster
Redrawn from Dr. Fox

1. Poison gland.
2. Grooved tooth.
3. Poison duct.
4. Opening, poison duct.
5. Eye.
6. Dissected lower jaw.

The Gila monster’s tail serves as a storehouse of nourishment, being

thick and heavy in times of plenty, and thin and rope-like in the early
spring when the reptile first appears after months of hibernation,
during which time it has lived on the reservoir of fat stored in its tail.

Poison of the Gila monster

The poison of the Gila monster is produced by glands in the lower
jaw. To be most effective, the poison must be ground into the wound
through action of the grooved teeth, the process taking a little time.
Bitten persons who immediately have broken away sometimes show
no effects of the venom, therein lying the basis for the widespread
statement that Gila monsters are not poisonous.

Bitten persons who have been unable to release themselves show

symptoms of poisoning similar to persons suffering from rattlesnake
bite, although the poison is more neurotoxic in action. Breathing and
heart action are speeded up, followed by a gradual paralysis of the
heart and breathing muscles.

Treatment is essentially the same as that for rattlesnake bite, which is

described earlier in this booklet. A physician should be summoned at
once. Stimulants are dangerous, and no one should be permitted to
give the patient any alcohol whatever.

Prevention is much simpler than cure, so Gila monsters should be

allowed to mind their own affairs unmolested. Normally they are not
pugnacious, and it would be very difficult for one to bite a human
unless it were being teased or handled or were stepped upon by a
bare-footed child. Please do not kill or capture Gila monsters. These
interesting lizards are a unique feature of native desert wildlife
threatened with extinction. Please leave them for other people to see
and enjoy. Furthermore, the Gila monster is protected by State law.

34
 Harmless Creatures Mistakenly
Believed Poisonous
Practically everyone is aware of the widespread fear of snakes
exhibited by people of all races and in all walks of life. This fear
although largely emotional, is rationalized by many persons with the
statement “Well, it MIGHT be poisonous.” Other persons believe that
there is some rule of thumb, such as a flat or triangular-shaped head,
by which all poisonous snakes may be recognized. A great many
persons kill all snakes, just on general principles. Thus the innocent
suffer with the guilty, the harmless with the dangerous.

As scientists explore deeper and deeper into the intricacies of animal

behavior and obtain more and more knowledge of the ecological
relationships among animals and between animals and plants, it
becomes increasingly clear that these relationships present a delicate
balance or adjustment of nature. Epidemic diseases, disasters such as
fires and floods, and radical climatic changes may upset or alter these
relationships, sometimes with far-reaching effects.

But the greatest and most persistent disturber of the biological peace
is MAN. Almost every time man reduces or destroys one phase of
nature, he releases, in so doing, previously unrecognized forces
which turn on him in a manner that he least expects. Snakes, in
general, live on small rodents, thereby helping to maintain a balance
whereby rodents are unable to increase to such a point that they get
out of nature’s control. Kill all of the snakes in a given area, and
some of the control on rodent population is removed with a resulting
increase in the destruction of vegetation and consequent damage to
farmers’ crops. So if you must kill snakes, by all means limit your
activities to those which are known definitely to be poisonous.
One of the purposes of this booklet is to familiarize the desert dweller
or visitor with the snakes that ARE poisonous. All the rest are
harmless, in fact they are generally beneficial to mankind, even
though their heads may be triangular in shape. A given territory is
capable of supporting a rather definite number of snakes. Kill the
harmless ones and those that come in to take their place may be
poisonous species.

In all parts of the country certain creatures, particularly reptiles, are

credited with supernatural powers for causing injury or aid to human
beings. Among aboriginal peoples, these superstitions are a part of
their religion and have a powerful effect upon their thinking. For
example, among the Hopi Indians of northern Arizona, snakes may
be messengers who, if properly indoctrinated, will convey to the rain
gods expressions of the people’s need for moisture in order that their
crops may mature.

Even among a people who for years have had the benefit of scientific
knowledge, superstitions persist. The hoopsnake and the milksnake
offer cases in point, and there will be readers of this booklet who will
toss it aside in anger because it states that both of these myths are
without substantiation in fact. 35
 Two adult banded gecko lizards

These imaginary tales are passed from generation to generation and

are the strongest in regions where the percentage of uneducated
people is high. This situation exists in the South and Southwest.
Many persons who have been denied educational opportunities are
extremely credulous and have a long list of creatures to each of
which they credit injurious or helpful powers. A majority of these
creatures are perfectly harmless, but they are too numerous to be
given space in this publication. However, it seems only fair to mention
a few of the commonest of these persecuted species in the hope that
they may be recognized as not only harmless, but in many cases
actually beneficial to man. Thus may their unwarranted persecution
be somewhat reduced.
 Banded gecko
(Coleonyx variegatus)

Quite small, with velvety skin and delicate markings making it appear
fragile and semitransparent, this lizard has little to inspire fear. Hiding
away during daylight hours in dark and preferably moist retreats, it
comes forth at night in search of insects for food.

It is rarely seen unless disturbed in its hiding place, which may be in

the corner of a closet or cupboard beneath the sink. If captured, it
struggles to escape, emitting a faint, high-pitched squeak.

Although the banded gecko is sometimes mistaken for the young of a

Gila monster, in general the desert people accuse it of no definite
crime, stating merely “we have heard that it is very poisonous,” and
in consequence, kill it whenever they find it.

36
 Solpugid
(Eremobates sp.)

Probably because of its large and prominent jaws, the solpugid,

Eremobates sp., which is closely related to the spiders, is greatly
feared.

Solpugid or sun Spider

“Anything so ugly MUST be poisonous,” seems to be the principal

basis for its unhappy reputation.

It is often found inside buildings where it has gone in search of insect

prey, and Mexican families living in adobe houses with dirt floors are
reported to be terrorized by it. In Mexico and in many parts of the
Southwest it is known as niña de la tierra or child-of-the-earth.
The range of the solpugid or sun spider is by no means limited to the
desert, but its reputation as a poisonous creature seems to be much
worse in the Southwest than elsewhere.

The solpugid not only is perfectly harmless to man but does not rely
on poison in capturing its prey, as it has no venom glands whatever.
 Jerusalem cricket
(Stenopelmatus sp.)

Whereas the solpugid is called child-of-the-earth in the southern

portions of the Southwest, in the northern part of this territory
another creature, the Jerusalem cricket, sand cricket, or chacho is
reported as imbued with the same dangerous qualities 37
evidently credited to any creature to which this name has been
applied.

Jerusalem cricket, sand cricket, or chacho

 (Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)

Although quite common, the Jerusalem cricket, Stenopelmatus sp., is

shy and nocturnal in its habits. Its striking appearance is due to its
head which is round, bald, and with markings on top that form, with
the use of a little imagination, a simple, smiling face. It is this that
suggests to the Spanish-speaking people of the Southwest, who
occasionally dig it from its burrow, the name “niña de la tierra.” The
Navajo Indians call it woh-seh-tsinni, meaning Old Man Bald-head.

By the superstitious natives, this creature is believed to be highly

venomous and frequently the death of a horse or cow is blamed by
the owner on a “chacho” that has crawled into the hay.

Actually, the Jerusalem cricket is harmless and may be handled with

perfect impunity by anyone, although it may inflict a painful nip.
 Vinegaroon
(Trithyreus sp.)

Since people coming from Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas bring the
majority of tales regarding the deadly characteristics of the little
vinegaroon or whip-tail scorpion, fear of it is apparently more
widespread over the cotton belt as a whole than within the 38
desert regions of the Southwest.

Vinegaroon
(Photo by Marvin H. Frost, Sr.)
The name vinegaroon stems from the fact that when the little
creature is injured or smashed it gives off the odor of an acetate
similar to that of acetic acid, the principal ingredient of vinegar.

Equipped with a massive pair of pincers, the vinegaroon, like the

solpugid, gives an impression of fierceness which is probably the
basis for much of its reputation as a dangerous criminal. However,
the pincers are used in catching and holding prey and have no poison
mechanism in connection.

The hairlike posterior appendage, or tail, is without any protective or

offensive mechanism whatever, so that the creature is perfectly
harmless insofar as human beings are concerned.

In fact, like the solpugid and the banded gecko, its food habits cause
it to rid the world of a great many insects during the course of its life
and many of its victims are certain to be noxious to the interests of
mankind.

All of these creatures, then, are not only harmless, but are actually
beneficial to man, and they deserve to be freed from the persecution
resulting from ignorance and superstition, and to be permitted to live
in their normal relationship with other creatures.

39
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