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The document is about the 5th edition of 'Discovering the Internet' by Jennifer T. Campbell, which provides comprehensive information on internet usage, web browsing, and online communication. It includes chapters on various topics such as searching the web, understanding internet technologies, and online safety. The text is published by Cengage Learning and is available for download at textbookfull.com.

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Discovering The Internet Complete 5th Edition Jennifer Campbell Download

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Discovering
The Internet
COMPLETE Fifth Edition

Jennifer T. Campbell

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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2014

Examining the Search Results 97 Text Messaging 188

Evaluating the Credibility of Search Chat 189
Results 97 Collaboration and Sharing 191
Search Tools 99 Email Marketing and Online
Directories 99 Survey Technologies 196
Search Engines 104 VoIP 198
Metasearch Engines 109 Newsgroups and Web-Based
Advanced Search Techniques 112 Discussion Groups 199
Refining Searches 112 Mailing Lists 200
Advanced Search Forms 113 Chapter Review 201
Browser Searches 118 Terms to Know 202
Address Bar Searches 118 Test Your Knowledge 203
Webpage Searches 120 Trends 205
Sorting and Filtering Search Results 122 At Issue 205
Specialized Searches 123 Hands On 206
People and Business Search 123 Team Approach 207
News and Current Events Search 125
Video Search 125 Chapter 5
Social Media Search 126
Hashtag Search 126 Getting More Out of the Internet
Shopping Search 128 Introduction 209
Research Alternatives to Search Engines 130 Portals 210
Chapter Review 133 Consumer Portals 210
Terms to Know 134 Vertical, Hyperlocal, and Industry Portals 211
Test Your Knowledge 134 Developing Portals 217
Trends 136 Corporate Portals 217
At Issue 137 News, Sports, Weather, and Traffic Resources 218
Hands On 137 Characteristics of News-Oriented Websites 219
Team Approach 138 Streaming Media 224
Research and Reference Tools 227
Chapter 4 Online Encyclopedias 228
Online Dictionaries 230
Communicating Online Online Reference Desks 235
Introduction 141 User-Generated Content 236
Email Systems 142 Online Route Planners 238
Email Addresses 143 Special-Interest Websites 241
Email Clients, Servers, and Protocols 143 Health, Diet, and Fitness Information 241
Anatomy of an Email Message 147 Personal Finance Resources 245
Using Email 149 Banking, Bill Presentment, and Bill Payment
Creating a Web-Based Email Account 149 Services 245
Syncing Web-based Email with an Financial Calculators, Insurance, and Credit
Email Client 153 Websites 248
Reviewing the Email Window 154 Investing Online 251
Receiving and Replying to an Incoming Entertainment, Hobby, and Other
Email Message 156 Special-Interest Websites 252
Composing and Sending an Outgoing Education Tools 258
Email Message 163 K–12 and University Students 258
Managing Messages 167 Online Employee Training and Professional
Managing Contacts 175 Development 259
Junk Email Options 180 Adult Continuing Education Websites 261
Social Media 181 Shopping Websites 261
Social Networking 182 The Online Consumer Marketspace 262
Blogging and Microblogging 185 Online Gaming Websites 263

Download and File-Sharing Websites 264 Electronic Funds Transfer 328

Download Websites 265 Electronic Data Interchange 328
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 266 Unique E-Business Factors 329
P2P File-Sharing Networks 267 Geography, Time, and Space 329
Chapter Review 269 The Network Effect 330
Terms to Know 270 Redefining Markets 333
Test Your Knowledge 270 Personalization and Customization 335
Trends 272 E-Business Models 337
At Issue 273 Business-to-Consumer (B2C) 338
Hands On 273 Consumer-to-Business (C2B) 345
Team Approach 274 Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) 345
Business-to-Business (B2B) 350
Business-to-Government (B2G) 357
Chapter 6
Creating an Online Store 357
Understanding Internet Technologies Storefront Software 358
and Security Credit Card Authorization and Processing 360
Introduction 275 Chapter Review 362
Networking Basics 276 Terms to Know 363
Local, Metropolitan, and Wide Area Networks 276 Test Your Knowledge 363
Network Topologies, Access Methods, and Trends 365
Transmission Media 279 At Issue 366
Connectivity Hardware and Software 285 Hands On 366
Internet Infrastructure 289 Team Approach 367
Network Service Providers (NSPs) 290
TCP/IP Stack 290 Appendix A
IP Addresses 291
Exploring Other Browsers
Domain Name System (DNS) 294
Location-Based Services and GPS 300 Introduction APP 1
Internet Telephony and Web Conferencing 302 Google Chrome APP 1
Internet Telephony 302 Firefox APP 3
Virtual Meetings, Conversations, and Opera APP 4
Web Conferencing 304 Safari APP 5
Network Security Issues and Technologies 306 Mobile Web Browsers APP 6
Internal Network Security Threats 307
External Network Security Threats 310 Appendix B
Transactional Risks 317
Virtual Private Networks 319 Understanding Web Design
Chapter Review 320 Introduction APP 9
Terms to Know 321 The Web Design Process APP 9
Test Your Knowledge 322 Web Design Roles APP 10
Trends 324
At Issue 324
Hands On 325
Appendix C
Team Approach 326 Exploring the Cloud
Introduction APP 13
Chapter 7 Cloud Advantages APP 13
Web-based Software and Apps APP 13
Understanding E-Business
Cloud Security APP 14
Introduction 327
E-Business Origins 328 Index IND 1

Objectives of This Textbook

Discovering the Internet: Complete, Fifth Edition is intended for a course that provides
comprehensive coverage of Internet and web concepts. No experience with the Internet
or the web is assumed. The objectives of this book are:
• To teach Internet and web history and concepts
• To demonstrate how to use a browser and online search tools
• To introduce different types of online communication tools
• To develop an exercise-oriented approach that allows learning by doing
• To encourage independent study and help those who are working alone

Organization of This Textbook

Discovering the Internet: Complete, Fifth Edition provides basic coverage of Internet and
web concepts. The material is divided into four chapters and three appendices.

Chapter 1 — Into the Internet In Chapter 1, students are introduced to basic

Internet and web terminology, taught how the Internet and web are used, and familiarized
with the history of the Internet and the web.

Chapter 2 — Browsing the Web In Chapter 2, students are introduced to web-

sites, webpages, web portals, web servers, and web browsers. Students learn to use web
browser features, such as tabbed browsing, and learn about online risks and safeguards.

Chapter 3 — Searching the Web In Chapter 3, students learn how to perform

the search process and use various search tools to do basic and advanced web searches.

Chapter 4 — Communicating Online In Chapter 4, students learn how to

send and receive email using both an email client and a web-based email service. Students
also learn about participating in other types of online communication, such as mailing

lists, newsgroups, wikis, and web-based discussion groups. Students are introduced to a
variety of social media, such as blogs and social networks.

CHAPTER 5 — GETTING MORE OUT OF THE INTERNET In Chapter 5, students

explore getting more out of the Internet and the web including: visiting consumer, verti-
cal, and industry portals; getting news, weather, and sports information; experiencing
streaming media; using online reference tools; exploring special interest sites; managing
their personal finances; and downloading and uploading files.

CHAPTER 6 — UNDERSTANDING INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES AND

SECURITY In Chapter 6, students learn about the networking technologies and com-
munication services that make communicating over the Internet and accessing the web
possible. Students also learn more about online security risks and safeguards.

CHAPTER 7 — UNDERSTANDING E-BUSINESS In Chapter 7, students use real-

world e-business examples to explore different e-business models.

Appendix A — Exploring Other Browsers This appendix discusses the func-

tionality differences among four additional browsers: Google Chrome, Firefox, Opera,
and Safari. It also addresses the general differences in mobile browsers for tablets and
smartphones.

Appendix B — Understanding Web Design This new appendix provides a

brief presentation of the website planning and designing process.

APPENDIX C — Exploring the Cloud This new appendix provides a brief pres-
entation of web apps, storage, cloud security, and how cloud services can extend one’s
usage of the web.

Instructor Resources
The Instructor Resources include both teaching and testing aids and can be accessed
online at www.cengage.com/login.

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Includes lecture notes summarizing the chapter sections,

figures and boxed elements found in every chapter, teacher tips, classroom activities, lab
activities, and quick quizzes in Microsoft Word files.

SYLLABUS Contains easily customizable sample syllabi that cover policies, assignments,
exams, and other course information.

FIGURE FILES Illustrations for every figure in the textbook are available in electronic
form. Figures are provided both with and without callouts.

POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS A one-click-per-slide presentation system provides

PowerPoint slides for every subject in each chapter. Presentations are based on chapter
objectives.

SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES Includes solutions for all end-of-chapter and chapter

reinforcement exercises.

TEST BANKS Test Banks include questions for every chapter, feature objective-based
and critical-thinking question types, and include page number references and figure refer-
ences, when appropriate.

DATA FILES FOR STUDENTS Includes all the files that are required by students to
complete the exercises.

ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR STUDENTS Consists of Chapter Reinforcement

Exercises, which are true/false, multiple-choice, and short answer questions that help
students gain confidence in the material learned.

CourseNotes
Cengage Learning’s CourseNotes are six-panel quick
reference cards that reinforce the most important and
widely used features of a software application or technology
concept in a visual and user-friendly format. CourseNotes
serve as a great reference tool for students, both during and after the course. CourseNotes
are available for Adobe Dreamweaver CS6, HTML 5, Web 2.0, Buyer’s Guide: Tips
for Purchasing a New Computer, Best Practices in Social Networking, Hot Topics in
Technology, and many more. Visit www.cengagebrain.com to learn more!

About Our Covers

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the way today’s students learn and experience new technology. This focus on student suc-
cess is reflected on our covers, which feature real students from The University of Rhode
Island using the Shelly Cashman Series in their courses, and reflect the varied ages and
backgrounds of the students learning with our books. When you use the Shelly Cashman
Series, you can be assured that you are learning computer skills using the most effective
courseware available.
COMPLETE
Discovering THE INTERNET
Fifth Edition

Discovering
erials designed for your course!
d more . . .
ind discounted study tools!
CAMPBELL
THE INTERNET
COMPLETE Fifth Edition

CAMPBELL
8/12/14 10:14 AM

Textbook Walk-Through
10 Chapter 1 Into the Internet

DOWNLOADING AND UPLOADING FILES One of the most useful Internet activities
is downloading files from a server or uploading files to a server. A server is a computer
on a network used to store files. As you learned earlier, a web server stores webpages.
Other server examples are a mail server that stores email messages and a file server that
stores electronic files. To download is to copy or transfer files from a server to your
computer or device; to upload is to copy, post, or transfer files from your computer or
Facts@Hand
device to a server. The Internet standard or protocol that you use to upload or download Each chapter contains multiple
music, software, word processing, picture, and other files to a server is the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP). Facts@Hand tips that provide
industry statistics or usage
Peer-to-peer media file sharing became popular in the late 1990s by websites
such as Napster that allowed individual users to upload music files and share information relevant to the
them with others, without permission from, or reimbursement for, the copyright
holder. Companies such as Rhapsody and Pandora offer subscription-based radio
Internet and web concepts
and downloadable music files that are licensed by the copyright holders and discussed in the chapter.
available to individual users.

CLOUD COMPUTING Remote data access, storage, software access, and collaboration
technologies are all aspects of cloud computing. Users of cloud computing can access
a variety of software and storage methods by using a computer or mobile device with
Internet access and browser software. Google DriveTM is an example of cloud computing.
Google Drive includes Google Docs, a group of software products available online,
including word processing (Figure 1-10), spreadsheet, and presentation software. When
logged on to Google Drive, a user can use the software to create a document, such as a
spreadsheet, save and store the document online, and share the document with others
to collaborate on changes — all without installing software on the user’s computer
or device.

72 Chapter 2 Browsing
share button the Web

menus and toolbars

provide a familiar article. You also can copy a link and paste it into an email message or text message. When
user interface
the message recipient clicks the link, his or her browser starts and opens the webpage.
Most browsers and websites enable you to share webpages and web content to social
media and content sharing websites, such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, and more. You
can post a link to an article using the sharing or connectivity icons in the article or on the
webpage (Figure 2-66). If you are using Pinterest, you can select which graphic on the
webpage to display on your Pinterest board. You also can copy and paste a URL directly
document created
and into a Facebook post or Twitter tweet.
stored using
Google Docs
Google

Figure 1-10 Google Docs allows users to create, store, and share documents
online.

C8797_ch01_FINAL.indd 10 28/07/14 8:19 AM

@Source
sharing icons
© 2014 Microsoft

Each chapter includes multiple

@Source tips that encourage Figure 2-66 Sharing or connectivity icons enable you to share web content with your friends,
family, or contacts.
students to find more information
on topics by providing keywords For more information Saving a Webpage Image
@SOURCE

on U.S. copyright laws

on which to search. and how to ensure

you are following
While browsing the web, you might find an image that you want to save. Be aware
them when saving or of ownership and copyrights when saving and using webpage images. Most webpage
sharing web content images are the property of their owners. U.S. copyright laws protect content owners
and media, use a search from unauthorized copying and sharing of text, images, and other media. You cannot use
engine to search for
copyright-protected images without permission from the owner or source. Some images,
U.S. copyright laws
web content. such as many images found at U.S. government websites, are in the public domain. You
can use images in the public domain freely. You generally need to provide credit or source
information about the source of public domain images. Many websites that offer public
domain images also provide the wording for an image credit line.
Depending on your device or browser, you may be able to save an image, such
as the one shown in Figure 2-67. If you are using a Windows laptop or desktop, right-
click the image and then click the ‘Save picture as’ command on the shortcut menu.
If you are using a Macintosh or mobile device, your steps will vary. For example, many
mobile devices or computers with a touch screen will open a menu of commands,
including the option to save web content or media if you press and hold the image
or other content.

C8797_ch02.indd 72 05/09/14 12:48 PM

Using Browser Shortcuts to Visit Webpages 59

2
• Tap or click Bookmarks, or another similar command.
• Tap or click the Other folder link to open a new

Step-By-Step Instruction
folder (Figure 2-42)
Label text box

• In the Label text box, type Textbook links as

Step-by-step hands-on instructions the favorite name.

3
provide a context beyond the • Choose where to add the bookmark, if possible.
point-and-click. Each step provides • Enter Discovering the Internet as the
folder name.
information on why students are • Tap or click the Create or Save button to create the
performing each task, or what will
Other folder command
new Discovering the Internet folder.

• Tap or click the Save or Add button or another

occur as a result. appropriate button to add the favorite to the new
Discovering the Internet folder.

Figure 2-42

To Delete a Favorites Subfolder and Its Contents

When you no longer need a Favorites or Bookmarks subfolder or an individual favorite, you can delete it.
The following steps delete the Discovering the Internet folder and its contents.
1
• Click the Favorites button or
Bookmarks button, or open your
browser and open the browser
menu if you are using a mobile
device.

• Display your list of favorites and ‘Discovering the

Internet’ folder
subfolders.

• Tap or click the ‘Discovering

the Internet’ folder to select it
(Figure 2-43).
60 Chapter 2 Browsing the Web

Delete command

2
• Right-click the folder

Q&A • Click the Yes button,

if necessary, to
confirm the deletion.
Q&A boxes identify • Close the browser.
questions students may Can I organize
C8797_ch02.indd 59 05/09/14 12:47 PM
Q&A

my favorites or
have when working bookmarks?
Depending on your

through the steps and device or browser, you

likely can reorganize
them. Use a search
provide additional engine to search for
steps to organize

information about what favorites or bookmarks

for your browser or
device.
they are doing, right
© 2014 Dell

where they need it.

Figure 2-44

history
Another easy way to revisit a webpage is to use a history of the websites and
webpages you have visited during a specific number of days.
A History list displays a list of past browsing data. Your History list might contain
icons for websites visited several weeks ago, last week, and every day of the current week,
including today, depending on your settings. When you tap or click one of these icons,
a list of webpage folders might appear, or the website may open automatically. Each folder
represents a website visited during that time period. You can expand each website folder to
view links to the individual webpages viewed at the website.
You also can reorganize your view of the History list. Depending on your device or
browser, you might have options to view the History list by website, most visited, order
visited today, or more. Additionally, you may be able to search for previously viewed
webpages.

C8797_ch02.indd 60 05/09/14 12:47 PM

46 Chapter 2 Browsing the Web

Using a Webpage Search Feature and Clicking Links

Many websites include a keyword search feature to allow you to find a specific
webpage within a website. You can enter keywords in the search feature’s text box and
then tap or click a Search button to find webpages at the website that contain those key-
words. You will learn more about keyword searches in Chapter 3. Some websites, such
as The Weather Channel, have special search tools designed to find information organ-
ized by common categories, such as ZIP code, city, or state (Figure 2-17). Others, such as
Cengage.com, allow you to enter general information, such as a topic or author name, or
narrow your results to be more specific, such as by typing an ISBN, which is the unique
number assigned to every book.

© 1995-2014. The Weather Channel, LLC

weather.com® Licensed by TRUSTe
Search box

Figure 2-17

Web Ads
As you browse the web or use web or mobile particularly for children. According to

@Issue
apps, you may notice a barrage of advertise- research by Dr. Jakob Nielsen, a web usability
ments. Web advertisements can appear in pop- pioneer, children are less able than adults to
up windows in front of the webpage or app distinguish between web ads and content.
currently displayed or in pop-under windows When a child sees a cartoon character in an Each chapter includes one
that appear behind the browser window or
app. Although advertising revenue does offset
ad, for example, he or she likely will click the
ad expecting to see more cartoons. Using
or more @Issue sections that
many costs associated with creating webpages, an ad filter or blocker can help reduce the provide additional discussion
ads are generally considered inconvenient and likelihood that children will click ads and
bothersome by web users. Some advertise- navigate to webpages selling products and of important Internet and
ments with attention-grabbing sounds and services. Many ads contain malicious content
animation, called rich media ads, even appear that can introduce viruses, spyware, or other web issues.
right in the middle of or floating across the harmful programs or apps onto your computer
webpage or app you are viewing. Most visi- or device.
tors consider these approaches to web adver- Most current browsers include a feature
tising increasingly invasive, distracting, and that blocks pop-up ads; however, other kinds
bothersome. of ads, including rich media ads, may still
For these reasons, you may want to block appear. Check your device and browser settings
ads. Blocking or filtering ads is important to turn on filters and ad blocking tools.

Chapter Review 25

Like other types of Internet connections, digital satellite has some disadvantages.
Snow, rain, wind, or even clouds may affect the clarity of the signal. Furthermore, the
lengthy distance to the orbiting satellites can create a significant lag in the response time.
C8797_ch02.indd 46 The lag is not noticeable while
05/09/14browsing
12:47 PM webpages; but for communications such as

Chapter Review instant messaging or chat, which take place simultaneously, or in real time, the lag may be
noticeable.

A review of the Internet Chapter Review

and web concepts The Internet is a worldwide network of networks that individuals, institutions, and busi-
discussed in the chapter. nesses use to communicate, share information, and conduct business transactions. Using
the Internet enables people to acquire useful information; send and receive email and
text messages; exchange thoughts, photos, files, and links with others using social media;
and take advantage of the convenience e-commerce allows them when shopping and pay-
ing for items. Businesses conduct business transactions with their customers, vendors,
and employees over the Internet, and use social media to build a community and share
information.
The World Wide Web, also known as the web, is a subset of the Internet that sup-
ports webpages, which can include text, graphics, animation, sound, or video. A website
is a collection of related webpages. Webpages connect to each other through hyperlinks,
which enable a user to move from one webpage to another, on the same or another web-
site. A browser allows users to access and view webpages, while a search tool allows users
to find specific web-based resources.
The Internet has its roots in ARPANET, a research and defense initiative of
the U.S. government in collaboration with technology firms and universities. In 1990,
NSFNet superseded ARPANET as the main government network linking universities
and research facilities. The U.S. Congress opened the Internet to commercial use in 1992.
Tim Berners-Lee’s development of the Web in 1991 caused Internet usage to explode.
Berners-Lee developed the use of hyperlinks between different files, HTML to create
web documents, the addressing scheme, and the original WorldWideWeb browser.
In 1994, the first commercial web browser allowed businesses and individuals to discover
the possibilities available online, and the use of the Internet expanded rapidly.
Individuals and businesses use cable broadband, phone lines, or wireless connections
to access the Internet through a wide array of methods with varying speeds and costs.

Terms To Know
Chapter Review 85

A listing of the keywords

After reading this chapter, you should know each of these key Terms.
accelerator (63) Internet filter (80)
emphasized in the
add-on (63)
adware (83)
IP address (Internet Protocol
address) (38) chapter, including a
aggregator (64)
Atom (64)
malicious website (81)
name server (38) page number reference
AutoComplete (68) offline (71)
big data (81) personally identifiable information for each keyword.
bookmark (56) (PII) (82)
browser sniffing (37) portal (35)
client (37) privacy statement (82)
client/server computing (37) rich media ad (46)
cookie (82) RSS (Really Simple Syndication) (64)
country-code top-level domain secure connection (79)
(ccTLD) (39) Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) (79)
display area (42) server (37)
domain name (38) spyware (83)
Domain Name System (DNS) (39) static IP address (38)
dynamic IP address (38) tabbed browsing (50)
extension (63) top-level domain (TLD) (39)
favorite (56) Tracking Protection List (TPL) (79)
feed reader (64) Uniform Resource Locator (URL) (39)
firewall (77) virus (77)
hacker (76) web address (39)
History list (60) web bug (83)
home page (34) web content filter (80)
information privacy (81) web feed (64)
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names web portal (35)
and Numbers (ICANN) (39) zooming (80)
Test Your
Complete the Test Your knowledge exercises to solidify what you have learned Knowledge
in the chapter.
Ten true/false and ten
True or False multiple-choice questions,
Mark T for True and F for False. (Answers are found on page numbers in
parentheses.) including a page number
1. A client is an application that runs on a computer, such as a personal computer,
and requests resources or services from another computer. (37) reference for each
2. Advertisements with attention-grabbing sounds and animation are called
adware. (46)
question.
3. The protocol (http://) and the domain name in a URL are case sensitive. (40)
4. An add-on allows you to access web content or take some action based on
selected webpage text. (63)
5. A cookie is a small text file stored on a computer or device that can contain data, Chapter Review 29
such as a username, password, shipping address, or viewing preferences. (82)
6. A computer hacker is a small, potentially damaging computer program that can
infect a computer and then be passed to other computers. (76)
Investigate
7. A printed webpage often current
has a header andInternet developments
footer containing with
the name the Trends exercises.
of the
webpage, the page number, the webpage’s URL, and the date printed. (71)
Write a brief essay about each of the following trends, using the web as your research
tool. For each trend, identify at least one webpage URL used as a research source. Be
prepared to discuss your findings in class.
Exercises
1 Responsive Web Design
Trends, @Issue, Hands
C8797_ch02.indd 85 05/09/14 12:48 PM

Responsive web design (RWD) strategies optimize websites to be viewable on multiple On, and Team Approach
device types and screen sizes. Research guidelines and techniques for responsive web
design. Submit your findings in the format requested by your instructor. exercises require
2 HTML students to use the
Research the updates to each version of HTML, starting with the original version and
including major releases up to HTML 4.01. List two characteristics that differentiate each Internet and the web to
version, and find out (or guess) why the changes were made. List three expected changes
for HTML 5. Submit your findings in the format requested by your instructor. research issues or solve
problems.
@ISSUE
Challenge your perspective of Internet technology with the @Issue exercises.

Write a brief essay in response to the following issues, using the web as your research
tool. For each issue, identify at least one webpage URL used as a research source. Be
prepared to discuss your findings in class.

1 Impact on Lifestyle
With developments in technology such as smartphones, people are able to stay
connected constantly. Whether by phone calls, text messages, alerts from websites about
new content, or social networking websites such as Facebook and Twitter, technology
provides many distractions. How do these developments enhance daily life? How have
they changed daily life from 5 or 10 years ago? What is a negative impact? Discuss the
impact of technology on your lifestyle and that of those around you.

2 Social Networking
Summarize the use of social networking tools among your peers.
1. Survey five students who have accounts with at least one social networking website
(Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, or other websites).
2. Ask them to list the social networking websites they use.
3. Ask them the frequency with which they interact with each website: daily, weekly,
or multiple times per day.

FlirtyFinds

Introduction
Internet. Email. Web. Wi-Fi. RSS. VoIP. GPS. Hotspots. Blog. Cloud
computing. Social network. You most likely have heard and used many of
The Slate Group, LLC.

these terms and technologies. New developments constantly are emerging

that affect the way people communicate and collaborate with others, access
information, and purchase products and services.
In this chapter, you will learn the meaning of these and many other
Internet-related terms. You will discover some of the many ways people and
businesses use the Internet. You also will review the history of the Internet
reuseit®

and learn about the companies, technologies, and organizations that control
the Internet. Finally, you will learn how individuals and businesses connect
to the Internet.

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Define the Internet 3. Discuss the developments of the

Internet and the World Wide Web
2. Describe how individuals,
businesses, educational 4. Explain how individuals and
institutions, and businesses connect to the Internet
organizations use the
Internet

Defining the Internet

The Internet is a global network of computers and mobile devices that allows individuals
and businesses around the world to share information and other resources and conduct
business transactions. More specifically, the Internet is an interconnected network of net-
works, where each host — a computer directly connected to the Internet — has a number
of other computers and devices connected to it (Figure 1-1). When a user connects to the
Internet to access or share information and services, he or she is online.

Figure 1-1 The Internet is the largest computer network, connecting millions of computers and devices
around the world.
© Cengage Learning; © Mmaxer/Shutterstock.com; © Alfonso de Tomas/Shutterstock.com; © SSSCCC/Shutterstock. com; © iStockphoto/Petar
Chernaev; © amfoto/Shutterstock.com; © iStockphoto.com/scanrail; ©iStockphoto.com/Oleksiy Mark/scanrail; © iStockphoto/sweetym; Source:
Microsoft; © Oleksiy Mark/Shutterstock.com; Source: Cengage Learning; © iStockphoto/Stephen Krow; © Cengage Learning; © iStockphoto/
Skip O’Donnell; Source: Apple Inc; © iStockphoto/Skip O’Donnell; Source: Nutrition Blog Network; © iStockphoto/Ayaaz Rattansi; Source:
Microsoft; © Oleksiy Mark/Shutterstock.com; Source: Microsoft; © Cengage Learning;

All computers and mobile devices, including smartphones, tablets, home and busi-
ness personal computers, and supercomputers used by government and researchers, share
a common method of communicating known as a protocol. A protocol is a standard or set
of rules that computer network devices follow when transmitting and receiving data. Every
computer and device connected to the Internet uses Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP makes it possible for data to be transmitted to any
Internet-connected computer or device, regardless of operating system or device type. You
will learn more about TCP/IP and other Internet technologies in later chapters.
Internet communications travel across high-speed networks that connect net-
works around the world using fiber-optic cables, satellites, and other technologies.
Communication carriers operate these high-speed networks, which provide the Internet
framework.
Who owns the Internet?
Q&A

No single organization owns or controls the Internet. Several groups, such as the Internet Corporation
for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and the
Internet Society (ISOC), oversee and standardize the development of Internet technologies and manage
some Internet processes. To learn more about each of these organizations, use a search engine to search
for ICANN, IANA, or ISOC.
Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Using the Internet 3

Using the Internet

The Internet and the web significantly have influenced the way the world communicates,
educates, entertains, and conducts business. People use the Internet to search for infor-
mation, conduct academic or scientific research, conduct business, communicate, share
information or media, check news or weather, keep up with sports statistics, participate in
online training, shop, play games, and download books, music, or videos (Figure 1-2).

access information

send email

converse
with others

Figure 1-2 People around the world use the Internet in daily activities, such as accessing information,
sending and receiving email messages, and conversing with others from their computers and mobile
devices.
© Alex Staroseltsev / Shutterstock.com; Source: Microsoft; © iStockphoto / Petar Chernaev; Source: WeatherBug; © artjazz / Shutterstock.com;
Source: WebMD, LLC; © iStockphoto / Mikkel William Nielsen; © Jochen Tack / Alamy; © iStockphoto / pictafolio

Who Uses the Internet?

People in all occupations and stages of life use the Internet: students and teachers,
businesspeople and professionals, homemakers, children, and retirees. Individuals can use
the Internet to search for information on almost any topic — entertainment, sports, poli-
tics, science, art, history, and so forth. Medical professionals use the Internet to research
new drugs and current treatments, as well as to communicate with patients and to transfer
records electronically to other physicians. Families synchronize electronic calendars, send
text messages, find recipes, and schedule appointments. Politicians, celebrities, and other
public figures use social media and webpages to share news, events, and other information
with a community of followers. Consumers shop online, pay bills, make bank deposits and
transfers, and complete and submit their taxes online. Businesspeople and professionals
use the Internet to communicate with clients and colleagues whether at home or on the
road using email, text, chat, social networking, or video conferencing; work on office com-
puters from their laptops or mobile devices while traveling or telecommuting; view up-to-
the-minute business news; and check stock prices.

As part of research to mark the 25th anniversary of the World Wide Web, in
2014 the Pew Research published the following statistics: Nearly all Americans
who meet one or more of the following criteria have access to the Internet:
those who live in households earning $75,000 or more, young adults ages 18–29,
and those with college degrees.

Is the Internet’s People also use the Internet to publish blogs. Blogs can cover any topic, such as
Q&A

societal influence all humor or news. Many corporations and organizations use blogs to share news with inter-
good?
ested parties. Individuals or groups of individuals create general interest blogs to share
Being constantly
connected has its price. humorous stories or pictures, or write about current events. Millions of people go online
In the past, employees’ to share ideas and information by hosting and participating in blogs — a process called
workdays were finished blogging. Many blogs enable and encourage users to add comments to posts. Video
when they physically
sharing websites, sometimes called video blogging websites, such as YouTube and Vimeo,
left the office, but now
they can be expected to allow users to share and comment on personal and professional videos. Microblogging
keep on top of work- is sending brief text messages to subscribers, such as by using Twitter or other services to
related communication share status updates, links to articles, photos, and more.
during what used to New uses of the Internet continually are evolving, providing new and improved
be personal, family,
or leisure time. The
technologies for individuals and businesses.
compulsion to constantly
check social media,
sports scores, or text
Internet Activities
messages can have
The Internet supports a wide range of activities, including the following:
a negative effect on
human relationships. To • Browsing and searching for information
learn more, use a search
engine to search for • Communicating with others through email, text or video chat, social networking,
Internet’s negative effect. instant messaging, mailing lists, blogs and microblogs, and other media
• Downloading and uploading files
• Accessing remote computers or servers
• Conducting business activities
• Online shopping and bill payment
The following sections define and describe each of these activities:

THE WORLD WIDE WEB The World Wide Web, commonly called the web, is a Although some people

@SOURCE
use the terms Internet
subset of the Internet. The web includes a vast collection of documents called webpages,
and web interchangeably,
which can include text, pictures, sound, animation, or video. A website is a collection of the Internet and the
related webpages. Website examples (Figure 1-3) include college and university websites; web are not one and
corporate websites; websites for companies that sell products or services, such as Thirty- the same. The Internet
is a worldwide public
One; websites for nonprofit organizations, such as the Red Cross; and personal websites
network that links private
such as blogs. networks. The Internet
gives users access to
retail website nonprofit website a variety of resources
for communication,
research, file sharing, and
commerce. The web, a
subset of the Internet,
is just one of those
resources.

© Copyright 2014 The American Red Cross

Figure 1-3 Websites include college and university, corporate, retail, nonprofit, and personal sites.

A markup language is a coding system that uses tags to provide instructions about
the appearance, structure, and formatting of a document. Webpages use markup lan-
guages to define the layout and/or content of the pages. Web designers use Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) codes to define the layout and structure of a webpage. The
HTML markup language uses predefined codes called HTML tags to define the format
and organization of webpage elements (Figure 1-4). For example, the <html> ….</html>
tag pair indicates the beginning and the end of a webpage, respectively. The <b> ….</b>
HTML tag pair indicates the text between the tags is set in bold.

website in browser

HTML markup for website

FlirtyFinds

Figure 1-4 HTML tags define webpage elements.

When a webpage downloads into a browser, the browser reads and interprets the
HTML tags to display the page with organized and formatted text, images, and links.
Cascading style sheets (CSS) are documents that specify design aspects of a webpage,
such as fonts and colors. Other markup languages include XML, XHTML, and WML
(Figure 1-5).
Markup Languages

Language Description

Extensible Markup Language Uses both predefined and customized tags to facilitate the consistent sharing
(XML) of information, especially within large groups. Whereas HTML defines the
appearance and organization of webpage content, XML defines the content
itself. For example, using XML, a programmer can define the custom tag
<serialnum> to indicate that the information following the tag is a product
serial number.

Extensible Hypertext Markup A family of XML markup languages that mirrors or extends versions of HTML.
Language (XHTML) Webpages created using XHTML look better than HTML-coded webpages
when viewed on smartphones or other handheld computers, or by users of

Wireless Markup Language An XML-based markup language used to design webpages specifically for
(WML) mobile browsers. WML uses Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) to allow
Internet access by wireless devices.

Figure 1-5 Additional webpage markup languages.

You can create a webpage using a simple text editor program, such as Notepad, or
using WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) web authoring software, such as
Adobe Dreamweaver or an online content management system, such as WordPress. Web
authoring software automatically generates the appropriate HTML and CSS tags as the
user creates individual webpages that become part of a websites. To share a webpage or
website with others, you must upload, or publish, it to a web server so that other users
may access it. A web server is a computer that stores webpages. A content management
system, like web authoring software, also provides tools to generate webpages without
requiring the web designer to know how to code using HTML and CSS. In addition, a
content management system can provide access to a web server, and provide tools to mar-
ket a website and integrate website content with social networking platforms.

What is the current HTML standard?

Q&A

The most current HTML standard is HTML 4.01, which specifies, among other things, that HTML tags
must be in lowercase, surrounded by brackets, and inserted in pairs. HTML 5 is in draft format and is on
schedule for stable recommendation by the end of 2014.

What is the role of the W3C?

Q&A

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) sets standards for the web. The W3C, through an HTML
working group, continues to pursue advancements in the HTML standard. To learn more, use a search
engine to search for W3C.

You can access and view webpages, such as Slate, using a software program
called a web browser, or browser (Figure 1-6). Popular browsers for laptops and
PCs include Google ChromeTM, Mozilla Firefox®, Microsoft® Internet Explorer®,
and Apple® Safari®. Mobile web browsers often are proprietary to the device on which
they reside.

website in PC browser website in mobile

browser

The Slate Group, LLC.

Figure 1-6 The same webpage viewed in different browsers.

What is RWD?
Q&A

Responsive web design (RWD) is a web design strategy. The goal of RWD is to create websites that
adjust layout and, in some cases, content, to the device and screen displaying the webpages.

Webpages connect to other webpages using hyperlinks. A hyperlink, or link, is text

or a picture on a webpage, such as Gourmet.com, that you tap or click to view a different
location on the same webpage, another webpage at the same website (Figure 1-7), a web-
page at a different website, or to an email address, or PDF document.

home page
recipes link

webpage that opens

Figure 1-7 Webpages at the same website or across different websites are connected by links.

Exploring the web by moving from one webpage to another is sometimes called
browsing or surfing the web. For example, when planning a trip, you might first visit
an airline webpage and book a flight. Quite possibly, the airline webpage contains links
to other travel-related websites, so you could tap or click a link on the airline webpage to
visit a hotel webpage and book your accommodations. Finally, you tap or click a link on
the hotel webpage to view a webpage containing yet more links to restaurants and enter-
tainment venues near the hotel. When reading an article on a webpage, you often can find
background information or articles on related topics by tapping or clicking links within
the text of the article, or in a sidebar or list beside or below the article. In Chapter 2 you
will learn how to use a web browser to access webpages and how to tap or click hyperlinks
to view other webpages.

What is a scripting language?

Q&A

Scripting languages are programming languages used to write short programs, called scripts, that
execute in real time at the server or in the web browser when a webpage downloads. Scripts make
webpages dynamic and interactive by adding such features as multimedia, animation, and forms or by
connecting webpages to underlying databases.

What is an app?
Q&A

An app (short for application) is a software program. The term, app, typically refers to programs that
run on mobile devices (mobile apps), or the web (web apps). Apps are an integral part of Internet
technology.

What is Web 2.0?

Q&A

Web 2.0 technologies and practices are designed to make users’ web experiences interactive by
incorporating social media and user-driven content into web pages.

A search tool is a web-based resource that helps you find specific information on
the web. One type of search tool is a search engine, such as Google or Bing, which you
can use to search for webpages that contain specific keywords or phrases. Figure 1-8
illustrates a Google search results webpage. You will learn how to use search tools in
Chapter 3.

search results

search box
Google

Figure 1-8 Search tools allow users to find information on the web.

EMAIL AND OTHER COMMUNICATIONS TOOLS Individuals and organizations

of all types use websites to communicate ideas and information. Web communication
technologies include email, blogging, social networking, social bookmarking, chat, instant
messaging, virtual meetings and collaborative workspaces, video sharing, VoIP, interac-
tive gaming, and 3D virtual worlds. Email allows Internet users to send and receive
messages and files over a local computer network or the Internet. Sending an email
message is inexpensive, fast, and useful when compared to sending print mail or making
a phone call. You can send email when it is convenient for you, and the recipient can read
it and respond when it is convenient for him or her. You use an email program, such as
Microsoft Outlook® or web-based email, such as GmailTM to create, send, receive, and
manage email.
In addition to email, the Internet offers several other ways for individuals and
groups to communicate (Figure 1-9), including texting, instant messaging (IM), mobile
instant messaging (MIM), Internet Relay Chat (IRC), mailing lists, wikis, collaborative
workspaces, massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs), social networking, and social
bookmarking. These communications tools allow Internet users to connect with others
online to converse about a topic or an activity of interest, share information, conduct busi-
ness, and play games. You will learn more about email and other online communications
tools, including various online tools categorized as social media, in Chapter 4.

Internet Communication Methods

Must users be online
Online Communication Description at the same time?

Email Users send and receive text with or without No

attached files

Instant messaging (IM) and Two or more users take turns exchanging brief Yes
mobile instant messaging (MIM) messages

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) or Users type text into a chat window; all users Yes
chatting can see what other users type

Massive multiplayer online games Many users play online games simultaneously, Yes
(MMOGs) and can compete and interact with people all
over the world

Newsgroups and mailing lists Users subscribe to a newsgroup discussion No

or mailing list on a certain topic and receive
messages about that topic

Social bookmarking Users share web links to articles, videos, No

to organize their bookmarks

Social networking Users share status updates, microblogs, photos No

and video, links, and personal commentary
using a variety of online tools

Figure 1-9 The Internet offers many ways for people to communicate.

Perhaps the first person to send an email message who was not a computer
scientist was Queen Elizabeth II, who sent an email message on March 26, 1976
from an Army base.

Peer-to-peer media file sharing became popular in the late 1990s by websites
such as Napster that allowed individual users to upload music files and share
them with others, without permission from, or reimbursement for, the copyright
holder. Companies such as Rhapsody and Pandora offer subscription-based radio
and downloadable music files that are licensed by the copyright holders and
available to individual users.

cloud COMPUTING Remote data access, storage, software access, and collaboration
technologies are all aspects of cloud computing. Users of cloud computing can access
a variety of software and storage methods by using a computer or mobile device with
Internet access and browser software. Google DriveTM is an example of cloud computing.
Google Drive includes Google Docs, a group of software products available online,
including word processing (Figure 1-10), spreadsheet, and presentation software. When
logged on to Google Drive, a user can use the software to create a document, such as a
spreadsheet, save and store the document online, and share the document with o thers
to collaborate on changes — all without installing software on the user’s computer
or device.

share button

menus and toolbars

provide a familiar
user interface

document created
and stored using
Google Docs
Google

Figure 1-10 Google Docs allows users to create, store, and share documents
online.

Businesses can take advantage of many remote computing technologies to keep

employees productive while they travel, work from home, or interact with colleagues
located around the world. One technology is a virtual private network (VPN). A VPN
provides a secure, encrypted connection between a remote user and a local area network.
Web conferencing or video calling allows remote employees to participate in meetings,
training sessions, and more. Web conferencing is a broad term that can include using the
web to view slide show presentations, use live or streaming video, participate in surveys and
polls, communicate using text chat, or view the presenter’s screen using screen sharing.

What is Telnet?
Q&A

Telnet is a standard or protocol that allows users to log in and to access a remote computer, usually one
with significantly higher processing power. While the public typically does not use Telnet, it still has
many valuable uses. Computer system administrators, for example, can use Telnet to log in to a remote
computer to troubleshoot problems.

CONDUCTING BUSINESS ACTIVITIES Businesses and organizations that use the

Internet to generate a profit, promote their goods and services, or maintain goodwill
with their partners, members, or customers are engaged in e-business. E-business is a
broad term that includes electronically transmitted financial transactions, such as plac-
ing orders, sending invoices, or paying by credit card online. E-business also includes the
functions of supporting and enhancing business relationships by sharing information with
customers, suppliers, and employees. Although people often use the terms e-business and
e-commerce interchangeably, e-business can refer to any use of the Internet to conduct a
company’s business, whereas e-commerce refers to Internet use for the purpose of gener-
ating sales of goods or services, or creating and maintaining customer relations.
E-commerce websites can be categorized by the participants involved in the transac-
tions (Figure 1-11), such as businesses and consumers. Business-to-consumer (B2C) is

B2C website

B2B website

C2C website
reuseit®

Iron Mountain
Incorporated.

Etsy, Inc.

Figure 1-11 E-commerce involves all business transactions that use the Internet.

Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
173 5048 174 the boundary of a mass of matter; and
moreover the decrease in total accurmilated stress due to the aether
waves from all the atoms, as the moving point J>(x,y,z) enters the
body of density q, and leaves behind a part of the mass, — the
aether waves coming from the atoms of this shell from all directions
just balancing in a homogeneous sphere. But whatever the law of
density or form of the body, there is a change in the sum of the
second differentials of the potential at the boundary of the body,
from Laplace's to Foisson's, equation : Fig. 9. Curve of the potential
function V, showing its asymptotic decrease with the distance, and
the tendency to an asymptotic increase towards the centre; but
owing to finite dimensions of the mass, a gradual decline to zero.
This difference between Laplace's equation of the potential for free
space, and Foisson's corresponding equation for space filled with
matter of density q, owing to the intervention of boundary
conditions, is distinctly favorable to the wave-theory of physical
forces. We therefore presented the treatment of the wave equation
of Foisson S'^0/di'^ ^ (jr^yag) for free space, by the general
method of integration based on Fourier's theorem. This solution will
hold for waves of any initial wave length, propagated with the
velocity of light, from n bodies, in all parts of space, and everywhere
mutually interpenetrating so as to generate maximum tension in the
right lines connecting the n bodies in pairs, in accordance with the
observed phenomena of universal gravitation. If the solution will
hold for separate bodies, from which spherical waves are emitted, it
obviously will hold also for separate vibrating particles, within a
single body; but here the mathematical difficulty is increased, by
virtue of the unequal conductivity which heterogeneous solid bodies
offer to wave propagation; so that the expression of the effects of
the waves from the atoms would be infinitely complex. Yet the above
equation (57) gives the approximate representation of the
propagation of wave energy from atoms, which may be useful in
certain problems of molecular physics. The solution in (57) already
involves an infinitely complex integration, repeated «-times for the n
bodies of the universe. To include the initial waves of all possible
lengths, we should have to integrate this complex expression for (P
between the limitsi A = o; A = co, involving all possible periodicities,
the number of which is: « ^ [^/^]>.=o • Now, according to the
researches of Prof. Flanck on thermodynamic radiation, the energy E
of wave length X is given by the rather complex expression Ex^l =
{klFTl)l{e^l^^'^'^-i)-?.nFTl-Âl (84) which admits of integration
within certain limits. In this formula, F and T are the gas -constant
and absolute temperature, k = hV, V being the velocity of light, and
h is Flanck's new constant, h = 6.55 X io~^' ergs sees, so that if the
wave frequency be j', A = Vjv and x = klRTl = hvJFT. (85) And
Flanck's fundamental equation for the quantum of energy of v
frequency is e = fiv . (86) By the use of Planck's formula therefore
^^dA = 87rJ?rA-* [■*/(«*- i)]dA. (87) This integration, to take
account of the various wave lengths, could be carried out, but the
subject is iii too primitive a condition to be undertaken at present. 9.
A Definite Criterion for deciding between the Great and Small
Densities claimed for the Aether. In Section I of the first paper on
the new theory of the aether, we have cited the claim put forward by
certain electronists, that, on the hypothesis of incompressibility^ the
aether has a density 2000 million times that of lead. In his Aether of
Space, 1909, p. 91-105, Sir Oliver Lodge finds froni electrical theory
that the density of the aether is 10^^, a million million times that of
water. It is only fair to point out that as the aether transmits waves,
as in light, heat, magnetism, electrodynamic action, and radio
telegraphy, of the most varied length, and of various amplitudes, it is
not conceivable that it should be incompressible, so that the
dilatation is zero in the equation: 8 = da/dx-hdji/dy-i-dyjdz = o ' (88)
where a, fi, y, are the displacements, and by equation (63). For this
would make the wave velocity infinite, which is contrary to
observation. Accordingly,_whilst the aether is highly incompressible,
owing to the enormous velocity of the aetherons, and the resulting
kinetic elasticity, this medium certainly is not incompressible. In the
article Aether, Encyclopedia Britannica, ii'^'ed., igii, Prof. Sir Joseph
Larmor is more poised and cautious than the writers previously
cited, but his faith in the older theories is so shaken, that he
intimates that the ratio of the amplitude of the waves to the wave
length,' taken by Maxwell and Kelvin at about io~^, may be
enormously overestimated. Larmor adds: »It is not impossible that
the coefficient of ultimate inertia of the aether is greater than the
coefficient of inertia (of a different kind) of any existing substance*;
which shows his tendency to an abandonment of the older theory,
under the teachings of the electron theorists. It thus appears that
the excessively small density, found by Kelvin and Maxwell, namely,
about lo""^*, or my own value at the earth's mean distance
438X10^^^ is opposed by the modern teaching in favor of an
enormous density, about 10^'^, as stated by Sir Oliver Lodge. The
difference
175 5048 I 76 between the two results presents an
en6rmous contrast, name!)' the almost unlimited factor: Fwith the
value of Kelvin and Maxwell; , , ,80'- --.. .-. (89) with See'i value. 10
== 0.0023 X 10 Accordingly, progress is nearly impossible with this
irreconcilable difference of opinion among the learned. Brooks and
Poyser, as representatives of the opinion of the electronists, state:
»There is no intrinsic difficulty in either view, but at present (19 12)
no method is known by which we may hope to discriminate between
them.« The present writer has therefore labored to develop a
criterion for the rejection of one of tTiese competing values, which
would leave the other in possession of the field. Besides the ''above
criticism, that the finite velocity of wave propagation excludes the
incoropressibility of the medium, I have given in the Observatory,
Nov. 19 18, p. 411— 412, a brief discussion of the consequence of
the intolerable disagreement in the values of the •aether density. A
simple calculation has enabled me to exclude Lodge'i density as
wholly inadmissible, because if true the energy of the waves from
the sun'falling upon a single square centimetre of the earth's surface
would be able to yaporize the entire terrestrial globe in less than one
minute of time, when ' we use Bigeloiu'% value of the constant of
solar radiation, arid Kelvin and Maxwell's density. The mass of the
earth is 5956292000000000000000 metric tons. If we take the
average specific heat of the globe at 0.2, and the vaporizing point of
its average matter at 3000° C, the total amount of heat required to
reduce it to vapour — the interior being assumed to be without heat
— would be H = 5.g56292X lo--'- (0.2 X 3000) X 1 000000 calories,
= 6X 5.956292 X 10^" = 3.6 X 10^", nearly. (90) Now
Bigelow\\'^\\\t of the solar constant is 3.98 cal. per minute, or
0.0663 cal. per second; and, as Lodge's value of the density of the
aether is about 10^° that above cited from Kelvin sxiA. Maxwell, and
0.0023X10'*'' times my own value,^ we have for the effect of such
an increase in density the raising of the solar radiation by the factor
lo'"': H=^ 0.0663X 10'" = 6.63X 10^^, Kelvin 2.ud Maxwell or ZT^^
(0.0663X0. oo23)x 10^", with Sees value The first of these values
would vaporize the earth in' 54 seconds of time, the second in 0.277
of a day. But in nature this vaporization does not occur, and thus we
conclude that the density of the aether stands at a value near that
fixed by Kelvin and Maxwell many years ago, but slightly improved in
the writer's new theory of the aether. In the Observatory, for Dec,
igi8, p. 446, Sir Oliver Lodge has attempted to reply to my criticism
by pointing out that the energy of the solar radiation depends on the
amplitude of the wave, compared to the wave length, which with
Kelvin and Maxwell I took at io~^, a value pronounced by Sir Joseph
Larmor (in the article Aether, p. 292) »a very safe limit*. Lodge also
adds: »many facts have suggested that the amplitude of the most
brilliant light is exceedingly small compared with its wave length*.
(9^ Now if any good ground can be adduced for decreasing the ratio
of the amplitude to the wave-length, I am willing to consider such a
modification in the belief of the most eminent physicists, — such as
Kelvin, Maxwell, Larmor — but it should be pointed out that to make
the reconciliation of the extreme values complfete, the ratio of the
amplitude to the wave- length will have to be lowered by the
enormous factor ' p^ ,0^30 (g2) so that AlX now taken at io~^,
would become ^'A = Io-3^ (93) The difficulty of this extreme step is
so great that I dismiss it as quite inadmissible. Until new evidence,
resting on ground more secure than mere assumption, is available it
must be held that Sir Oliver Lodge's attempt to reply to this criticism
completely breaks down. For even if we took All = 10-=, or .4/1=
10-'' (94) — which are values looo or loooo times more extreme than
appealed to the experienced judgements of Lord Kelvin, Maxivell and
Lannor, — the required factor would scarcely be reduced in a
sensible degree; and practical experience in physical science
certainly would not justify us in exceeding the limit of lo"'' As a final
argument against the electrical theory, assigning the aether a
density of 2000 million times that of lead (namely: i 1.352 X
2000000000 = 22704000000000 times that of water!), we may
recall the fainiliar experience of a man swimming in water. Here the
swimmer is immersed in an inert liquid of about the same density as
his body; yet to move about a strong exertion is required of the
most, powerful muscles, completely under the control of the will. If
the liquid had the density of quicksilver, the swimmer would scarcely
sink down to his boot-tops, and his muscles would be altogether too
feeble to displace ■ such an inert and heavy liquid, if he were
required to move through it: yet he could walk over such a magma,
by great effort, analogous to that required when we walk in very
yielding volcanic ashes. Now the density of mercury (13.6) is a little
greater than that of lead (11.352), but the moment we consider an
aether 2000000000 times denser than lead, we perceive the
culmination of absurdity 1 Even if it penetrated all bodies quite
perfectly, and gave equal pressure on all sides, still some
displacement of the particles would be required when we move
about in it, as in the case of water displaced by a swimnîer.
Obviously no living physical body would be capable of displacing
such a dense medium; and we see that even the strongest stars,
planets and comets would be dispersed to atoms under the changing
resistance such a medium would interpose to their variously
accelerated motions. The electrical theory assigning the aether a
density 22704000000000 greater than that of water is therefore the
best possible illustration of a physical Reductio ad Absurdum, and we
know that either some premise or some
177 5048 178 link in the chain of reasoning eventually will
not bear investigation ■"■). In the article Aether, Encyclopedia
Britannica, ii'*'ed., 19 1 1, Prof. %vs: Joseph Larmor concludes that
we must treat the aether as a plenum. Under the influence of
electrical theory, he even speaks as if the aether were not molecular.
In discussing the transparency of the celestial spaces, — to which
much attention was given by Cheseux and Olbers, W. Herschei and
W. Struve — (cf. Etudes d'Astron. stelL, St. Pdtersbourg, 1847) —
Larmor first recalls the well known transparency of space shown by
astronomical research, and then adds : »If the aether were itself ,
Constituted of discrete molecules, on the model of material bodies^
such transparency would not be conceivable. We must be content to
treat the aether as a plenum, which places it in a class by itself; and
we thus recognize that it may behave very differently from matter,
though in some manner consistent with itself, — a remark which is
fundamental in the modern theory:* The first part of this reasoning
apparently implies that the aether is not molecular, at least »on the
model of ma.terial bodies«. This may be correct in part, because no
one would suppose the aether to be made up of complex molecules,
underlaid by a finer medium, such as the aether is to the more
complex masses of common matter. On the other hand there is not
the smallest objection to an aethereal medium made up of spherical
perfectly elastic monatomic elements, so called aetherons, having a
diameter of I:4oo5'^ of a hydrogen molecule, and a mass of 15.56
millionths pf a millionth of such a molecule, such as we show do
really exist. As no finer medium would underly such a monatomic
aether, it coiild not dissipate the energy of wave motion, »on the
model of material bodies*, and thus it would fulfill Larmor's
condition of a plenum. This would give such an excessively fine
monatomic molecular structure that the medium would penetrate all
material bodies, but waves in such an aether would be very
noticeably retarded in solid or liquid bodies, and much less so in
gases, in accordance with physical experience. That the aether must
necessarily be molecular Tollows at once from our every day
experience with such granular bodies as fine gravel, grains of corn,
sand, shot or mustard seed. If we fill a glass vessel with such coarse
granular masses, and insert the fingers or any solid body, such as a
rod, into the granules, we perceive that they are thrust aside to
make way for the hand or solid rod. If we fill the vessel with water,
oil, alcohol, ether, or any similar liquid, our experience in such
displacement is the same. The liquid is visibly thrust aside and this
holds even when the molecular structure is relatively so fine that a
drop of water might be magnified to the dimensions of the earth
without exhibiting the molecules of larger size than footballs, — as
shown by Lord Kelvin in his well kiiown researches on the size of
atoms. But it will be said that the aether penetrates all bodies, and
thus we cannot sensibly displace it, as we can water, oil, alcohol or
ether. We reply that it is -perfectly true that the aether penetrates
freely all bodies, even the dense and' highly elastic or rigid masses
of the earth, sun and stars, almost as if their molecular structure
were absent: yet we learn from the phenomena of refraction and
diffraction in our laboratories, that light waves in the aether are very
perceptibly retarded in their motions through transparent bodies;
and in our investigation of celestial phenomena, we find from the
investigation of the motion of the moon that the sun's gravitational
'waves, though of such length as to pass through the earth, are yet
sensibly Refracted; and perhaps dispersed or partially absorbed at
the time of total eclipses of the moon, — whence arises the
fluctuations of the moon's mean motion established by Newcomb in
1909, and explained by the present writer in 19 16, (cf. Electrod.
Wave-Theory of Phys. Forces, vol. i). From these considerations it
appears that we have both terrestrial and celestial evidence that the
aether is molecular, but of such excessively fine grained structure
that no finer "rnedium whatever underlies it: thiis it penetrates all
bodies freely, under an elastic power, or expansive tendency, 68932
1600000, tirries greater than our atmosphere exhibits in proportion
to its density, as more fully shown in the first paper, sect. 4. 10. The
Kinetic Theory of the Aether accords with the Views o{ Newton,
1721, and oi Maxwell, 1877. In order to further illuminate the above
discussion we may recall the earlier though little known views of
Newton and Maxwell, on the physical constitution of the aether. a)
Views of Sir Zr««(:iVi'2
179 5048 i8o perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of
those great Bodies toward one another, and of their parts towards
the Bodies; every Body endeavouring to go from the denser parts of
the Medium towards the rarer ? For if this Medium be rarer within
the Sun's Body than at its surface, and rarer there than at the
hundredth part of an inch from its Body and rarer there than at the
fiftieth part of an inch from its Body, and rarer there than at the Orb
of Saturn; I see no reason why the increase of density should stop
anywhere, and not rather be continued through all distances from
the Sun to Saturn, and beyond. And though this Increase of density
may at great distances be exceeding slow, yet if the elastick force of
this medium be exceeding great, it may suffice to impel Bodies from
the denser parts of the Medium towards the rarer, with all that
power which we call Gravity. And that the elastick force of this
Medium is exceeding great, may be gathered from the swiftness of
its Vibrations. Sounds move about 1140 English feet in a Second
Minute of Time, and in seven or eight Minutes of Time they move
about one hundred English Miles. Light moves from the Sun to us in
about seven or eight Minutes' of Time, which distance is ^bout
70000000 English Miles, supposing the horizontal Parallax of the Sun
to be about 12". And the Vibrations or Pulses of this Medium that
they may cause the alternate Fits of easy Transmission and easy
Reflexion, must be swifter than Light, and by consequence above
700000 times swifter than Sounds. And therefore the elastick force
of this Medium, in proportion to its density, must be above 700000
times 700000 (that is above 490000000000) times greater than the
elastic force of the Air in proportion to its density. For the Velocities
of the Pulses of elastic Mediums are in a sub-duplicate Ratio of the
Elasticities and the Rarities of the Mediums taken together.* »As
Attraction is stronger in small Magnets than in great ones in
proportion to their bulk, and Gravity is greater in the surfaces of
small Planets than in those of- great ones in proportion to their bulk,
and small Bodies are agitated much more by electric attraction than
great ones; so the smallness of the Rays of Light may contribute
very much to the power of the Agent by which they are refracted.
And so if any one should suppose that Aether (like our Air) may
contain Particles which endeavour to recede from one another (for I
do not know what this Aether is) and that its Particles are
exceedingly smaller than those of Air, or even than those of Light:
The exceeding smallness of its Particles may contribute to the
greatness of the force by which those Particles may recede from one
another, and thereby make that Medium exceedingly more rare and
elastick than Air, and by consequence exceedingly less able to resist
the motions of Projectiles, and exceedingly more abl6 to press upon
gross Bodies, by endeavouring to expand itself. « »Qu. 22. May not
Planets and Comets, and all gross Bodies, perform their Motions
more freely, and with less resistance in the Aethereal Medium than
in any Fluid, which fills all Space adequately without leaving any
Pores, and by consequence is much denser than Quick-silver or Gold
? For instance; If this Aether (for so I will call it) should be supposed
700000 times more elastic than our Air, and 700000 times more
rare; its resistance would be above 600000000 times less than that
of Water. And so small a resistance would scarce make any sensible
alteration in the Motions of the Planets in ten thousand years.* In
Newton' % views above quoted, Qu. 20, dating from 172 1, it will be
noticed that he not only held the aether to be a superfine gas, of
enormous elasticity, but also calculated this elastic power to be ^7 =
490000000000 times greater than that of air in proportion to its
density. By the most careful calculations that can be made today, we
find this relative elastic power to be « = 689321600000; which
shows that the value found by Newton two centuries ago was 7 I
percent correct, — a wonderfully accurate result, even for so
incomparable a geometer as Newton\ His remarks in Qu. 22 have
been raisconstructed by Sir (9/zwr Z^4fr (Introduction to his »
Aether of Space «, 1909), in an effort to make it appear that Newton
held the aether to have a large density, but the context shows the
misconstruction involved in this claim. When Newton says that there
is "less resistance (to the planets) in the aethereal medium than in
any fluid which fills all space adequately without leaving any pores,
and by consequence is much denser than quick-silver or gold?«, he
means that the aether is very fine grained, more so than any
material fluid like quick-silver or gold, which has pores. He thus held
the aether to be so fine grained that it could truly act as a plenum,
yet assigned this medium excessively small density. »Maynotits
resistance be so small as to be inconsiderable ? For instance : If this
aether (for so I will call it) should be supposed 700000 times more
elastic than our air, and above 700000. times more rare« — which
shows clearly that Newton's value of the density of the aether is : a
= Y7 0.ooi293>
I8i 5048 182 The vector property, such as rotation about an
axis, which Maxwell supposes might be impressed on the aether
molecules, will be furnished by the wave motion in the aether, when
the waves are taken to be flat in the planes of the equators of
ordinary atoms. This is shown in the theory of magnetism outlined in
the first paper, and will be treated of more fully in the third paper, in
connection with a correction to the fundamental conceptions of the
wave -theory of light. II. Under the Kinetic Theory of the Aether
Michelsori% Celebrated Experiment of 1887 should yield a Negative
Result. New Theory of Stellar Aberration based on the Motion of
Light relatively to the moving Earth. In. tke Philosophical Magazine
for ,1887, Prof Michelson describes the famous experiment which he
devised to detect the effect of a supposed aether drift past the
earth, due to an assumed effect of the earth's orbital motion. In this
experiment a beam of light, from a terrestrial source, is split into two
parts, one of which is sent to and fro across the line of the supposed
aether drift, while the other is 'sent along the line of the aether drift.
A semi-transparent mirror set at a 45° angle is employed to split the
beam, and a pair of normal and ordinary mirrors set perpendicular to
the two half beams, are employed to return the half beams whence
they came, thus enabling them to enter the observer's eye through a
telescope. W\ N /' // f/ / / Fig. 10. Illustration of the paths of the
split beam of light in Michelson'i experiment of 1887, one part
traveling along the direction of the earth's orbital motion, the other
at right angles thereto. The apparatus was mounted on a stone
support about 4 feet square, and one foot thick, and this stone in
turn mounted on a circular disk of wood which floated in a tank of
mercury. The resistance to rotation of the floating disk is very small,
and a slight pressure on the circumference enables the observer to
turn it around in say five minutes, with practically no oscillation. The
path of the light, from a terrestrial source, is thus made parallel and
perpendicular to the direction of the earth's orbital motion ; and the
two half beams mutually interchanged for observation of the relative
displacement of the interference fringes. In his work on Light Waves
and their Uses, 1903, p. 158, Michelson sums up his experience
thus: »It was found that there was no displacement of the
interference fringes, so that the result of the experiment was
negative and would, therefore, show that there still is a difficulty in
the theory itself; and this difficulty, I may say, has not been
satisfactorily explained*. By the reasoning given below, in describing
Fitzgerald^^ hypothesis, sect. 12, it is shown that the effect sought
is very small, depending on the square of vjc = i/ioooo, the ratio of
the velocity of the earth in its orbit to the velocity of light, and thus
of the order of i : 100 000 000. But Michelson estimates that by his
improved apparatus he could see fringe displacements of i part in
4000000000 if they existed; and thus the precision of the apparatus
exceeded the magnitude of the fringe displacement sought by forty
fold. On repeated trial, under favorable conditions, everything
behaved exactly as if the aet"her were stagnant. Michelson therefore
suspected the difficulty to be in the theory itself; and we shall now
examine into this question, to see if any ground for this impression
can be found. Owing to the translatory motion of the earth, we may
change the fixed Newtonian coordinates to correspond to uniform
motion in the direction of the x-axis: x' = X — vt y' = y z' == z f ^ t
. (96) At the initial epoch t = o, we may equate these coordinates to
zero, and our transformations, owing to the motion of the earth,
become: vt) y = 3^y^ g' = CiZi. (97) ai [XSince the velocity of light
is the same in reference to the fixed and moveable systems of
coordinates, at the instant t ^ f = o, we . get for identities of the
spherical wave surfaces propagated from the moving source of light
: x^^y^-^z'^ = c'ê x'^-hy'^-^z'-^ = c^ f^ (98)where c is the
velocity of light. Under the kinetic theory any heavenly body carries
an electrodynamic wave-field about its Centre of figure, in perfect
kinetic equilibrium. The amplitude of the waves and therefore the
density of the aether is arranged as shown in the accompanying
diagram (p. 183), where the two stars may have the independent
motions indicated by the vectors. The motion of either star
automatically carries with it that star's own wavefield, and each field
is independent of the other, just as the field of light waves emitted
by any star is independent of that propagated from any other star.
Hence owing to the earth's orbital motion we have the phenomenon
of stellar aberration, as if the aether were really stagnant, because
the wave -field has no motion relatively to the earth, though the
earth itself moves, and thus generates the aberration, as follows:
183 5048 ./ < Fig. 1 1 .' Illustration of the proper motion of
two stars which carry with them concentric wave-fields in perfect
kinetic equilibrium, just as they carry their spheres of gravitational
influence due to these waves. There is thus no such thing as a
motion of the aether past the earth, in the sense imagined by
Young, ■ 1803, who compared the aether, supposed to be streaming
through the earth, to the wind blowing through the tops of trees.
The light from a distant star travels independently of the motion of
Jhe earth and of its moving aether wave-field. Hence to take account
of the earth's forward motion, in respect to space, we may imagine
the parallel rays of light from the star to be given a backward motion
Si identical with the forward motion of the earth, £/. This is the true
motion of the light relatively to the moving earth, and by this simple
device, stellar aberration is perfectly explained. The light actually
comes from the direction ^5, and a refractive medium in the path
will have no effect whatever. 184 wave-field in kinetic equilibrium,
moves with the earth, and the gravitational potential depends on the
integration of all these wavelets between the limits —00 to -Hoo.
Thus the triple integral for the potential' corresponds to a trebly
infinite system of wavelets due to stresses decreasing with the
distance, yet superposed at. all points of space, but the potential for
any body itself is finite, as in the theory of action at a distance. Xdx
djf dz . Some of the individual wave from any one particle become,
(99) surfaces x"^-hy"''r9 Fig. 12. A direct and simple explanation of
the phenomenon of stellar aberration, based on the motion of light
relatively to the moving earth. rThe reasoning o^ KUnkerfues, about
the refractive index of the medium in which the light penetrates,
does not deal -with the motion of the light relatively to the moving
earth, and thus has no bearing on the subject. And likewise Airy^
observational experiment, with the zenith telescope tube 36 inches
long, filled with water (Greenwich Observations, 187 i, p. 1-16), is
misapplied ingenuity^). The negative results obtained by these
authorities is proof of the correctness of the simple view here set
forth. Accordingly, just as each star carries its own wave-field with it,
so also, each particle of vibrating matter in the earth, sends out its
system of spherical waves, and the whole The individual wave
surfaces parallel displacement in space,, v 2^2= f2/-2. have a
common and dsldt = 30 kins, owing to. the orbital motion of the
earth. Yet the stress of the aether, in kinetic equilibrium, is
determined by the compounding of the effects of the waves
emanating from the earth. This fixes the density and rigidity of the
aether, which is arranged symmetrically about the vibrating particles
of the globe. Accordingly, under the kinetic theory, the aether is
stagnant in respect to the moving earth, precisely as found by
Michelsop in his celebrated experiment of 1887. Hence no theory but
the kinetic theory, with the particles moving 1.57 times faster than
light, can be admitted. This follows at once from our investigation of
the enormous elasticity of the aether, which gives the physical cause
of the observed velocity of 300000 kms per second, for the wave
motions constituting light and electricity. Thus it only remains to
state clearly the kinetic hypothesis underlying the wave-theory of
physical forces, naraelyr We conceive all atoms of matter to receive
and to emi.t waves, without regard to the motion of these atoms
relatively to other atoms, just as we know the stars emit their typical
spectral lines in spite of their proper motions in space. Accordingly,
as the Aether corpuscles have the enormous velocity of 471000 kms
per second, this medium is taken to be in kinetic equilibrium about
the moving earth, which will secure the law of density a ^ v r, and of
wave amplitude A == k/r. For the .aether has an elasticity
689321600000 times greater than that of our air in proportion to its
density, and if any lack of perfect kinetic equilibrium existed, it would
disappear from ' the aethereal envelope of the earth ') Though I
have examined many authorities I can find no satisfactory
explanation of the aberration. They are all confused, by some such
reasoning as the following, from Michehoji's Light Waves and their
Uses, 1903, p. 151; »The objection to this explanation [Bradley's)
was, however, raised that if this angle (so'.'s) were the ratio of the
velocity of the earth in its orbit to the velocity of light, and if we
filled a telescope with water, in which the velocity of light is known
to be only three-fourths of what it is in air, it would take one and
one-third .times as long for the light to pass from the center of the
objective to the cross-wires, and hence we ought to observe, not the
actual angle, of aberration, but one which should, be one-third
greater. The experiment was actually tried. A telescope was filled
with water, and observations on various stars were continued
throughout the greater part of the year, with the result that almost
exactly the same value was found for the angle of aberration. «
i85 5048 186 in an infinite!}' small fraction of a second,
owing to the mean velocity of the aetherons being 47 1000 kms per
second. 12. Sir Oliver Lodged Experiments for detecting the Viscosity
of the Aether, 1891-97, and Fitzgerald'^ Hypothesis of a contraction
of the dimensions of bodies in the direction of their motion. .In the
Philosophical Transactions, 1893-97, Sir Oliver Lodge describes
elaborate experiments with revolving steel disks, about a meter in
diameter, which he had spun with the highest possible speed, in
close proximity to a split beam of light, arranged as in Michelson's
experiment of 1887, in the hope of discovering a relative
displacement of the fringes, due to viscosity of the aether. The
experiment was well conceived, and executed with great skill, but it
failed to give the smallest indication of a displaicement such as
viscosity of the aether would be supposed to yield. The results were
entirely negative, and Lodge, like Mickelson, could only conclude
that the aether behaves as if it were absolutely stagnantLet us now
consider why the negative results oi Mickelson and Lodge follow, if
the aether be a kinetic medium such as Newton, Maxwell and Dr. ^.
Tolver Preston conceived it to be, and such as we have found it to be
by exact calculations. If the aether be corpuscular, the particles
having a velocity 1.57 times that of light, it is obvious that it will
adjust itself instantly to any state of steady motion, and that this
kinetic equilibrium will be obtained more rapidly than even the
propagation of light. And when Sir Oliver Lodge's moving disk is
revol-îng steadily, the aether will act as if it were absolutely
stagnant. Fig. 13. Illustration of Sir Olive?- Lodge's, apparatus for
effecting a displacement pf the aether, owing to viscosity, by the
rapid rotation of disks of steel, near which a split beam of light is
passed. Hence the conclusion reached by Sir Oliver Lodge (Aether of
Space, p. 82), as to the revolving disk experiments, was natural
enough and quite justified in the premises, when he declared: »I do
not believe the ether moves. It does not move at a five-hundredth
part of the speed of the steel disks. Further experience confirms and
strengthens this estimate, and my conclusion is that such things as
circular -saws, flywheels, railway trains, and all ordinary masses of
matter do not appreciably carry the ether with them. Their motion
does not seem to disturb it in the least. « »The presumption is that
the same is true for the earth; but the earth is a big body — it is
conceivable that so great a mass may be able to act when a small
mass would fail. 1 would not like to be too sure about the earth — at
least, not on a strictly experimental basis. What I do feel sure of is
that if moving matter disturbs ether in its neighborhood at'all, it does
so by some minute action, comparable in amount perhaps to
gravitation, and possibly by means of the same property as that to
which gravitation is due — not by anything that can fairly be likened
to etherial viscosity. So far as experiment has gone, our conclusion is
that the viscosity or fluid friction of the ether is zero. And that is an
entirely reasonable conclusion.* In view of our theory of a kinetic
medium, we may now go further than Fresnel, Mickelson and Sir
Oliver Lodge, and declare that as the corpuscular aether, readjusts
itself instantly to any state of steady motion, it follows that the
motion of the earth can in no way disturb it. There is planetary
induction indeed, from the wave-effect due to the relative motion of
the sun and earth, but this is observable only by magnetic
instruments, and , not by means of other apparatus used in physical
experiments. If, as is definitely proved by calculation, the aether has
an elasticity 689321600000 times greater than that ofour air in
proportion to its density, it is obvious that it not only penetrates all
bodies, but even the- electrodynamic waves in the aether may
traverse the body of the terrestrialglobe with only a small resistance,
giving merely refraction, dispersion, and perhaps absorption, of part
of the energy, as we have shown iri the theory of the lunar
fluctuations (Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. I, 1917). , It
not only follows that this adjustment of the aether to any state of
steady motion will occur, but also that no power in the universe
could prevent such, a kinetic adjustment, in theall-pervading
medium, under the above stupendous elastic power which it exerts
against itself. "It is thereby .rendered almost incompressible, the
waves traveling with a velocity of 300000 kms per second. The
physical meaning of such rapid propagation of. waves is this: When
a wave begins to be generated, the disturbance speeds away very
rapidly, so that the- movement . is not cyclicly complete until a wave
length X has been traversed.. . As the amplitude a is very small,
compared to /., — as Lord Kelvin, Maxwell and Larmor have shown,
— it follows that the aether is nearly incompressible, though the
density at the sun's surface is only (T ^ ^.oX io~^* . These last
considerations also show why we cannot disturb the aether by
revolving. disk experiuients. Accordingly it is not remarkable that
Prof F. E: Nipker, of St. Louis, has ^succeeded in disturbing the
aether only by means of explosions of dynamite, an explosive of
enormous power and excessively quick action. ' This not only shows
the futiliiV of viscosity "experiments, with comparatively slow, steady
motions, as when the revolving disks, a meter in diaineter, make 66
rotations in a second -^j, but also confirms the _') This is only i
12356195 of the velocity of the aetheron, 471239000 m per second.
5048 ;88 extremely rapid readjustment of the aether when
disturbed. Therefore it follows that our theory of a kinetic medium,
with the particles traveling 1.57 times faster than light, is in
accordance with all the established facts of observation. After giving
a summary of all the known effects (Aether of Space, p. 62-63),
Lodge concludes that the aether behaves under experiment as if it
were stagnant with respect to the earth. »Well then, perhaps it is
stagnant. The experiments 1 have quoted do not prove that it is so.
They are equally consistent with its perfect freedom and with its
absolute stagnation, though they are not consistent with any
intermediate position. Certainly, if the aether were stagnant nothing
could be simpler than their explanation. « The new theory of the
aether as a kinetic medium gives the stagnant quality sought by
Michelson and Lodge, yet it preserves the »perfect freedom* with
which the experiments are consistent. Accordingly, the aether being
a perfectly elastic corpuscular medium, always adjusting its internal
stresses with at least the velocity of light — the individual particles
having a velocity of 1.57 times greater yet, — it follows that around
a body moving with uniform velocity there could be exerted no
sustained forces, impressed or acting upon the atoms, to alter the
linear dimensions of the uniformly moving body; and hence we
reject Fifzgerald'% hypothesis as altogether misleading. i^/fe,f
i89 5048 190 aether. There are indeed profound reasons
why the aether should act as , if it were absolutely stagnant,
whereas the particles . really move 1.57 times faster than Hght, and
thus the medium instantly adjusts itself to any state of steady
motion, whatever it may be; because the motion of the aetheron is
10000 fold.fastej than that of our swiftest planets, and over two
millions of times faster than any steady artificial motions which we
can make experimentally, as in. the researches of Sir Oliver Lodge
with rapidly revolving disks of steel. On the old hypotheses the
Michelson-Morley experiment of 1887 was admirably adapted to
detect the effect of the earth's motion through the aether. Little did
these eminent experimenters - dream that the earth carried its
wave-field of aether with it, — aU infinitely extended and adjusted in
perfect kinetic equilibrium. This wave-field has decreased density
towards the centre, in virtue of the increased amplitudes of the
waves emanating from the atoms, and thus is truly stagnant about
the moving earth in respect of waves of light from distant stars, in
the phenomenon of aberration. Accordingly, whether the
components of the split beam of light, from a terrestrial source, as
used by Michelson, travel in the. direction of the earth's orbital
motion, or . at right angles thereto, no shift of the fringes is
theoretically possible, because of the perfect kinetic equilibrium of
the wave-field of the aether about the earth and extending away
from it indefinitely;. For similar reasons Fitzgerald' % hypothesis
rests on a false premise, and only beclouds the reasoning in this
difficult subject. The fundamental condition required for real
progress is a valid kinetic theory of the aether, such as Newton first
outlined two hundred years ago, and Maxwell approved in 1877, but
left very incomplete, owing to the premature death of this great
mathematician. Since the difficulties connected with the motion of
the perihelion of Mercury and of the lunar perigee, as well as the
lunar fluctuations, which Newcomb pronounced the most enigmatical
phenomena presented by the ' celestial motions, are fully overcome,
without any mystical doctrine such as Einstein introduces, it is
evident that the whole theory of relativity, as heretofore developed,
is shaken to its foundations, and will no longer deserve the serious
consideration of natural philosophers. For several years experienced
investigators in all parts of the world have wondered at the strange
sight presented by British men of science in unjustifiably abandoning
the established natural philosophy of Newton, and hastily embracing
the untenable speculations of Einstein when the facts of observation
themselves are insecurely established. And as for the overdrawn
statement of Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, President of the Royal Society,
that the supposed larger value of the solar deflection of light
indicated by the eclipse observations of May 2g, .1919, »is,the most
important result obtained in connection with the theory of
gravitation •imch- Newton'^ day, and it- is fitting that it should be
announced at a meeting. of the society' so closely connected with
him«, it suffices to call attention to the unfortunate impression thus
conveyed to investigators, who remember on the one hand the
historical fact that the Royal Society in 1686 refused to publish 1)
Newton's Principia, and thus it had to be issued at the private
expense of Dr. Edmund Halley (cf Brewster's Life oi Newton, 2 vols.,
1855), and on the other. hand the vast development and perfection
of the theory of gravitation since made by Euler, Clairault, Lagrange,
Laplace, Poisson, Bessel, Gauss, Hansen, Leverrier, 'Airy, Delaunay,
Adams, Tisserand, Gylden, Hill, Newcomb, Foincard, Darwin, and
several eminent geometers still living. In contradistinction to the
singular spectacle thus presented in the Royal Society, it is a relief to
find a much more cautious attitude in the Monthly Notices for Nov;,
19 19, p. 23, where Prof. Newall gives good reasons for rejecting
Einstein's theory of the deflection of Hgbt in the sun's field, in favor
of optical refraction. In the Nineteenth Century Magazine, for Dec,
19 19, Sir Oliver Lodge likewise is skeptical; for he reasons that if we
accept Einstein's theory in its entirety,' »the death knell of the aether
will seem to -have, been sounded, strangely efficient properties will
be attributed to emptiness, and theories of light and of gravitation
will have come into being unintelligible on ordinary dynamical
principles*. Such protests would indicate that the" Newtonian
philosophy still has. some supporters in England, but apparently they
are not aware of the real strength of their cause, as now brought to
light in the New Theory of the Aether. Accordingly, in view of the
comprehensive results already reached in the New Theory of the
Aether, the 'defenders of the Newtonian mechanics could hardly wish
for a more complete triumph. And it is gratifying to realize that it is
based upon the original conceptions of Sir Lsaac Newton himself,
after the simple and elegant theory of this great philosopher had
been almost completely abandoned by his countrymen. I am
indebted to my young friend Mr. E. L. Middleton, for valuable
assistance in the completion of this investiga.tion. Starlight on
Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, 1920 Febr. 19. T. J. J. See. ') The
well known delay of 14 years (1807-1821) in the publication oi
Fourier' % mathematical researches on the theory of heat seems to
place the Paris Academy of Sciences in an equally unfortunate light.
In the Eloge Historique of Fourier delivered by Arago, blame is
placed on the commissioners of the Academy — Lagrange, Laplace
and Legendre '— for poisoning the pleasure of Fourier's, triumph,
which Lord Keivin has also criticized. As no commissioners could be
more competent than the three geometers just cited, history often is
witness to the weaknesses of the highest acadtemies of sciences;
and hence, in his very original Researches in the Lunar Theory, 1877,
Dr. G. W. Hill had recourse to private publication, which probably was
better than the fate accorded to Newton and Fourier.
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